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Liu Q, Zhang B, Liu C, Zhao D. Molecular mechanisms underlying the positive role of treadmill training in locomotor recovery after spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord 2016; 55:441-446. [PMID: 27922623 DOI: 10.1038/sc.2016.134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2016] [Revised: 07/06/2016] [Accepted: 07/20/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This study aimed to investigate the molecular mechanisms underlying the positive role of treadmill training (TMT) in locomotor recovery. METHODS GSE52763 microarray data were downloaded from GEO database, which was collected from the lumbar spinal cord samples of three groups of mice: mice subjected to contusive injury and killed 1 week after injury (I1), mice subjected to injury and killed 3 weeks after injury (I3), and mice subjected to injury and TMT beginning at week 1 and lasting until week 3 (T3). Differential expression analysis between I3 and I1, between T3 and I1 and between T3 and I3 were performed by T-test using R/LIMMA. Genes with |log2FC (fold change)|>0.58 and P-value<0.05 were considered as differentially expressed genes (DEGs). Specific I3 vs I1 DEGs and T3 vs I1 DEGs were screened. Then TMT-induced specific DEGs were subject to functional and pathway enrichment analysis using DAVID online tool. Protein-protein interaction (PPI) analysis was also carried out using the STRING database. RESULTS Finally, 82 upregulated DEGs and 297 downregulated DEGs were found specifically induced by TMT. Specific upregulated DEGs were mostly enriched in response to organic substance and morphogenesis-related events, and specific downregulated DEGs were related to positive regulation of transcription. ATP2A1, PRKACA, ITPR2 and so on had high connection degree in the PPI network of the specific upregulated DEGs; FOS, GSK3B and so on had high degrees in the PPI network of the specific downregulated DEGs. CONCLUSION ATP2A1, C-FOS and GSK3B may have critical roles in the positive role of TMT in locomotor recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Q Liu
- The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - B Zhang
- Department of Orthopedic, China-Japan Union Hospital, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - C Liu
- The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - D Zhao
- Department of Orthopedic, China-Japan Union Hospital, Jilin University, Changchun, China
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Acute colitis induces neurokinin 1 receptor internalization in the rat lumbosacral spinal cord. PLoS One 2013; 8:e59234. [PMID: 23555638 PMCID: PMC3605455 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0059234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2012] [Accepted: 02/13/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Substance P (SP) and its receptor, the neurokinin 1 receptor (NK1R), play important roles in transmitting and regulating somatosensory nociceptive information. However, their roles in visceral nociceptive transmission and regulation remain to be elucidated. In the previous study, moderate SP immunoreactive (SP-ir) terminals and NK1R-ir neurons were observed in the dorsal commissural nucleus (DCN) of the lumbosacral spinal cord. Thus we hypothesized that the SP-NK1R system is involved in visceral pain transmission and control within the DCN. The acute visceral pain behaviors, the colon histological changes and the temporal and spatial changes of NK1R-ir structures and Fos expression in the neurons of the DCN were observed in rats following lower colon instillation with 5% formalin. The formalin instillation induced significant acute colitis as revealed by the histological changes in the colon. NK1R internalization in the DCN was obvious at 8 min. It reached a peak (75.3%) at 30 min, began to decrease at 90 min (58.1%) and finally reached the minimum (19.7%) at 3 h after instillation. Meanwhile, formalin instillation induced a biphasic visceral pain response as well as a strong expression of Fos protein in the nuclei of neurons in the DCN. Finally, intrathecal treatment with the NK1R antagonist L732138 attenuated the NK1R internalization, Fos expression and visceral nociceptive responses. The present results suggest that the visceral nociceptive information arising from inflamed pelvic organs, such as the lower colon, might be mediated by the NK1R-ir neurons in the DCN of the lumbosacral spinal cord.
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Allen CE, Worsley MA, King AE, Boissonade FM. Fos expression induced by activation of NMDA and neurokinin-1 receptors in the trigeminal subnucleus caudalis in vitro: role of protein kinases. Brain Res 2010; 1368:19-27. [PMID: 20977893 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2010.10.072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2010] [Revised: 10/17/2010] [Accepted: 10/19/2010] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Activity-induced neuronal plasticity is partly facilitated by the expression of the immediate-early gene c-fos and the resulting transcription factor Fos. Expression of Fos is associated with nociceptive afferent activation, but a detailed stimulation-transcription pathway for Fos expression has not yet been determined in the trigeminal system. This study utilized a novel in vitro model to determine whether Fos expression can be induced in trigeminal subnucleus caudalis by NMDA or neurokinin-1 receptor activation, and whether inhibition of intracellular kinases has any effect on Fos expression induced by activation of these receptors. Brainstems of male Wistar rats were excised and maintained in artificial cerebrospinal fluid at 37°C. NMDA or the specific neurokinin-1 receptor agonist [Sar(9),Met(O(2))(11)]-SP was applied. These agonists were subsequently tested in the presence of the protein kinase A inhibitor Rp-cAMP or protein kinase C inhibitor chelerythrine chloride. In all experiments the sodium channel blocker tetrodotoxin was used to prevent indirect neuronal activation. Brainstems were processed immunocytochemically for Fos expression, and positive cells were counted in the trigeminal subnucleus caudalis. NMDA and [Sar(9),Met(O(2))(11)]-SP significantly increased Fos expression, but these increases could be prevented by chelerythrine chloride. Rp-cAMP had no effect on Fos induced by NMDA but caused a significant reduction in Fos induced by [Sar(9),Met(O(2))(11)]-SP. These data demonstrate that in trigeminal subnucleus caudalis activation of either NK1 or NMDA receptors alone induces Fos expression; protein kinases A and C are involved in NK1R-induced Fos while protein kinase A is not required for NMDA receptor-induced Fos.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ceri E Allen
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Medicine and Surgery, School of Clinical Dentistry, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
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Mitrovic M, Shahbazian A, Bock E, Pabst MA, Holzer P. Chemo-nociceptive signalling from the colon is enhanced by mild colitis and blocked by inhibition of transient receptor potential ankyrin 1 channels. Br J Pharmacol 2010; 160:1430-42. [PMID: 20590633 DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2010.00794.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Transient receptor potential ankyrin 1 (TRPA1) channels are expressed by primary afferent neurones and activated by irritant chemicals including allyl isothiocyanate (AITC). Here we investigated whether intracolonic AITC causes afferent input to the spinal cord and whether this response is modified by mild colitis, morphine or a TRPA1 channel blocker. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH One hour after intracolonic administration of AITC to female mice, afferent signalling was visualized by expression of c-Fos in laminae I-II(o) of the spinal dorsal horn at sacral segment S1. Mild colitis was induced by dextran sulphate sodium (DSS) added to drinking water for 1 week. KEY RESULTS Relative to vehicle, AITC (2%) increased expression of c-Fos in the spinal cord. Following induction of mild colitis by DSS (2%), spinal c-Fos responses to AITC, but not vehicle, were augmented by 41%. Colonic inflammation was present (increased myeloperoxidase content and disease activity score), whereas colonic histology, locomotion, feeding and drinking remained unchanged. Morphine (10 mg.kg(-1)) or the TRPA1 channel blocker HC-030031 (300 mg.kg(-1)) inhibited the spinal c-Fos response to AITC, in control and DSS-pretreated animals, whereas the response to intracolonic capsaicin (5%) was blocked by morphine but not HC-030031. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS Activation of colonic TRPA1 channels is signalled to the spinal cord. Mild colitis enhanced this afferent input that, as it is sensitive to morphine, is most likely of a chemonociceptive nature. As several irritant chemicals can be present in chyme, TRPA1 channels may mediate several gastrointestinal pain conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Mitrovic
- Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
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5
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Edelsbrunner ME, Nakano M, Holzer P. Afferent signalling from the acid-challenged rat stomach is inhibited and gastric acid elimination is enhanced by lafutidine. BMC Gastroenterol 2009; 9:40. [PMID: 19490646 PMCID: PMC2698872 DOI: 10.1186/1471-230x-9-40] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2009] [Accepted: 06/02/2009] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Lafutidine is a histamine H2 receptor antagonist, the gastroprotective effect of which is related to its antisecretory activity and its ability to activate a sensory neuron-dependent mechanism of defence. The present study investigated whether intragastric administration of lafutidine (10 and 30 mg/kg) modifies vagal afferent signalling, mucosal injury, intragastric acidity and gastric emptying after gastric acid challenge. METHODS Adult rats were treated with vehicle, lafutidine (10 - 30 mg/kg) or cimetidine (10 mg/kg), and 30 min later their stomachs were exposed to exogenous HCl (0.25 M). During the period of 2 h post-HCl, intragastric pH, gastric volume, gastric acidity and extent of macroscopic gastric mucosal injury were determined and the activation of neurons in the brainstem was visualized by c-Fos immunocytochemistry. RESULTS Gastric acid challenge enhanced the expression of c-Fos in the nucleus tractus solitarii but caused only minimal damage to the gastric mucosa. Lafutidine reduced the HCl-evoked expression of c-Fos in the NTS and elevated the intragastric pH following intragastric administration of excess HCl. Further analysis showed that the gastroprotective effect of lafutidine against excess acid was delayed and went in parallel with facilitation of gastric emptying, measured indirectly via gastric volume changes, and a reduction of gastric acidity. The H2 receptor antagonist cimetidine had similar but weaker effects. CONCLUSION These observations indicate that lafutidine inhibits the vagal afferent signalling of a gastric acid insult, which may reflect an inhibitory action on acid-induced gastric pain. The ability of lafutidine to decrease intragastric acidity following exposure to excess HCl cannot be explained by its antisecretory activity but appears to reflect dilution and/or emptying of the acid load into the duodenum. This profile of actions emphasizes the notion that H2 receptor antagonists can protect the gastric mucosa from acid injury independently of their ability to suppress gastric acid secretion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin E Edelsbrunner
- Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria.
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Dauvergne C, Smit AE, Valla J, Diagne M, Buisseret-Delmas C, Buisseret P, Pinganaud G, Vanderwerf F. Are locus coeruleus neurons involved in blinking? Neurosci Res 2008; 61:182-91. [PMID: 18400323 DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2008.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2007] [Revised: 01/30/2008] [Accepted: 02/25/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
To investigate the involvement of the noradrenergic locus coeruleus (LC) in the reflex blink circuit, c-Fos and neuronal tracer experiments were performed in the rat. LC neurons involved in reflex blink were localized by analyzing c-Fos protein expression after electrical stimulation of the supraorbital nerve. Subsequently, neuronal tracers were injected in two different nuclei which are part of the reflex blink circuit. Anterograde tracer experiments in the sensory trigeminal complex (STC) explored the trigemino-coerulear connection; retrograde tracer experiments in the latero-caudal portion of the superior colliculus (SC) established coerulear-collicular connections. The combination of retrograde tracer injections into the latero-caudal SC portion combined with electrical stimulation of the supraorbital nerve identified c-Fos positive LC neurons that project to the latero-caudal SC. Our results revealed the existence of a STC-LC-SC loop.
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Affiliation(s)
- Céline Dauvergne
- Laboratoire de Physiologie de la Manducation, UP7, 4 place Jussieu, 75252 Paris Cedex 05, France
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Wultsch T, Painsipp E, Shahbazian A, Mitrovic M, Edelsbrunner M, Waldmann R, Lazdunski M, Holzer P. Deletion of the acid-sensing ion channel ASIC3 prevents gastritis-induced acid hyperresponsiveness of the stomach-brainstem axis. Pain 2007; 134:245-253. [PMID: 17531389 PMCID: PMC4359900 DOI: 10.1016/j.pain.2007.04.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2006] [Revised: 03/05/2007] [Accepted: 04/16/2007] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Gastric acid challenge of the rat and mouse stomach is signalled to the brainstem as revealed by expression of c-Fos. The molecular sensors relevant to the detection of gastric mucosal acidosis are not known. Since the acid-sensing ion channels ASIC2 and ASIC3 are expressed by primary afferent neurons, we examined whether knockout of the ASIC2 or ASIC3 gene modifies afferent signalling of a gastric acid insult in the normal and inflamed stomach. The stomach of conscious mice (C57BL/6) was challenged with intragastric HCl; two hours later the activation of neurons in the nucleus tractus solitarii (NTS) of the brainstem was visualized by c-Fos immunocytochemistry. Mild gastritis was induced by addition of iodoacetamide (0.1%) to the drinking water for 7 days. Exposure of the gastric mucosa to HCl (0.25M) caused a 3-fold increase in the number of c-Fos-positive neurons in the NTS. This afferent input to the NTS remained unchanged by ASIC3 knockout, whereas ASIC2 knockout augmented the c-Fos response to gastric HCl challenge by 33% (P<0.01). Pretreatment of wild-type mice with iodoacetamide induced mild gastritis, as revealed by increased myeloperoxidase activity, and enhanced the number of NTS neurons responding to gastric HCl challenge by 41% (P<0.01). This gastric acid hyperresponsiveness was absent in ASIC3 knockout mice but fully preserved in ASIC2 knockout mice. The current data indicate that ASIC3 plays a major role in the acid hyperresponsiveness associated with experimental gastritis. In contrast, ASIC2 appears to dampen acid-evoked input from the stomach to the NTS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Wultsch
- Research Unit of Translational Neurogastroenterology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, Medical University of Graz, Austria
| | - Evelin Painsipp
- Research Unit of Translational Neurogastroenterology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, Medical University of Graz, Austria
| | - Anaid Shahbazian
- Research Unit of Translational Neurogastroenterology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, Medical University of Graz, Austria
| | - Martina Mitrovic
- Research Unit of Translational Neurogastroenterology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, Medical University of Graz, Austria
| | - Martin Edelsbrunner
- Research Unit of Translational Neurogastroenterology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, Medical University of Graz, Austria
| | - Rainer Waldmann
- Institut de Pharmacologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire, CNRS-UNSA UMR 6097, Sophia Antipolis, Valbonne, France
| | - Michel Lazdunski
- Institut de Pharmacologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire, CNRS-UNSA UMR 6097, Sophia Antipolis, Valbonne, France
| | - Peter Holzer
- Research Unit of Translational Neurogastroenterology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, Medical University of Graz, Austria
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8
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Increase in gastric acid-induced afferent input to the brainstem in mice with gastritis. Neuroscience 2007; 145:1108-19. [PMID: 17303342 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2006.12.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2006] [Revised: 11/25/2006] [Accepted: 12/12/2006] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Acid challenge of the gastric mucosa is signaled to the brainstem. This study examined whether mild gastritis due to dextrane sulfate sodium (DSS) or iodoacetamide (IAA) enhances gastric acid-evoked input to the brainstem and whether this effect is related to gastric myeloperoxidase activity, gastric histology, gastric volume retention or cyclooxygenase stimulation. The stomach of conscious mice was challenged with NaCl (0.15 M) or HCl (0.15 and 0.25 M) administered via gastric gavage. Two hours later, activation of neurons in the nucleus tractus solitarii (NTS) was visualized by c-Fos immunocytochemistry. Gastritis was induced by DSS (molecular weight 8000; 5%) or IAA (0.1%) added to the drinking water for 7 days. Relative to NaCl, intragastric HCl increased the number of c-Fos protein-expressing cells in the NTS. Pretreatment with DSS or IAA for 1 week did not alter the c-Fos response to NaCl but significantly enhanced the response to HCl by 54 and 74%, respectively. Either pretreatment elevated gastric myeloperoxidase activity and induced histological injury of the mucosal surface. In addition, DSS caused dilation of the gastric glands and damage to the parietal cells. HCl-induced gastric volume retention was not altered by IAA but attenuated by DSS pretreatment. Indomethacin (5 mg/kg) failed to significantly alter HCl-evoked expression of c-Fos in the NTS of control, DSS-pretreated and IAA-pretreated mice. We conclude that the gastritis-evoked increase in the gastric acid-evoked c-Fos expression in the NTS is related to disruption of the gastric mucosal barrier, mucosal inflammation, mucosal acid influx and enhanced activation of the afferent stomach-NTS axis.
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Smit AE, Buisseret P, Buisseret-Delmas C, De Zeeuw CI, VanderWerf F, Zerari-Mailly F. Reticulo-collicular and spino-collicular projections involved in eye and eyelid movements during the blink reflex. Neurosci Res 2006; 56:363-71. [PMID: 16973230 DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2006.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2006] [Revised: 07/20/2006] [Accepted: 08/14/2006] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Reflex blinking provides a useful experimental tool for various functional studies on the peripheral and central nervous system, yet the neuronal circuitry underlying this reflex is not precisely known. In the present study, we investigated as to whether neurons in the reticular formation and rostral cervical spinal cord (C1) may be involved in the blink reflex in rats. To this end we investigated c-Fos expression in these areas following supraorbital nerve stimulation combined with retrograde tracing of gold conjugated horse radish peroxidase (Gold-HRP) from the superior colliculus. We observed many double labeled neurons in the parvocellular reticular nucleus, medullary reticular formation, and laminae IV and V of C1. Thus, these brain regions contain neurons that may be involved in blink reflexes as well as eye movements, because they both can be activated following peri-orbital stimulation and project to the superior colliculus. Consequently, we suggest that the medullary reticular formation and C1 region play a central role in the coordination of eye and eyelid movements during reflex blinking.
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Omori T, Kawashima H, Kizuka T, Ohiwa N, Tateoka M, Soya H. Increased c-fos gene expression in alpha motoneurons in rat loaded hindlimb muscles with inclined locomotion. Neurosci Lett 2005; 389:25-9. [PMID: 16055265 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2005.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2005] [Revised: 06/17/2005] [Accepted: 07/01/2005] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The potential usefulness of c-fos gene expression as an indicator of the activity level of spinal alpha motoneurons was examined in loaded locomotive rats. The motor pools of the plantaris (PL) and soleus muscles (SOL), mainly composed respectively of fast- and slow-twitch muscle fibers, were investigated in rats under locomotion at 25 m/min on a 20% incline. We first labeled motoneurons with a retrograde tracer, Nuclear Yellow (NY), and then quantified the c-fos mRNA expression level in the NY-labeled alpha motoneurons by means of in situ hybridization. Electromyographic (EMG) activities were also recorded. The c-fos expression level per alpha motoneuron showed a greater increase in the PL (75%) than in the SOL motor pool (38%). EMG activities also showed a greater increase in the PL (159%) than in the SOL (43%). Taken together, these results suggest that c-fos expression levels in alpha motoneurons are associated with the activity levels of their corresponding muscle. This cytochemical method for identifying the c-fos expression level has potential for use as a tool for estimating the activity level of large populations of alpha motoneurons in unrestricted animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takenori Omori
- Laboratory of Exercise Biochemistry, University of Tsukuba Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Sciences, 1-1-1 Tennôdai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8574, Japan
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Dai X, Noga BR, Douglas JR, Jordan LM. Localization of spinal neurons activated during locomotion using the c-fos immunohistochemical method. J Neurophysiol 2005; 93:3442-52. [PMID: 15634712 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00578.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The c-fos immunohistochemical method of activity-dependent labeling was used to localize locomotor-activated neurons in the adult cat spinal cord. In decerebrate cats, treadmill locomotion was evoked by electrical stimulation of the mesencephalic locomotor region (MLR). Spontaneous or MLR-evoked fictive locomotion was produced in decerebrate animals paralyzed with a neuromuscular blocking agent. After bouts of locomotion during a 7- to 9-h time period, the animals were perfused and the L3-S1 spinal cord segments removed for immunohistochemistry. Control animals were subjected to the same surgical procedures but no locomotor task. Labeled cells were concentrated in Rexed's laminae III and IV of the dorsal horn and laminae VII, VIII, and X of the intermediate zone/ventral horn after treadmill locomotion. Cells in laminae VII, VIII, and X were labeled after fictive locomotion, but labeling in the dorsal horn was much reduced. In control animals, c-fos labeling was a small fraction of that observed in the locomotor animals. The results suggest that labeled cells in laminae VII, VIII, and X are premotor interneurons involved in the production of locomotion, whereas the laminae III and IV cells are those activated during locomotion due to afferent feedback from the moving limb. c-fos-labeled cells were most numerous in the L5-L7 segments, consistent with the distribution of locomotor activated neurons detected through the use of MLR-evoked field potentials.
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Affiliation(s)
- X Dai
- Dept. of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3E 0W3, Canada
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12
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Hilton KJ, Bateson AN, King AE. A model of organotypic rat spinal slice culture and biolistic transfection to elucidate factors that drive the preprotachykinin-A promoter. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 46:191-203. [PMID: 15464207 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/23/2004] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The tachykinin substance P (SP) is a neuropeptide that is expressed in some nociceptive primary sensory afferents and in discrete populations of spinal cord neurons. Expression of spinal SP and the preprotachykinin-A (PPT-A) gene that encodes SP exhibits plasticity in response to conditions such as peripheral inflammation but the mechanisms that regulate expression are poorly understood. We have developed a spinal cord organotypic culture system that is suitable for the analysis of PPT-A gene promoter activity following biolistic transfection of recombinant DNA constructs. Spinal cord organotypic slices showed good viability over a 7-day culture period. Immunostaining for phenotypic markers such as NeuN and beta-III tubulin demonstrated preservation of neurons and their structure, although there was evidence of axotomy-induced down-regulation of NeuN in certain neuronal populations. Neurokinin-1 receptor (NK-1R) immunostaining in laminae I and III was similar to that seen in acute slices. Biolistic transfection was used to introduce DNA constructs into neurons of these organotypic cultures. Following transfection with a construct in which expression of enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) is controlled by the PPT-A promoter, we showed that induction of neuronal activity by administration of a forskolin analogue/high K(+) (10 microM/10 mM) for 24 h resulted in a fourfold increase in the number of EGFP-positive cells. Similarly, a twofold increase was obtained after treatment with the NK-1R-specific agonist [Sar(9),Met (O(2))(11)]-substance P (10 microM). These data demonstrate the usefulness of this model to study physiological and pharmacological factors relevant to nociceptive processing that can modulate PPT-A promoter activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn J Hilton
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Leeds, Clarendon Way, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
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Abstract
Although bone cancer pain can be severe and is relatively common, very little is known about the basic mechanisms that generate and maintain this debilitating pain. To begin to define the mechanisms that give rise to bone cancer pain, a mouse model was developed using the intramedullary injection and containment of osteolytic sarcoma cells in the mouse femur. These tumor cells induced bone destruction as well as ongoing and movement-evoked pain behaviors similar to that found in patients with bone cancer pain. In addition, there was a significant reorganization of the spinal cord that received sensory input from the cancerous bone, and this reorganization was significantly different from that observed in mouse models of chronic neuropathic or inflammatory pain. To determine whether this mouse model of bone cancer could be used to define the basic mechanisms giving rise to bone cancer pain, we targeted excessive osteoclast activity using osteoprotegerin, a secreted decoy receptor that inhibits osteoclast activity. Osteoprotegerin blocked excessive tumor-induced, osteoclast-mediated bone destruction, and significantly reduced ongoing and movement-evoked pain, and the neurochemical reorganization of the spinal cord. These data suggest that this model can provide insight into the mechanisms that generate bone cancer pain and provide a platform for developing and testing novel analgesics to block bone cancer pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Honore
- Neurosystems Center and Department of Preventive Sciences, Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis 55455, USA
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Zhao CS, Tao YX, Tall JM, Donovan DM, Meyer RA, Raja SN. Role of micro-opioid receptors in formalin-induced pain behavior in mice. Exp Neurol 2004; 184:839-45. [PMID: 14769376 DOI: 10.1016/s0014-4886(03)00346-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2003] [Revised: 07/03/2003] [Accepted: 07/09/2003] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Intraplantar formalin injection is widely used as an experimental model of tonic pain. We investigated the role of endogenous micro-opioid receptor mechanisms in formalin-induced nocifensive behavior in mice. The flinching response induced by formalin (2%, 20 microl) was studied in mice with normal (wild type, n = 8) and absent (homozygous micro-opioid receptor knockout, n = 8) micro-opioid receptor levels. The flinch responses were counted every 5 min for 60 min post-formalin injection. Lumbar spinal cord (L4, 5) was harvested 2 h post-formalin injection to examine c-Fos expression using immunohistochemistry. The effects of naloxone (5 mg/kg, sc) administered 30 min before the intraplantar formalin injection on the flinching response of wild-type mice (n = 7) were also recorded. The second-phase formalin response (10-60 min after formalin) was higher in homozygous micro-opioid receptor knockout mice compared to the wild-type mice (P < 0.01). Naloxone administration in wild-type mice before formalin injection resulted in pain behavior similar to that observed in homozygous micro-opioid receptor knockout mice (P > 0.05). The c-Fos expression induced by formalin injection in the knockout mice was not different from that observed in wild-type mice. Our results suggest that the endogenous micro-opioid system is activated by intraplantar formalin injection and exerts a tonic inhibitory effect on the pain behavior. These results suggest an important modulatory role of endogenous micro-opioid receptor mechanisms in tonic pain states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng-Shui Zhao
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
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Abstract
Progress in the control and treatment of pain may be facilitated by a better understanding of mechanisms underlying nociceptive processing. Here we show that mice subjected to an intermittent fasting diet (IFD) display markedly reduced responses in models of thermal and visceral pain compared with mice fed ad libitum (AL). Pharmacological analyses suggest that a change in the endogenous kappa-opioid system underlies IFD-induced analgesia. The levels of prodynorphin mRNA and kappa-opioid receptors in the spinal cord are higher in IFD than in AL mice. Furthermore, in spinal cord nuclear protein extracts, the activity of the transcriptional repressor DREAM (downstream regulatory element antagonist modulator), the main regulator of prodynorphin expression, is lower in IFD than in AL mice. Finally, c-Fos expression in dorsal spinal cord after noxious stimulation is significantly lower in IFD than in AL animals, indicating that dynorphin could block nociceptive information at the spinal cord. These results suggest that dietary restriction together with administration of kappa-opioid agonists could be useful as a new therapeutic approach for pain relief.
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16
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Wei F, Wang GD, Kerchner GA, Kim SJ, Xu HM, Chen ZF, Zhuo M. Genetic enhancement of inflammatory pain by forebrain NR2B overexpression. Nat Neurosci 2001; 4:164-9. [PMID: 11175877 DOI: 10.1038/83993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 221] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors contribute to many brain functions. We studied the effect of forebrain-targeted overexpression of the NMDA receptor subunit NR2B on the response of mice to tissue injury and inflammation. Transgenic mice exhibited prominent NR2B expression and enhanced NMDA receptor-mediated synaptic responses in two pain-related forebrain areas, the anterior cingulate cortex and insular cortex, but not in the spinal cord. Although transgenic and wild type mice were indistinguishable in tests of acute pain, transgenic mice exhibited enhanced responsiveness to peripheral injection of two inflammatory stimuli, formalin and complete Freund's adjuvant. Genetic modification of forebrain NMDA receptors can therefore influence pain perception, which suggests that forebrain-selective NMDA receptor antagonists, including NR2B-selective agents, may be useful analgesics for persistent pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Wei
- Washington University Pain Center and Departments of Anesthesiology, Anatomy & Neurobiology, and Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, Campus Box 8054, 660 S. Euclid Ave., St. Louis, Missouri 63110, USA
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17
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Soares HD, Chen SC, Morgan JI. Differential and prolonged expression of Fos-lacZ and Jun-lacZ in neurons, glia, and muscle following sciatic nerve damage. Exp Neurol 2001; 167:1-14. [PMID: 11161588 DOI: 10.1006/exnr.2000.7558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Fos-lacZ and Jun-lacZ transgenic mice were used to assess the involvement of immediate-early genes in the axotomy-transcription coupling pathway triggered by sciatic nerve injury in neonates and adults. Nerve transection transiently induced Fos-lacZ in degenerating (neonatal) and regenerating (adult) motor, but not sensory, neurons. In contrast, Jun-lacZ was persistently up-regulated in both axotomized motor and sensory neurons in neonates and adults. Thus, expression of these genes did not predict neuronal death or survival. As Jun-lacZ was induced in some undamaged sensory neurons, this gene can be regulated by direct (axotomy) and indirect (transcellular) mechanisms. Indirect mechanisms also mediate expression of both genes in denervated muscle, Schwann cells in the distal and proximal stumps, and satellite cells in the DRG following axotomy. Thus, either these genes may regulate distinct sets of target genes in different cell types or they may subserve a single mechanism that is common to many cell types.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Axotomy
- Cell Survival/genetics
- Ganglia, Spinal/cytology
- Ganglia, Spinal/metabolism
- Gene Expression
- Genes, Reporter/genetics
- Mice
- Mice, Transgenic
- Motor Neurons/cytology
- Motor Neurons/metabolism
- Muscle, Skeletal/cytology
- Muscle, Skeletal/innervation
- Muscle, Skeletal/metabolism
- Nerve Regeneration/physiology
- Neuroglia/cytology
- Neuroglia/metabolism
- Neurons, Afferent/cytology
- Neurons, Afferent/metabolism
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-fos/biosynthesis
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-fos/genetics
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-jun/biosynthesis
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-jun/genetics
- RNA, Messenger/biosynthesis
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/biosynthesis
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/genetics
- Schwann Cells/cytology
- Schwann Cells/metabolism
- Sciatic Nerve/cytology
- Sciatic Nerve/physiology
- Transgenes/genetics
- beta-Galactosidase/biosynthesis
- beta-Galactosidase/genetics
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Affiliation(s)
- H D Soares
- Department of Developmental Neurobiology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, 332 North Lauderdale Street, Memphis, Tennessee 38105, USA
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18
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Abstract
Two forms of activity-dependent long-term depression (LTD) in the CNS, as defined by their sensitivity to the blockade of NMDA receptors, are thought to be important in learning, memory, and development. Here, we report that NMDA receptor-independent LTD is the major form of long-term plasticity in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). Both L-type voltage-gated calcium channels and metabotropic glutamate receptors are required for inducing LTD. Amputation of a third hindpaw digit in an adult rat induced rapid expression of immediate early genes in the ACC bilaterally and caused a loss of LTD that persisted for at least 2 weeks. Our results suggest that synaptic LTD in the ACC may contribute to enhanced neuronal responses to subsequent somatosensory stimuli after amputation.
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19
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Kergozien S, Delcros JG, Jouan H, Moulinoux JP. Induction of Fos protein expression in spinal cord neurons of tumour-bearing rats. Br J Cancer 1999; 80:1512-7. [PMID: 10408391 PMCID: PMC2363164 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjc.6690554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The absence of discernible abnormal symptoms such as pain, often leading to delayed diagnosis in cancer patients, may be indicative of a dysregulation in sensory transmission between the tumour and the central nervous system. We explored expression of Fos protein in spinal cord neurons in rats, during the development of the MAT-LyLu prostatic adenocarcinoma grafted on the hind limb. The tumour triggered the densest Fos labelling in the L3-L5 lumbar segments, ipsilateral to the grafted limb. The labelling, detected at day 5, increased until day 10 and dropped off thereafter. The ventral horn (except lamina IX) was the most densely labelled region. Histological examination of the grafted limbs demonstrated that no inflammatory reaction accompanied the tumour growth. Rats exhibited no behavioural alterations either spontaneous or induced by handling. These results demonstrate that signals are sent to the central nervous system by the peripheral tumour. Considering both the behavioural and histological observations, it is unlikely that spinal activity reflects a painful state. The nature of these signals, inefficient to trigger the appropriate reaction of the organism against the tumour, remain to be determined with regard to the pharmacologically active compounds synthesized and released by the tumour cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Kergozien
- Groupe de Recherche en Thérapeutique Anticancéreuse, CNRS ESA 6027, Institut de Recherche Contre le Cancer, Faculté de Médecine, Rennes, France
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20
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Munglani R, Hudspith MJ, Fleming B, Harrisson S, Smith G, Bountra C, Elliot PJ, Birch PJ, Hunt SP. Effect of pre-emptive NMDA antagonist treatment on long-term Fos expression and hyperalgesia in a model of chronic neuropathic pain. Brain Res 1999; 822:210-9. [PMID: 10082898 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(99)01160-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
The unilateral sciatic nerve chronic constriction injury (CCI) model of Bennett and Xie [G.J. Bennett, Y.-K. Xie, A peripheral neuropathy in rat that produces disorders of pain sensation like those seen in man, Pain, 33 (1988) 87-108] shows features of a neuropathic pain state. We examined mechanical hyperalgesia and Fos protein staining in the lumbar spinal cord 1, 7, 14 and 28 days after unilateral CCI to the sciatic nerve or sham operation. In addition, we examined the effect of the NMDA antagonist MK-801 (0.3 mg/kg s.c. administered 30 min prior to and 6 h following operation) on Fos expression and hyperalgesia at 28 days. CCI animals were hyperalgesic compared to the sham operated animals at 14 and 28 days post injury. MK-801 reduced hyperalgesia by 68% in CCI animals on day 28 (p=0.0001). In the spinal cord, Fos positive cells were present bilaterally in deeper laminae in both sham and CCI animals at all time points examined. Relatively few Fos positive cells were present in laminae 1-2 at any time point examined. At days 1 and 7, there were increased numbers of Fos positive cells ipsilaterally in the deeper laminae of the spinal cord in CCI animals compared to sham animals, but by 14 and 28 days Fos counts were similar in sham and CCI despite the obvious behavioural differences between the two groups. Fos counts ipsilateral to the injury in laminae 3-10 correlated with hyperalgesia scores in the CCI but not sham animals. Analysis at the 28-day time point showed that MK-801 differentially affected Fos expression: MK-801 significantly reduced the Fos count bilaterally in laminae 3-10 in the CCI but not in the sham group animals. These results indicate that Fos expression is initiated by different peripheral and central mechanisms following nerve injury or sham operation.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Munglani
- University Department of Anaesthesia, University of Cambridge Clinical School, Addenbrookes Hospital, Hills Road, Box 93, Cambridge, CB2 2QQ, UK.
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21
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Kiehn O, Kjaerulff O. Distribution of central pattern generators for rhythmic motor outputs in the spinal cord of limbed vertebrates. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1998; 860:110-29. [PMID: 9928306 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1998.tb09043.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 175] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Neuronal networks in the spinal cord are capable of producing rhythmic movements, such as walking and swimming, when the spinal cord itself is isolated from the brain and sensory inputs. These spinal networks, also called central pattern generators or CPGs, serve as relatively simple model systems for our understanding of brain functions. In this paper we concentrate on spinal CPGs in limbed vertebrates and in particular address the question: Where in the spinal cord, in the longitudinal and transverse planes, are they located? We will review the use of lesions to isolate the rhythm and pattern-generating parts of the CPG network, indirect methods like activity-dependent labeling with [14C]-2-deoxyglucose, c-fos, sulforhodamine 101, and WGA-HRP, which label presumed rhythmically active neurons en bloc, and direct methods such as calcium-imaging, extracellular and intracellular recordings, which identify rhythmically active cells directly. With this review we hope to highlight the scientific disagreements and the consensus, which have emerged from these studies with regard to the distribution of the CPG networks in the spinal cord.
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Affiliation(s)
- O Kiehn
- Department of Medical Physiology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark.
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22
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Grill WM, Wang B, Hadziefendic S, Haxhiu MA. Identification of the spinal neural network involved in coordination of micturition in the male cat. Brain Res 1998; 796:150-60. [PMID: 9689465 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(98)00340-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
In these studies, we used the expression of Fos protein to identify cells within the spinal cord that regulate micturition in male cats. The immediate early gene c-fos that encodes the Fos protein can be induced rapidly and transiently in neurons by increased electrical activity. Animals were anesthetized with alpha-chloralose, and received one of four stimulus protocols: electrical stimulation of the pelvic nerve, electrical stimulation of the pudendal nerve, a period of isometric micturition (induced by ligating the proximal urethra and infusing saline into the bladder), or electrical stimulation of Barrington's nucleus. After the period of stimulation, the animals were perfused and neurons expressing Fos-like immunoreactivity (FLI) were visualized with immunocytochemical methods. Stimulation with each protocol resulted in a substantially larger number of neurons expressing FLI than in operated but unstimulated controls, which exhibited few Fos-positive neurons localized to the superficial dorsal horn. In animals undergoing isometric micturition or stimulation of Barrington's nucleus, neurons exhibiting FLI were found bilaterally in the sacral (S1-S3) spinal cord and were localized to the lateral portion of the superficial dorsal horn (laminae I and II), in the intermediolateral region (lateral laminae V-VII), and around the central canal (lamina X and medial laminae V-VII). The intermediolateral region appeared to contain two populations of cells exhibiting FLI: a group of large multipolar cells and a group of small round cells. Few Fos-immunoreactive nuclei were observed in the medial portion of the superficial dorsal horn, and FLI was not observed in ventral horn neurons. Electrical stimulation of the pudendal or pelvic nerves resulted in fewer numbers of cells exhibiting FLI, with a less widespread spatial distribution. These results identify spinal neurons that are active during the micturition cycle, and demonstrate that a behaviorally relevant stimulus (isometric micturition) generated more widespread and greater intensity of Fos expression than repetitive electrical stimulation of the component peripheral nerves.
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Affiliation(s)
- W M Grill
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland OH 44106-4912, USA.
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23
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Taylor J, Mellström B, Fernaud I, Naranjo JR. Metamizol potentiates morphine effects on visceral pain and evoked c-Fos immunoreactivity in spinal cord. Eur J Pharmacol 1998; 351:39-47. [PMID: 9698203 DOI: 10.1016/s0014-2999(98)00298-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In a model of visceral pain consisting of intraperitoneal injection of acetic acid (writhing test), simultaneous administration of subanalgesic doses of metamizol (150 mg/kg) and morphine (0.2 mg/kg) resulted in a potent analgesia (19 +/- 1 vs. 2.3 +/- 0.8 writhes; P < 0.05). While the analgesic effect of morphine (2 mg/kg) was antagonized by naloxone (1 mg/kg), the opioid antagonist did not reverse the analgesia induced by the combination of metamizol and morphine. Potentiation by metamizol was also observed as a bilateral decrease in stimulus-evoked c-Fos induction in superficial laminas (I-II) of the dorsal spinal cord after drug combination compared to single administration (66.5 +/- 2.2 vs. 80.7 +/- 4.2; P < 0.05). Conversely, the number of nuclei immunostained with an antibody that recognizes all proteins of the Fos family was not modified by the same dose combination compared to single treatment (21.1 +/- 1.3 vs. 20.2 +/- 1.2). Furthermore, in a model of somatic pain consisting of peripheral thermal stimulation of the paws, simultaneous administration of metamizol (100-250 mg/kg) and morphine (0.5 mg/kg) failed to modify flexor reflex latency.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Taylor
- Instituto Cajal, Consejo Superior Investigaciones Científicas, Madrid, Spain
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24
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Abstract
Ca2+ is an important signal-transduction molecule that plays a role in many intracellular signaling pathways. Recent advances have indicated that in neurons, Ca2+-controlled signaling mechanisms cooperate in order to discriminate amongst incoming cellular inputs. Ca2+-dependent transcriptional events can thereby be made selectively responsive to bursts of synaptic activity of specific intensity or duration.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Bito
- Department of Pharmacology, Kyoto University Faculty of Medicine, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-01, Japan.
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