Basophils, eosinophils, and mast cells in atopic and nonatopic asthma and in late-phase allergic reactions in the lung and skin

Benralizumab for allergic asthma: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Benralizumab induces rapid and near-complete depletion of eosinophils from blood and lung tissue. We investigated whether benralizumab could attenuate the allergen-induced late asthmatic response (LAR) in participants with allergic asthma.

METHODS

Participants with allergic asthma who demonstrated increased sputum eosinophils and LAR at screening were randomised to benralizumab 30 mg or matched placebo given every 4 weeks for 8 weeks (3 doses). Allergen challenges were performed at weeks 9 and 12 when blood, sputum, bone marrow and bronchial tissue eosinophils and LAR were assessed.

RESULTS

46 participants (mean age 30.9 years) were randomised to benralizumab (n=23) or placebo (n=23). Eosinophils were significantly reduced in the benralizumab group compared with placebo in blood at 4 weeks and sputum and bone marrow at 9 weeks after treatment initiation. At 7 h after an allergen challenge at week 9, sputum eosinophilia was significantly attenuated in the benralizumab group compared to placebo (least squares mean difference -5.81%, 95% CI -10.69- -0.94%; p=0.021); however, the LAR was not significantly different (least squares mean difference 2.54%, 95% CI 3.05-8.12%; p=0.363). Adverse events were reported for seven (30.4%) and 14 (60.9%) participants in the benralizumab and placebo groups, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Benralizumab administration over 8 weeks resulted in a significant attenuation of blood, bone marrow and sputum eosinophilia in participants with mild allergic asthma; however, there was no change in the LAR, suggesting that eosinophils alone are not a key component of allergen-induced bronchoconstriction.

Nasal IL-13 production identifies patients with late-phase allergic responses

BACKGROUND

There is limited knowledge on how local cytokine secretion patterns after nasal allergen challenge correlate with clinical symptoms especially with regard to the "late allergic response," which occurs in approximately 40% to 50% of patients with allergy.

OBJECTIVE

We sought to characterize the immunologic and clinical nasal responses to birch pollen allergen challenge with a special focus on the late allergic response.

METHODS

In this randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, birch pollen-allergic participants were challenged with birch pollen extract (n = 20) or placebo (n = 10) on 3 consecutive days. On days 1 and 3, nasal secretions were collected at selected time points over a 24-hour time course for the measurement of 33 inflammatory mediators. Clinical responses were determined through subjective symptom scores and objective nasal airflow measurements.

RESULTS

Provoked participants had significantly greater clinical responses and showed significant increases in tryptase and the soluble IL-33 receptor serum stimulation 2 (sST2) in nasal secretions within minutes compared with the placebo group. Eight of 20 provoked participants displayed high IL-13 levels 2 to 8 hours after allergen provocation. This group also showed significant changes in clinical parameters, with a secondary drop in nasal airflow measured by peak nasal inspiratory flow and increased symptoms of nasal obstruction, which significantly differed from IL-13 nonresponders after 6 hours.

CONCLUSIONS

IL-13 response status correlates with clinical responses and type 2 cytokine responses in the late phase after allergen provocation.

Differential Upregulation and Functional Activity of S1PR1 in Human Peripheral Blood Basophils of Atopic Patients

Basophils are key effector cells in atopic diseases, and the signaling sphingolipid Sphigosine-1-phosphate (S1P) is emerging as an important mediator in these conditions. The possible interaction of S1P and basophils and the resulting biological effects have not yet been studied. We hypothesize that S1P influences the function of basophils in atopy and aim to elucidate the modes of interaction. S1P receptor (S1PR) expression in human peripheral blood basophils from atopic and non-atopic patients was assessed through qRT-PCR and flow cytometry analysis. Functional effects of S1P were assessed through a basophil activation test (BAT), calcium flux, apoptosis, and chemotaxis assays. Immunofluorescence staining was performed to visualize intracellular S1P. Human basophils express S1PR1, S1PR2, S1PR3, and S1PR4 on the mRNA level. 0.1 µM S1P have anti-apoptotic, while 10 µM exhibits apoptotic effects on basophils. Basophils from atopic patients show less chemotactic activity in response to S1P than those from healthy donors. Protein expression of S1PR1 is downregulated in atopic patients, and basophils in lesional AD skin possess intracellular S1P. These findings suggest that the interaction of S1P and basophils might be an important factor in the pathophysiology of atopy.

Increased expressions of CD123, CD63, CD203c, and Fc epsilon receptor I on blood leukocytes of allergic asthma

Background : Altered basophil identification markers have been discovered to associate with allergic asthma (AA) in recent years. However, little is known about the expression of basophil markers in blood granulocytes. Aim: To parallel test blood basophils in peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) and granulocyte populations of patients with AA and AA combined with allergic rhinitis (ARA) Methods: The expressions of surface molecules were determined via flow cytometry. CD123 expressing cells in blood were isolated using a cell sorting technique, and mouse AA models were employed for in vivo study. Results: The numbers of CD123+HLA-DR- cells in the granulocytes of AA and ARA patients markedly increased. However, only 49.7% of CD123+HLA-DR- cells in granulocytes and 99.0% of CD123+HLA-DR- cells in PBMCs were basophils. Almost all CD123+HLA-DR- cells expressed CD63 regardless in granulocytes or PBMC. The numbers of CD63, Fc epsilon receptor I (FcεRI), and CD203c expressing cells markedly enhanced in CD123+HLA-DR- granulocytes of AA and ARA patients. Mean fluorescence intensity (MFI) of CD63 and CD203c expressions on CD123+HLA-DR- PBMC and granulocytes of AA and ARA patients dramatically elevated. House dust mite extract (HDME) and Artemisia sieversiana wild allergen extract (ASWE) enhanced the numbers of CD63+CD123+HLA-DR- granulocytes and PBMC and the MFI of CD203c expression on CD123+HLA-DR- granulocyte of AA and ARA patients. Histamine, tryptase, and PGD2 enhanced proportions of CD123+ KU812 cells. ASWE- and HDME-induced AA mice showed upregulated CD63 expression on basophils. In conclusion, upregulated expressions of CD123, CD203c, CD63, and FcεRIα in PBMC and granulocytes of patients with AA and ARA suggest that CD123+HLA-DR- cells may contribute to the development of AA and ARA.

Leukocytes in Critical Patients With Asthma Exacerbation

Background Asthma exacerbations, defined as acute or subacute progressive worsening of airway spasm, are a significant cause of disease morbidity. Risk factors for exacerbation include sex, age, race, socioeconomic status, baseline lung function, smoking history, and exposure to respiratory viruses. It is believed that white cells play an essential role in the pathogenesis of such attacks; however, the current understanding of the relationship between cell lines during an asthma attack is minimal. Methods This report represents a retrospective study for patients admitted to ICU for asthma exacerbations. The Medical Information Mart for Intensive Care iii (MIMIC iii) version 1.4 database was used to identify patients admitted for asthma exacerbations. The demographics, laboratory data gathered in addition, to clinical variables and outcomes were determined. Results The length of stay increased with the increase in WBC (p = 0.001). Intubated patients had an increased white blood cell (WBC) count when compared with non-intubated patients (p-value 0.009). In addition, patients with normal basophil counts on presentation were less likely to need intubation than those presenting with low basophils (p-value 0.015, adjusted odds ratio = 0.074, CI [0.009-0.620]) and those presenting with basophilia (p-value 0.001, adjusted odds ratio = 0.025, CI [0.003-0.225]). Furthermore, prolonged intubation (for three days or more) was positively correlated with eosinophil counts. On the other hand, there was no statistically significant association between the length of ICU and the patient's age, smoking status, or gender (p-values 0.611; 0.761; and 0.201, respectively). Conclusion Asthma exacerbation is a disease of heterogeneous pathophysiology. The leukocyte count is associated with the length of stay and the need for mechanical ventilation.

Metallothionein 1: A New Spotlight on Inflammatory Diseases

MT1 has been demonstrated to be an essential stress protein in maintaining physiological balance and regulating immune homeostasis. While the immunological involvement of MT1 in central nervous system disorders and cancer has been extensively investigated, mounting evidence suggests that MT1 has a broader role in inflammatory diseases and can shape innate and adaptive immunity. In this review, we will first summarize the biological features of MT1 and the regulators that influence MT1 expression, emphasizing metal, inflammation, and immunosuppressive factors. We will then focus on the immunoregulatory function of MT1 on diverse immune cells and the signaling pathways regulated by MT1. Finally, we will discuss recent advances in our knowledge of the biological role of MT1 in several inflammatory diseases to develop novel therapeutic strategies.

Induction of the apoptosis, degranulation and IL-13 production of human basophils by butyrate and propionate via suppression of histone deacetylation

Allergic diseases are caused by dysregulated Th2 immune responses involving multiple effector cells including basophils. Short chain fatty acids (SCFAs), mainly acetate, propionate and butyrate, exert immunomodulatory functions via activation of its receptors GPR41 and GPR43, and inhibition of the histone deacetylases (HDACs) activity. In allergic diseases, SCFAs suppress the activity of mast cells, eosinophils and type 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2) but enhance the function of Th2 cells. Here, we aimed to elucidate the function of SCFAs on human basophils. Human basophils were purified from healthy donors by flow cytometric sorting. The surface proteins, apoptosis and degranulation of basophils were analyzed by flow cytometric analysis. The mRNA expression was assayed using real-time PCR. Interleukin 4 (IL-4) and IL-13 were measured by ELISA. Histone acetylation was examined by western blot. GPR41 was expressed by basophils and was enhanced by IL-3. Acetate induced intracellular calcium influx in basophils which was suppressed by blocking GPR41. Propionate and butyrate, but not acetate, induced the expression of CD69 and IL-13. In addition, propionate and butyrate enhanced IgE-mediated basophil degranulation but inhibited basophil survival and IL-4 secretion. Propionate and butyrate induced histone acetylation of basophils and suppression of HDACs activity mimicked the effects of propionate and butyrate on human basophils. Our findings demonstrate that propionate and butyrate may play a complex role in regulating basophil apoptosis, activation and degranulation via inhibiting HDACs activity. The in vivo effects of SCFAs on the regulation of basophil-associated allergic diseases need to be further explored.

Cellular and molecular mechanisms of allergic asthma

Asthma is a chronic disease of the airways, which affects more than 350 million people worldwide. It is the most common chronic disease in children, affecting at least 30 million children and young adults in Europe. Asthma is a complex, partially heritable disease with a marked heterogeneity. Its development is influenced both by genetic and environmental factors. The most common, as well as the most well characterized subtype of asthma is allergic eosinophilic asthma, which is characterized by a type 2 airway inflammation. The prevalence of asthma has substantially increased in industrialized countries during the last 60 years. The mechanisms underpinning this phenomenon are incompletely understood, however increased exposure to various environmental pollutants probably plays a role. Disease inception is thought to be enabled by a disadvantageous shift in the balance between protective and harmful lifestyle and environmental factors, including exposure to protective commensal microbes versus infection with pathogens, collectively leading to airway epithelial cell damage and disrupted barrier integrity. Epithelial cell-derived cytokines are one of the main drivers of the type 2 immune response against innocuous allergens, ultimately leading to infiltration of lung tissue with type 2 T helper (T_H2) cells, type 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s), M2 macrophages and eosinophils. This review outlines the mechanisms responsible for the orchestration of type 2 inflammation and summarizes the novel findings, including but not limited to dysregulated epithelial barrier integrity, alarmin release and innate lymphoid cell stimulation.

Dynamic Changes, Correlation of Basophils, and the Therapeutic Effect in Patients With Allergic Rhinitis During Allergen-specific Immunotherapy

BACKGROUND

The role of basophils in allergic rhinitis (AR) has been studied extensively; however, there are very few reports on changes in basophils after allergen-specific immunotherapy (SIT).

OBJECTIVE

To examine the changes and correlation of peripheral blood basophils and the therapeutic effect in patients with AR during allergen-SIT.

METHODS

A total of 77 patients with AR who were allergic only to house dust mites received allergen-SIT. At 3 time points, patients underwent testing for the percentage and activation rate of basophils in peripheral blood, skin index (SI) measurement, visual analog scale (VAS) assessment, and rhinoconjunctivitis quality of life questionnaire (RQLQ) evaluation. The results were compared to a control group with congenital preauricular fistula.

RESULTS

(1) Before treatment, the percentage and activation rate of basophils in patients with AR were significantly higher than those in controls. There was no significant difference in the percentages and activation rates of basophils at the 3 time points. (2) The SIs, VAS, and RQLQ scores of the patients immediately after treatment and 2 years posttreatment decreased significantly compared to those before treatment; the SI, VAS, and RQLQ scores of the patients 2 years posttreatment increased significantly compared with those immediately after treatment. (3) There was no correlation between the patients' basophil activation rate and percentage and the SI, VAS, and RQLQ scores at all time points.

CONCLUSION

The percentage and activation rate of basophils were higher in patients with AR than in controls. The values did not change significantly after allergen-SIT and showed no correlation with treatment effectiveness. Therefore, the frequency and activation rate of basophils cannot be used as criteria for assessing the effectiveness of allergen-SIT for house dust mites. Allergen-SIT is effective for the management of AR, but the effect declines after the completion of therapy.

Basophils Orchestrating Eosinophils' Chemotaxis and Function in Allergic Inflammation

Eosinophils are well known to contribute significantly to Th2 immunity, such as allergic inflammations. Although basophils have often not been considered in the pathogenicity of allergic dermatitis and asthma, their role in Th2 immunity has become apparent in recent years. Eosinophils and basophils are present at sites of allergic inflammations. It is therefore reasonable to speculate that these two types of granulocytes interact in vivo. In various experimental allergy models, basophils and eosinophils appear to be closely linked by directly or indirectly influencing each other since they are responsive to similar cytokines and chemokines. Indeed, basophils are shown to be the gatekeepers that are capable of regulating eosinophil entry into inflammatory tissue sites through activation-induced interactions with endothelium. However, the direct evidence that eosinophils and basophils interact is still rarely described. Nevertheless, new findings on the regulation and function of eosinophils and basophils biology reported in the last 25 years have shed some light on their potential interaction. This review will focus on the current knowledge that basophils may regulate the biology of eosinophil in atopic dermatitis and allergic asthma.

Asthma and Chronic Rhinosinusitis: How Similar Are They in Pathogenesis and Treatment Responses?

Severe asthma and rhinosinusitis represent frequent comorbidities, complicating the overall management of the disease. Both asthma and chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS) can be differentiated into endotypes: those with type 2 eosinophilic inflammation and those with a non-type 2 inflammation. A correct definition of phenotype/endotype for these diseases is crucial, taking into account the availability of novel biological therapies. Even though patients suffering from type 2 severe asthma-with or without CRS with nasal polyps-significantly benefit from treatment with biologics, the existence of different levels of patient response has been clearly demonstrated. In fact, in clinical practice, it is a common experience that patients reach a good clinical response for asthma symptoms, but not for CRS. At first glance, a reason for this could be that although asthma and CRS can coexist in the same patient, they can manifest with different degrees of severity; therefore, efficacy may not be equally achieved. Many questions regarding responders and nonresponders, predictors of response, and residual disease after blocking type 2 pathways are still unanswered. In this review, we discuss whether treatment with biological agents is equally effective in controlling both asthma and sinonasal symptoms in patients in which asthma and chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyps coexist.

The emerging role of type 2 inflammation in asthma

Introduction: Bronchial asthma (BA) is a chronic airways inflammatory disease. Based on the biological mechanisms that underline the disease, asthma has been classified as type 2 or non-type 2 phenotype.Areas covered: An emerging role has been identified for group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) able to produce the classical type 2 cytokines. The role of Th2 cells and IL-4 is crucial in the pathogenesis of allergic BA as supported by asthma models. IL-13, shares many biological functions with IL-4 such as induction of IgE synthesis and regulation of eosinophil trafficking. However, IL-13 does not induce Th2 cell differentiation. The Authors reviewed evidence on the new concept of type 2 inflammation and the cellular and molecular network behind this process. Literature data in the PubMed were analyzed for peer-reviewed articles published until September 2020.Expert opinion: The current trend is to consider Th2- and ILC2-driven pathways as two separate pathogenic mechanisms, recent data underscore that adaptive Th2- and innate cell responses represent two integrated systems in the production of IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 leading to the current 'concept' of type 2 inflammation. This review highlights the role of Th2 cells and ILC2 in the recent new concept of type 2 inflammation.

Subacute Oral Toxicity Evaluation of Freeze-Dried Powder of Locusta migratoria

Novel food sources have enormous potential as nutritional supplements. For instance, edible insects are considered as an alternative food source due to their higher protein content; moreover, they are economically efficient reproducers and have high in nutritional value. In this study, we investigated the toxicity of the freeze-dried powder of Locusta migratoria (fdLM), known to contain rich proteins as well as fatty acids. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the subacute toxicity of fdLM in male and female Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats. The SD rats were divided into four groups based on the dosage of fdLM administered: dosage of 0 (vehicle control), 750, 1,500, and 3,000 mg/kg/day were administered for 28 days. Toxicological assessments including observations on food consumption, body and organ weights, clinical signs, mortality, ophthalmologic tests, urinalyses, hematologic tests, clinical chemistry tests, gross findings, and histopathology tests were performed. Clinical signs, urinalyses, hematology, serum biochemistry tests, and organ weight examinations revealed no fdLM-related toxicity. The no-observed-adverse-effect level for fdLM was higher than 3,000 mg/kg/day in rats of both sexes; therefore, fdLM, in conclusion, can be considered safe as an edible alternative human and animal food source material.

Understanding Asthma Phenotypes, Endotypes, and Mechanisms of Disease

The model of asthma as a single entity has now been replaced by a much more complex biological network of distinct and interrelating inflammatory pathways. The term asthma is now considered an umbrella diagnosis for several diseases with distinct mechanistic pathways (endotypes) and variable clinical presentations (phenotypes). The precise definition of these endotypes is central to asthma management due to inherent therapeutic and prognostic implications. This review presents the molecular mechanisms behind the heterogeneity of airway inflammation in asthmatic patients. Asthma endotypes may be broadly regarded as type 2 (T2) high or T2-low. Several biologic agents have been approved for T2-high asthma, with numerous other therapeutics that are incipient and similarly targeted at specific molecular mechanisms. Collectively, these advances have shifted existing paradigms in the approach to asthma to tailor novel therapies.

Biomarkers for evaluation of mast cell and basophil activation

Mast cells and basophils play a pathogenetic role in allergic, inflammatory, and autoimmune disorders. These cells have different development, anatomical location and life span but share many similarities in mechanisms of activation and type of mediators. Mediators secreted by mast cells and basophils correlate with clinical severity in asthma, chronic urticaria, anaphylaxis, and other diseases. Therefore, effective biomarkers to measure mast cell and basophil activation in vivo could potentially have high diagnostic and prognostic values. An ideal biomarker should be specific for mast cells or basophils, easily and reproducibly detectable in blood or biological fluids and should be metabolically stable. Markers of mast cell and basophil include molecules secreted by stimulated cells and surface molecules expressed upon activation. Some markers, such as histamine and lipid mediators are common to mast cells and basophils whereas others, such as tryptase and other proteases, are relatively specific for mast cells. The best surface markers of activation expressed on mast cells and basophils are CD63 and CD203. While these mediators and surface molecules have been associated to a variety of diseases, none of them fulfills requirements for an optimal biomarker and search for better indicators of mast cell/basophil activation in vivo is ongoing.

Prueba de activación de basófilos: aspectos técnicos, metodológicos y su utilidad clínica

Introducción. La prueba de activación de basófilos (PAB) se considera una técnica confiable y segura para el diagnóstico de problemas alérgicos.Objetivo. Profundizar en el estado del arte de la PAB y su utilidad clínica.Materiales y métodos. Se realizó una revisión narrativa de la literatura mediante la búsqueda electrónica en las bases de datos y metabuscadores Ovid Medline, Google Scholar y PubMed, sin limitar la búsqueda por fecha, idioma o tipo de artículo. Se buscaron artículos sobre los detalles técnicos de la PAB y su utilidad clínica en el manejo de las enfermedades alérgicas.Resultados. De los marcadores de activación, CD63 ha sido el más estudiado y es el que mejor representa un evento de degranulación anafiláctica, mientras que CD203c es representativo de varias formas de degranulación. La superioridad de uno sobre otro como prueba diagnóstica depende del problema alérgico estudiado. En cuanto a los métodos de detección de basófilos, su selección con un único marcador, CCR3, se propone como una opción con buena relación de costo-efectividad.Conclusiones. La PAB es una herramienta prometedora para evaluar en clínica las reacciones alérgicas de forma segura. Es necesario una mayor estandarización de protocolos para obtener resultados más reproducibles.

Effects of the Th2-dominant milieu on allergic responses in Der f 1-activated mouse basophils and mast cells

Although basophils and mast cells share similar phenotypic and functional properties, little is known about the difference in the initial Th2 immune responses of these cells following exposure to proteolytic allergens. Here, we investigated the mechanisms of Th2-mediated immune responses in mouse bone marrow-derived basophils (BMBs) and mast cells (BMMCs) via stimulation with the cysteine protease allergen Der f 1. Our results showed that Th2 cytokines were induced from BMBs by active recombinant Der f 1 (rDer f 1 independently with Toll-like receptor (TLR) 2 and TLR4. Although both BMBs and BMMCs expressed protease-activated receptors on their surfaces, PAR expression following exposure to rDer f 1 was altered only in basophils. G protein-coupled receptors in basophils were found to be associated with interleukin (IL)-4 and IL-13 production from BMBs upon Der f 1 treatment. Secretion of Th2 cytokines from rDer f 1-treated basophils was mediated by G protein βγ and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase γ through the extracellular signal-regulated kinase and c-Jun N-terminal kinase pathways. These findings provide insights into the roles of cysteine proteases in Th2 immune responses, such as allergic diseases, and improve our understanding of the mechanisms of Th2 cytokine production.

Biomarkers related to respiratory symptoms and lung function in adults with asthma

BACKGROUND

There is a need for easily measurable biomarkers that are able to identify different levels of asthma severity.

AIM

To assess the association between peripheral blood cell counts, fractional nitric oxide in exhaled air (FeNO), urinary biomarkers of oxidative stress (8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine and 8-isoprostane), and asthma severity in adult patients from the general population.

METHODS

In the Gene Environment Interactions in Respiratory Diseases study, 287 subjects with asthma (aged 20-64) were identified from the general population in Verona (Italy) (2008-2010). Self-reported asthma attacks, asthma-like symptoms and the use of hospital services in the past year were synthesized in a score of respiratory symptoms (SRS). The association of biomarkers with SRS and lung function measures (pre-bronchodilator FEV₁% predicted and FEV₁/FVC) was assessed using quasi-Poisson and Gaussian regression models, respectively.

RESULTS

Eosinophils (ratio of expected scores: RES[95%CI] = 1.19[1.09,1.30]), basophils (RES[95%CI] = 1.24[1.10,1.40]), lymphocytes (RES[95%CI] = 1.27[1.12,1.45]) and FeNO (RES[95%CI] = 1.18[1.02,1.37]) were positively associated with SRS. However, only eosinophils (RES[95%CI] = 1.15[1.02,1.30]) and lymphocytes (RES[95%CI] = 1.25[1.06,1.47]) showed an independent association. Furthermore, eosinophils (change in the expected outcome for 1-SD increase: CEO[95%CI] = -1.18[-2.09, -0.27]%), basophils (CEO[95%CI] = -1.24[-2.16, -0.33]%) and lymphocytes (CEO[95%CI] = -1.07[-1.99, -0.14]%) were individually, but not independently, associated with FEV₁/FVC. Finally, neutrophils were negatively associated with FEV₁% predicted (CEO[95%CI] = -2.22[-4.00, -0.44]%).

CONCLUSIONS

We identified a pattern of association between a set of biomarkers and asthma endotypes in adult patients from the general population, which could improve understanding of the heterogeneity and severity of the disease and could be useful in defining targeted therapeutic approaches.

Scar management in burn injuries using drug delivery and molecular signaling: Current treatments and future directions

In recent decades, there have been tremendous improvements in burn care that have allowed patients to survive severe burn injuries that were once fatal. However, a major limitation of burn care currently is the development of hypertrophic scars in approximately 70% of patients. This significantly decreases the quality of life for patients due to the physical and psychosocial symptoms associated with scarring. Current approaches to manage scarring include surgical techniques and non-surgical methods such as laser therapy, steroid injections, and compression therapy. These treatments are limited in their effectiveness and regularly fail to manage symptoms. As a result, the development of novel treatments that aim to improve outcomes and quality of life is imperative. Drug delivery that targets the molecular cascades of wound healing to attenuate or prevent hypertrophic scarring is a promising approach that has therapeutic potential. In this review, we discuss current treatments for scar management after burn injury, and how drug delivery targeting molecular signaling can lead to new therapeutic strategies.

Basophils are increased and express increased levels of interleukin-4 in the parotid lesions of Kimura disease

Background

Kimura disease (KD) is a systemic soft-tissue disease that leads to formation of painless masses in lymph nodes, with the highest predilection for the head and neck and especially the parotid gland. KD lesions are characterized by marked eosinophil infiltration, production of IgE and increased expression of T-helper type 2 (Th2) cytokines (interleukin [IL]-4, IL-5, etc.). Skewing to a Th2 inflammation is also demonstrated in the peripheral blood, with elevated eosinophils and high IgE levels. It is thought that basophils may play important roles in orchestrating this Th2 inflammation via IL-4 production leading to the induction of IgE synthesis as well as eosinophil infiltration. However, there are no reports as yet on the role of basophils in KD.

Objective

The present study was performed to investigate the potential role of basophils in the pathogenesis of KD. In this context we also examined the expression of IL-4 in basophils in the KD lesions.

Methods

By immunohistochemistry using a monoclonal antibody against a basophil marker ProMBP1 we investigated the number and distribution of basophils in the KD lesions. By double immunohistochemistry we analyzed the colocalization of IL-4 in basophils.

Results

There was an increased number of basophils infiltrating the KD parotid gland lesions as compared to that in normal control parotid tissue. By double-immunofluorescence we found that approximately 7% of IL-4-positive cells in KD patients' parotid glands were basophils.

Conclusion

Basophils may also play a role in the pathogenesis of KD, leading to the induction of IgE synthesis and eosinophil infiltration.

Sputum basophils are increased in eosinophilic asthma compared with non-eosinophilic asthma phenotypes

Sputum basophil numbers are increased in allergic asthmatics, but it is unclear what role airway basophils play in "TH2-low" asthma phenotypes. Using flow cytometry, we found that basophils were significantly increased in all asthmatics (n=26) compared with healthy controls (n=8) (P=0.007) with highest levels observed in eosinophilic asthma (EA); median 0.22%, IQR 0.11%-0.47%; n=14) compared with non-EA (NEA) (0.06%, 0.00%-0.20%; n=12; P<0.05). In asthmatics, basophils were positively correlated with sputum eosinophils (r=0.54; P<0.005) and inversely with sputum neutrophils (r=-0.46: P<0.05), but not with FEV₁ (% predicted), FEV₁ /FVC or bronchodilator reversibility. In a subgroup initially identified as inadequately controlled asthma (n=7), there was a trend (P=0.08) towards a reduction in sputum basophils following increased inhaled corticosteroid (ICS) treatment. Our findings suggest that basophils may be particularly important in eosinophilic asthma and that sputum basophil assessment could be a useful additional indicator of "TH2-high" asthma.

Myeloid Cells in Asthma

Asthma is a heterogeneous chronic inflammatory disorder of the airways, and not surprisingly, many myeloid cells play a crucial role in pathogenesis. Antigen-presenting dendritic cells are the first to recognize the allergens, pollutants, and viruses that are implicated in asthma pathogenesis, and subsequently initiate the adaptive immune response by migrating to lymph nodes. Eosinophils are the hallmark of type 2 inflammation, releasing toxic compounds in the airways and contributing to airway remodeling. Mast cells and basophils control both the early- and late-phase allergic response and contribute to alterations in smooth muscle reactivity. Finally, relatively little is known about neutrophils and macrophages in this disease. Although many of these myeloid cells respond well to treatment with inhaled steroids, there is now an increasing armamentarium of targeted biologicals that can specifically eliminate only one myeloid cell population, like eosinophils. It is only with those new tools that we will be able to fully understand the role of myeloid cells in chronic asthma in humans.

SH2 domain-containing adaptor protein B expressed in dendritic cells is involved in T-cell homeostasis by regulating dendritic cell-mediated Th2 immunity

Purpose

The Src homology 2 domain–containing adaptor protein B (SHB) is widely expressed in immune cells and acts as an important regulator for hematopoietic cell function. SHB silencing induces Th2 immunity in mice. SHB is also involved in T-cell homeostasis in vivo. However, SHB has not yet been studied and addressed in association with dendritic cells (DCs).

Materials and Methods

The effects of SHB expression on the immunogenicity of DCs were assessed by Shb gene silencing in mouse bone marrow–derived DCs (BMDCs). After silencing, surface phenotype, cytokine expression profile, and T-cell stimulation capacity of BMDCs were examined. We investigated the signaling pathways involved in SHB expression during BMDC development. We also examined the immunogenicity of SHB-knockdown (SHB^KD) BMDCs in a mouse atopic dermatitis model.

Results

SHB was steadily expressed in mouse splenic DCs and in in vitro–generated BMDCs in both immature and mature stages. SHB expression was contingent on activation of the mitogen- activated protein kinase/Foxa2 signaling pathway during DC development. SHB^KD increased the expression of MHC class II and costimulatory molecules without affecting the cytokine expression of BMDCs. When co-cultured with T cells, SHB^KD in BMDCs significantly induced CD4⁺ T-cell proliferation and the expression of Th2 cytokines, while the regulatory T cell (Treg) population was downregulated. In mouse atopic dermatitis model, mice inoculated with SHB^KD DCs developed more severe symptoms of atopic dermatitis compared with mice injected with control DCs.

Conclusion

SHB expression in DCs plays an important role in T-cell homeostasis in vivo by regulating DC-mediated Th2 polarization.

Constituents from oak bark (Quercus robur L.) inhibit degranulation and allergic mediator release from basophils and mast cells in vitro

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Oak bark has been used since ancient times in Europaen ethnomedicine because of its adstringent, antimicrobial and hemostatic features, e.g. as a remedy for the treatment of wounds and skin diseases.

PURPOSE

Oak bark tannins are considered as bioactive natural products, interacting with surface proteins of mucous membranes and might be beneficial for the treatment of allergic diseases. This study investigated the effect of an oak bark decoction (OBD) and isolated tannin fractions on the degranulation capacity and cytokine/chemokine release from rat basophilic cells and human mast cells in vitro, which are essential for the initiation of early- and late-phase allergic reactions.

METHODS AND METHODS

By chromatographic separation on Sephadex^® LH-20 high- and low-molecular weight tannins were separated from OBD and the tannin composition analyzed by HPLC(DAD)-MSⁿ. Then, the OBD and its fractions were tested in degranulation (β-hexosaminidase activity) of allergen-specific-activated basophilic cells in a photometric assay.

RESULTS

The OBD and the high-molecular tannin fraction showed a dose-dependent inhibition of cell degranulation. Furthermore, the OBD and particularly its high molecular weight tannin fraction exhibited an inhibitory activity on the IL-8-, IL-6- and TNF-α-secretion from stimulated human mast cells, detected and quantified by ELISA.

CONCLUSION

The OBD and its high-molecular weight tannins revealed an impact on allergic mediator release of basophilic cells and human mast cells and thereby provide a rationale for the topical treatment with OBD preparations.

Human Blood-Circulating Basophils Capture HIV-1 and Mediate Viral trans-Infection of CD4+ T Cells

Cell-associated HIV-1 infection has been proposed to play a pivotal role in the spread of HIV-1 infection. Granulocytes are a category of white blood cells, comprising mainly basophils, neutrophils, and eosinophils, and participate in various inflammatory reactions and defense against pathogens. Here, we investigated the role of human blood granulocytes in the dissemination of HIV-1. These cells were found to express a variety of HIV-1 attachment factors (HAFs). Basophils expressed HAFs dendritic cell (DC)-specific intercellular adhesion molecule 3 (ICAM3)-grabbing nonintegrin (DC-SIGN), DC immunoreceptor (DCIR), heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG), and α4β7 integrin and mediated the most efficient capture of HIV-1 on the cell surface. Neutrophils were found to express DCIR and demonstrated limited efficiency of viral capture. Eosinophils expressed α4β7 integrin but exhibited little or no virus-binding capacity. Intriguingly, following direct contact with CD4+ T cells, viruses harbored on the surface of basophils were transferred to T cells. The contact between basophils and CD4+ T cells and formation of infectious synapses appeared necessary for efficient HIV-1 spread. In HIV-1-infected individuals, the frequency of basophils remained fairly stable over the course of disease, regardless of CD4+ T depletion or the emergence of AIDS-associated opportunistic infections. Collectively, our results provide novel insights into the roles of granulocytes, particularly basophils, in HIV-1 dissemination. Thus, strategies designed to prevent basophil-mediated viral capture and transfer may be developed into a new form of therapy.

IMPORTANCE

Cell-associated HIV-1 infection has been proposed to play a pivotal role in the spread of HIV-1 infection. Here, we demonstrated that human blood-circulating granulocytes, particularly basophils, can capture HIV-1 and mediate viral trans-infection of CD4+ T cells. The expression of a variety of HIV-1 attachment factors, such as the C-type lectins, etc., facilitates viral capture and transfer. Intriguingly, the frequency of basophils in patients with different levels of CD4+ T counts remains fairly stable during the course of disease. Our results provide novel insights into the roles of granulocytes, particularly basophils, in HIV-1 dissemination. We suggest that strategies designed to prevent basophil-mediated viral capture and transfer may be a new direction for the development of anti-HIV therapy.

Basophils in inflammation

Basophils are functionally closely related to mast cells. Both cell types express the high-affinity IgE receptor (FcεRI) and rapidly release preformed mediator from intracellular stores upon IgE-mediated activation. However, in contrast to mast cells basophils finish their maturation in the bone marrow and have a lifespan of only 2-3 days. Basophil numbers increase in response to IL-3 or TSLP and migrate into tissues to promote type 2 immune responses. Here we review recent advances regarding the pro- and anti-inflammatory functions of basophils in murine models and human allergic inflammation of the skin, lung and intestine.

Immunomodulating properties of protein hydrolysates for application in cow's milk allergy

Cow's milk proteins cause allergic symptoms in 2-3% of all infants. In these individuals, the tolerogenic state of the intestinal immune system is broken, which can lead to sensitization against antigens and eventually to allergic responses. Although a true treatment for food allergy is not available, symptoms can be avoided by providing the infants with hydrolyzed proteins. Hydrolyzed proteins are proteins that are enzymatically degraded. They lack typical allergenic IgE-binding epitopes but are also thought to play a pertinent role in other mechanisms inducing hypoallergenic effects. This review discusses the mechanisms and evidence for immunomodulating properties of cow's milk hydrolysates. Hydrolysates are found to strengthen the epithelial barrier, modulate T-cell differentiation, and decrease inflammation. Some studies suggest a role for hydrolysates in manipulating pathogen recognition receptors signaling as underlying mechanism. Peptides from hydrolysates have been shown to bind to TLR2 and TLR4 and influence cytokine production in epithelial cells and macrophages. Current insight suggests that hydrolysates may actively participate in modulating the immune responses in subjects with cow's milk allergy and those at risk to develop cow's milk allergy. However, more research is required to design effective and reproducible means to develop targeting strategies to modulate the immune response.

Alveolar T-helper type-2 immunity in atopic asthma is associated with poor clinical control

Real-world evaluation studies have shown that many patients with asthma remain symptomatic despite treatment with inhaled corticosteroids (ICSs). As conventional ICSs have poor access to the peripheral airways, the aim of the present paper was to study the relationship between peripheral airway inflammation and clinical control in allergic asthma. Consequently, bronchial and transbronchial biopsies were obtained from patients with poorly controlled asthma [n=12, asthma control test (ACT) score<20], patients with well-controlled asthma (n=12, ACT score≥20) and healthy controls (n=8). Tissue sections were immunostained to assess multiple leucocyte populations. To determine the degree of T-helper type-2 (Th2) immunity, the logarithmic value of the ratio between Th2 cells/mm2 and Th1 cells/mm2 was used as a surrogate score for Th2-skewed immunity. In the bronchi, the leucocyte infiltration pattern and the Th2-score were similar between patients with well-controlled asthma and those with poorly controlled asthma. In contrast, in the alveolar parenchyma, the expression of T-helper cells was significantly higher in patients with poorly controlled asthma than in patients with well-controlled asthma (P<0.01). Furthermore, the alveolar Th2-score was significantly higher in patients with poorly controlled asthma (median 0.4) than in the controlled patients (median -0.10, P<0.05). In addition, in contrast with bronchial Th2-score, the alveolar Th2-score correlated significantly with ACT score (rs=-0.62, P<0.01) in the pooled asthma group. Collectively, our data reveal an alveolar Th2-skewed inflammation, specifically in asthmatic patients who are poorly controlled with ICSs, and suggest that pharmacological targeting of the peripheral airways may be beneficial in this large patient category.

Roles of basophils and mast cells infiltrating the lung by multiple antigen challenges in asthmatic responses of mice

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Mast cell hyperplasia has been observed in the lungs of mice with experimental asthma, but few reports have studied basophils. Here, we attempted to discriminate and quantify mast cells and basophils in the lungs in a murine asthma model, determine if both cells were increased by multiple antigen challenges and assess the roles of those cells in asthmatic responses.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Sensitized Balb/c mice were intratracheally challenged with ovalbumin four times. Mast cells and basophils in enzymatically digested lung tissue were detected by flow cytometry. An anti-FcεRI monoclonal antibody, MAR-1, was i.p. administered during the multiple challenges.

KEY RESULTS

The numbers of both mast cells (IgE(+) C-kit(+) ) and basophils (IgE(+) C-kit(-) CD49b(+) ) increased in the lungs after three challenges. Treatment with MAR-1 completely abolished the increases; however, a late-phase increase in specific airway resistance (sRaw), and airway eosinophilia and neutrophilia were not affected by the treatment, although the early-phase increase in sRaw was suppressed. MAR-1 reduced antigen-induced airway IL-4 production. Basophils infiltrating the lung clearly produced IL-4 after antigen stimulation in vitro; however, histamine and murine mast cell protease 1 were not increased in the serum after the challenge, indicating that mast cell activation was not evoked.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

Both mast cells and basophils infiltrated the lungs by multiple intratracheal antigen challenges in sensitized mice. Neither mast cells nor basophils were involved in late-phase airway obstruction, although early-phase obstruction was mediated by basophils. Targeting basophils in asthma therapy may be useful for an early asthmatic response.

Absence of the adaptor protein Shb potentiates the T helper type 2 response in a mouse model of atopic dermatitis

Aberrant regulation of T helper (Th) cell maturation is associated with a number of autoimmune conditions, including allergic disorders and rheumatoid arthritis. The Src homology domain protein B (Shb) adaptor protein was recently implicated as a regulator of Th cell differentiation. Shb is an integral component of the T-cell receptor (TCR) signalling complex and in the absence of Shb the TCR is less responsive to stimulation, resulting in the preferential development of Th2 responses under conditions of in vitro stimulation. In the present study, we extend those observations to an in vivo situation using a murine model of atopic dermatitis. Shb knockout mice develop more pronounced symptoms of atopic dermatitis with increased localized oedema, epidermal hyperplasia and IgE production. Dermal infiltration of mast cells, eosinophils, CD4(+) Th cells and F4/80(+) macrophages was also significantly increased in Shb-deficient mice. This correlated with elevated transcription of the hallmark Th2 cytokines interleukin-4 and interleukin-5. The loss of Shb therefore alters TCR signalling ability, thereby favouring the development of Th2-driven inflammation and exacerbating symptoms of allergy.

Histamine enhances keratinocyte-mediated resolution of inflammation by promoting wound healing and response to infection

BACKGROUND

The role of the epidermis in the immune response is well known. While multiple cytokines are implicated in keratinocyte-mediated infection clearance and wound healing, little is known about the involvement of keratinocytes in promoting resolution of inflammation.

AIM

To assess effects of histamine stimulation on keratinocyte function.

METHODS

We performed a combined microarray/Gene Ontology analysis of histamine-stimulated keratinocytes. Functional changes were tested by apoptosis assessment and scratch assays. Histamine receptor involvement was also assessed by blocking wound closure with specific antagonists.

RESULTS

Histamine treatment had extensive effects on keratinocytes, including effects on proinflammatory responses and cellular functions promoting wound healing. At the functional level, there was reduced apoptosis and enhancement of wound healing in vitro. At the receptor level, we identified involvement of all keratinocyte-expressed histamine receptors (HRHs), with HRH1 blockage resulting in the most prominent effect.

CONCLUSIONS

Histamine activates wound healing and infection clearance-related functions of keratinocytes. While enhancement of histamine-mediated wound healing is mediated predominantly via the HRH1 receptor, other keratinocyte-expressed receptors are also involved. These effects could promote resolution of skin inflammation caused by infection or superficial injury.

Basophils and allergic inflammation

Basophils were discovered by Paul Ehrlich in 1879 and represent the least abundant granulocyte population in mammals. The relative rarity of basophils and their phenotypic similarities with mast cells resulted in this cell lineage being historically overlooked, both clinically and experimentally. However, recent studies in human subjects and murine systems have shown that basophils perform nonredundant effector functions and significantly contribute to the development and progression of TH2 cytokine-mediated inflammation. Although the potential functions of murine and human basophils have provoked some controversy, recent genetic approaches indicate that basophils can migrate into lymphoid tissues and, in some circumstances, cooperate with other immune cells to promote optimal TH2 cytokine responses in vivo. This article provides a brief historical perspective on basophil-related research and discusses recent studies that have identified previously unappreciated molecules and pathways that regulate basophil development, activation, and function in the context of allergic inflammation. Furthermore, we highlight the unique effector functions of basophils and discuss their contributions to the development and pathogenesis of allergic inflammation in human disease. Finally, we discuss the therapeutic potential of targeting basophils in preventing or alleviating the development and progression of allergic inflammation.

Innate immune cells in asthma

Asthma is an inflammatory disease of the airways associated with a T helper (Th)2 response. Such a response in the lungs requires complex interactions between innate cells and structural cells. Dendritic cells (DCs) are pivotal during sensitization to allergens but clearly require epithelium-derived signals to become activated. Epithelial cells also contribute to the activation and the survival of mast cells (MCs), basophils, and eosinophils and group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s). In turn, these innate cells can activate DCs to sustain Th2 immunity. Here, we review the role played by these different populations of immune cells in the pathogenesis of asthma and how they interact to orchestrate Th2 immunity.

Up-dosing with bilastine results in improved effectiveness in cold contact urticaria

Background

Cold contact urticaria (CCU) is characterized by itchy wheal and flare responses due to the release of histamine and other pro-inflammatory mediators after exposure to cold. The treatment of choice is nonsedating antihistamines, dosages of which may be increased up to fourfold if standard doses are ineffective. Here, we assess the effects of a standard 20 mg dose and up-dosing to 40 and 80 mg of bilastine in reducing the symptoms of CCU and inflammatory mediator release following cold challenge.

Methods

Twenty patients with CCU were included in this randomized, crossover, double-blind, placebo-controlled 12-week study. They received placebo, 20, 40 or 80 mg of bilastine daily each for 7 days with 14-day washout periods. The primary readout was change in critical temperature thresholds (CTT). Secondary readouts were changes in pruritus, levels of histamine IL-6, IL-8 and TNF-α collected by skin microdialysis and safety and tolerability of bilastine.

Results

Bilastine 20 mg was highly effective (P < 0.0001) in reducing CTT. Up-dosing to 80 mg significantly (P < 0.04) increased its effectiveness. At this dose, 19 of 20 (95%) patients responded to treatment, with 12 of 20 (60%) becoming symptom free. Only one patient was refractory to treatment. Microdialysis levels of histamine, IL-6 and IL-8 assessed 1–3 h after cold challenge were significantly (P < 0.05) decreased following up-dosing with 80 mg bilastine. Bilastine treat-ment was well tolerated without evidence of increased sedation with dose escala-tion.

Conclusions

Bilastine was effective in reducing the symptoms of patients with CCU. Increased efficacy of bilastine with fourfold up-dosing was without sedation and supports urticaria treatment guidelines.

Muramyl dipeptide mediated activation of human bronchial epithelial cells interacting with basophils: a novel mechanism of airway inflammation

Respiratory tract bacterial infection can amplify and sustain airway inflammation. Intracytosolic nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-containing protein 2 (NOD2) is one member of the nucleotide binding and oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptor (NLR) family, which senses the conserved structural peptidoglycan component muramyl dipeptide (MDP) in almost all bacteria. In the present study, activation of the NOD2 ligand MDP on primary human bronchial epithelial cells (HBE) co-cultured with human basophils was investigated. Cytokines, NOD2, adhesion molecules and intracellular signalling molecules were assayed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay or flow cytometry. The protein expression of NOD2 was confirmed in basophils/KU812 cells and HBE/human bronchial epithelial cell line (BEAS-2B) cells. MDP was found to up-regulate significantly the cell surface expression of intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1 and vascular cell adhesion molecule (VCAM)-1 on basophils and HBE in the co-culture system with or without basophil priming by interleukin (IL)-33 (all P < 0·05). MDP could further enhance the release of inflammatory cytokine IL-6 and chemokine CXCL8, and epithelium-derived anti-microbial peptide β-defensin 2 in the co-culture. HBE cells were the major source for the release of IL-6, CXCL8 and β-defensin2 upon stimulation by MDP in the co-culture system. The expression of ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 and release of IL-6 and CXCL8 were suppressed by various signalling molecule inhibitors, implying that the interaction between basophils and primary human bronchial epithelial cells could be regulated differentially by the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways and nuclear transcription factors. The results therefore provide a new insight into the functional role of basophils in innate immunity, and the link between respiratory bacteria-mediated innate immunity and subsequent amplification of allergic inflammation in the airway.

Anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic activities of Pentaherb formula, Moutan Cortex (Danpi) and gallic acid

Pentaherb formula (PHF) has been proven to improve the quality of life of children with atopic dermatitis without side effects. The aim of this study was to elucidate the potential anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic activities of PHF, Moutan Cortex (Danpi/DP) and gallic acid (GA) using human basophils (KU812 cells), which are crucial effector cells in allergic inflammation. PHF, DP and GA could significantly suppress the expression of allergic inflammatory cytokine IL-33-upregulated intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1, and the release of chemokines CCL2, CCL5, CXCL8 and inflammatory cytokine IL-6 from KU812 cells (all p < 0.05). With the combined use of dexamethasone (0.01 μg/mL) and GA (10 μg/mL), the suppression of ICAM-1 expression and CCL5 and IL-6 release of IL-33-activated KU812 cells were significantly greater than the use of GA alone (all p < 0.05). The suppression of the IL-33-induced activation of intracellular signalling molecules p38 mitogen activated protein kinase, nuclear factor-kB and c-Jun amino-terminal kinase in GA-treated KU812 cells could be the underlying mechanism for the suppression on ICAM-1, chemokines and cytokines. The combined use of dexamethasone with the natural products PHF or DP or GA might therefore enhance the development of a novel therapeutic modality for allergic inflammatory diseases with high potency and fewer side effects.

KU812 basophils express urocortin, CRH-R, MC1R and steroidogenic enzymes and secrete progesterone

Little is known about neuroendocrine regulation of human basophils by components of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Using the basophil cell line KU812 as an in vitro model, we show that these cells express urocortin 1-3, specific isoforms of the corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) receptor (CRH-R)1 and CRH-R2 but not CRH itself. The precursor for melanocortins and β-endorphin, proopiomelanocortin, was not detectable, while the melanocortin-1 receptor was present at RNA and protein level in KU812 cells. KU812 basophils furthermore expressed key enzymes involved in steroidogenesis, that is, CYP11A1, CYP17 and CYP21A2. The relevance of steroidogenic enzyme expression in KU812 cells was confirmed by showing the presence of progesterone and 17OH-progesterone in conditioned media of these cells. Our data demonstrate the expression of some but not all components of the HPA axis in human basophils. These cells are not only target cells for multiple hormones of the HPA axis but may also generate neuroendocrine mediators autonomously.

The interplay between diet and emerging allergy: what can we learn from Indigenous Australians?

The pathophysiology of atopic diseases, including asthma and allergy, is the result of complex gene-environment interactions. Since European colonization the Indigenous population of Australia has undergone significant changes with respect to their lifestyle as hunter-gatherers. These changes have had a detrimental effect on Aboriginal health, in part due to immunological modification. This review provides a comparative look at both the traditional Aboriginal/Indigenous diet and modern Western diets, examines some common allergies increasingly reported in contemporary Indigenous populations, and reviews concepts such the effect of vitamin deficiencies and changes in gut microbiota on immune function.

Deciphering the structure and function of FcεRI/mast cell axis in the regulation of allergy and anaphylaxis: a functional genomics paradigm

Allergy and anaphylaxis are inflammatory disorders caused by immune reactions mainly induced by immunoglobulin-E that signal through the high-affinity FcεRI receptor to release the inflammatory mediators from innate immune cells. The FcεRI/mast cell axis is potently involved in triggering various intracellular signaling molecules to induce calcium release from the internal stores, induction of transcription factors such as NF-kB, secretion of various cytokines as well as lipid mediators, and degranulation, resulting in the induction of allergy and anaphylaxis. In this review, we discuss various cellular and molecular mechanisms triggered through FcεRI/mast cell axis in allergy and anaphylaxis with a special emphasis on the functional genomics paradigm.

Modulation of basophil activity: a novel function of the neuropeptide α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone

BACKGROUND

Little is known about the effect of neuropeptides on basophils, which are important effector cells in immune and allergic responses.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed at revealing the role of α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH) on basophil function.

METHODS

Expression of melanocortin receptors and proopiomelanocortin (POMC) was analyzed by means of RT-PCR, Western immunoblotting, fluorescence-activated cell sorting, and double-immunofluorescence analysis. Signal transduction studies included cyclic AMP and Ca(2+) mobilization assays. Basophil activity was assessed based on CD63 surface expression and cytokine release.

RESULTS

MC-1R expression was detectable in basophils isolated from human peripheral blood, as well as in basophils within nasal tissue. In isolated basophils from human blood, truncated POMC transcripts were present, but there was no POMC protein. Treatment of basophils with α-MSH increased intracellular Ca(2+) but not cyclic AMP levels. α-MSH at physiologic doses potently suppressed basophil activation induced by N-formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine, phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate, or grass pollen allergen in whole blood of healthy or allergic subjects, respectively. The effect of α-MSH on basophil activation was MC-1R mediated (as shown by blockade with a peptide analogue of agouti-signaling protein) and imitated by adrenocorticotropic hormone but not elicited by the tripeptides KPV and KdPT, both of which lack the central pharmacophore of α-MSH. Moreover, α-MSH at physiologic doses significantly suppressed secretion of 3 proallergic cytokines, IL-4, IL-6, and IL-13, in basophils stimulated with anti-IgE, N-formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine, or phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate.

CONCLUSION

Our findings highlight a novel functional activity of α-MSH, which acts as a natural antiallergic basophil-response modifier. These findings might point to novel therapeutic strategies in treating allergic diseases.