Sterol resistance in CHO cells traced to point mutation in SREBP cleavage-activating protein

Elocalcitol, a fluorinated vitamin D derivative, prevents high-fat diet-induced obesity via SCAP downregulation and miR-146a-associated mechanisms

Background

Obesity is an emerging health problem worldwide as it is associated with increased risk of cardiovascular, metabolic, mental disorders, and cancer. Therapeutic weight management remains one of the options for the treatment of excess weight and associated comorbidities. In this study, the therapeutic potential of elocalcitol, a fluorinated derivative of vitamin D, was studied on the model of high-fat diet (HFD)-induced obesity in mice.

Results

It was demonstrated that co-administration of elocalcitol in the doses 15 ug/kg (i.p.) twice a week for 16 weeks prevented body weight gain by approximately 15%. The significant retardation in the body weight gain was observed already on the second week of elocalcitol treatment. Administration of elocalcitol also reduced visceral and epididymal fat accumulation by 55% and 35%, respectively, metabolic syndrome development, and lipid droplets accumulation in the liver of mice exposed to HFD. In contrast, the administration of cholecalciferol (vitamin D)-a precursor to calcitriol, the biologically active form of vitamin D, did not affect significantly the signs of obesity and metabolic syndrome, suggesting that the anti-obese effects of elocalcitol are not related to the canonical vitamin D receptor (VDR). Further studies have demonstrated that the preventive effect of elocalcitol is associated with the decreased levels of sterol regulatory element-binding protein (SREBP) cleavage-activating protein (SCAP) and upregulation insulin-inducing gene-1 (Insig1) mRNA expression suggesting that the anti-obese effect of elocalcitol is mediated via inhibition of SREBP-mediated lipogenesis. We also demonstrated that elocalcitol prevents an increase in the expression of proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1 beta (Il1b), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (Tnf), and interleukin-18 (Il18), and this effect was associated with upregulation of microRNA-146a (miR-146a). Deletion of the miR-146a gene reduced the anti-obese effects of elocalcitol and prevented its actions on the SCAP levels. The data indicate that elocalcitol's reduction of SCAP is at least partly mediated by miR-146a modulation.

Conclusion

The study demonstrates that elocalcitol prevents HFD-induced obesity and metabolic syndrome in mice, likely by inhibiting SREBP-mediated lipogenesis and upregulating miR-146a. These findings provide valuable insights into the anti-obesity mechanisms of fluorinated D-vitamin analogs and suggest potential therapeutic strategies for obesity prevention.

Glutamine sensing licenses cholesterol synthesis

The mevalonate pathway produces essential lipid metabolites such as cholesterol. Although this pathway is negatively regulated by metabolic intermediates, little is known of the metabolites that positively regulate its activity. We found that the amino acid glutamine is required to activate the mevalonate pathway. Glutamine starvation inhibited cholesterol synthesis and blocked transcription of the mevalonate pathway-even in the presence of glutamine derivatives such as ammonia and α-ketoglutarate. We pinpointed this glutamine-dependent effect to a loss in the ER-to-Golgi trafficking of SCAP that licenses the activation of SREBP2, the major transcriptional regulator of cholesterol synthesis. Both enforced Golgi-to-ER retro-translocation and the expression of a nuclear SREBP2 rescued mevalonate pathway activity during glutamine starvation. In a cell model of impaired mitochondrial respiration in which glutamine uptake is enhanced, SREBP2 activation and cellular cholesterol were increased. Thus, the mevalonate pathway senses and is activated by glutamine at a previously uncharacterized step, and the modulation of glutamine synthesis may be a strategy to regulate cholesterol levels in pathophysiological conditions.

The lipid side of unfolded protein response

Although our current knowledge of the molecular crosstalk between the ER stress, the unfolded protein response (UPR), and lipid homeostasis remains limited, there is increasing evidence that dysregulation of either protein or lipid homeostasis profoundly affects the other. Most research regarding UPR signaling in human diseases has focused on the causes and consequences of disrupted protein folding. The UPR itself consists of very complex pathways that function to not only maintain protein homeostasis, but just as importantly, modulate lipid biogenesis to allow the ER to adjust and promote cell survival. Lipid dysregulation is known to activate many aspects of the UPR, but the complexity of this crosstalk remains a major research barrier. ER lipid disequilibrium and lipotoxicity are known to be important contributors to numerous human pathologies, including insulin resistance, liver disease, cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative diseases, and cancer. Despite their medical significance and continuous research, however, the molecular mechanisms that modulate lipid synthesis during ER stress conditions, and their impact on cell fate decisions, remain poorly understood. Here we summarize the current view on crosstalk and connections between altered lipid metabolism, ER stress, and the UPR.

Cholesterol-rich lysosomes induced by respiratory syncytial virus promote viral replication by blocking autophagy flux

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) hijacks cholesterol or autophagy pathways to facilitate optimal replication. However, our understanding of the associated molecular mechanisms remains limited. Here, we show that RSV infection blocks cholesterol transport from lysosomes to the endoplasmic reticulum by downregulating the activity of lysosomal acid lipase, activates the SREBP2-LDLR axis, and promotes uptake and accumulation of exogenous cholesterol in lysosomes. High cholesterol levels impair the VAP-A-binding activity of ORP1L and promote the recruitment of dynein-dynactin, PLEKHM1, or HOPS VPS39 to Rab7-RILP, thereby facilitating minus-end transport of autophagosomes and autolysosome formation. Acidification inhibition and dysfunction of cholesterol-rich lysosomes impair autophagy flux by inhibiting autolysosome degradation, which promotes the accumulation of RSV fusion protein. RSV-F storage is nearly abolished after cholesterol depletion or knockdown of LDLR. Most importantly, the knockout of LDLR effectively inhibits RSV infection in vivo. These findings elucidate the molecular mechanism of how RSV co-regulates lysosomal cholesterol reprogramming and autophagy and reveal LDLR as a novel target for anti-RSV drug development.

ALOX15B controls macrophage cholesterol homeostasis via lipid peroxidation, ERK1/2 and SREBP2

Macrophage cholesterol homeostasis is crucial for health and disease and has been linked to the lipid-peroxidizing enzyme arachidonate 15-lipoxygenase type B (ALOX15B), albeit molecular mechanisms remain obscure. We performed global transcriptome and immunofluorescence analysis in ALOX15B-silenced primary human macrophages and observed a reduction of nuclear sterol regulatory element-binding protein (SREBP) 2, the master transcription factor of cellular cholesterol biosynthesis. Consequently, SREBP2-target gene expression was reduced as were the sterol biosynthetic intermediates desmosterol and lathosterol as well as 25- and 27-hydroxycholesterol. Mechanistically, suppression of ALOX15B reduced lipid peroxidation in primary human macrophages and thereby attenuated activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase ERK1/2, which lowered SREBP2 abundance and activity. Low nuclear SREBP2 rendered both, ALOX15B-silenced and ERK1/2-inhibited macrophages refractory to SREBP2 activation upon blocking the NPC intracellular cholesterol transporter 1. These studies suggest a regulatory mechanism controlling macrophage cholesterol homeostasis based on ALOX15B-mediated lipid peroxidation and concomitant ERK1/2 activation.

SpoVAF and FigP assemble into oligomeric ion channels that enhance spore germination

Bacterial spores can remain dormant for decades yet rapidly germinate and resume growth in response to nutrients. GerA family receptors that sense and respond to these signals have recently been shown to oligomerize into nutrient-gated ion channels. Ion release initiates exit from dormancy. Here, we report that a distinct ion channel, composed of SpoVAF (5AF) and its newly discovered partner protein, YqhR (FigP), amplifies the response. At high germinant concentrations, 5AF/FigP accelerate germination; at low concentrations, this complex becomes critical for exit from dormancy. 5AF is homologous to the channel-forming subunit of GerA family receptors and is predicted to oligomerize around a central pore. 5AF mutations predicted to widen the channel cause constitutive germination during spore formation and membrane depolarization in vegetative cells. Narrow-channel mutants are impaired in germination. A screen for suppressors of a constitutively germinating 5AF mutant identified FigP as an essential cofactor of 5AF activity. We demonstrate that 5AF and FigP interact and colocalize with GerA family receptors in spores. Finally, we show that 5AF/FigP accelerate germination in B. subtilis spores that have nutrient receptors from another species. Our data support a model in which nutrient-triggered ion release by GerA family receptors activates 5AF/FigP ion release, amplifying the response to germinant signals.

The Role of SCAP/SREBP as Central Regulators of Lipid Metabolism in Hepatic Steatosis

The prevalence of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) is rapidly increasing worldwide at an alarming pace, due to an increase in obesity, sedentary and unhealthy lifestyles, and unbalanced dietary habits. MASLD is a unique, multi-factorial condition with several phases of progression including steatosis, steatohepatitis, fibrosis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. Sterol element binding protein 1c (SREBP1c) is the main transcription factor involved in regulating hepatic de novo lipogenesis. This transcription factor is synthesized as an inactive precursor, and its proteolytic maturation is initiated in the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum upon stimulation by insulin. SREBP cleavage activating protein (SCAP) is required as a chaperon protein to escort SREBP from the endoplasmic reticulum and to facilitate the proteolytic release of the N-terminal domain of SREBP into the Golgi. SCAP inhibition prevents activation of SREBP and inhibits the expression of genes involved in triglyceride and fatty acid synthesis, resulting in the inhibition of de novo lipogenesis. In line, previous studies have shown that SCAP inhibition can resolve hepatic steatosis in animal models and intensive research is going on to understand the effects of SCAP in the pathogenesis of human disease. This review focuses on the versatile roles of SCAP/SREBP regulation in de novo lipogenesis and the structure and molecular features of SCAP/SREBP in the progression of hepatic steatosis. In addition, recent studies that attempt to target the SCAP/SREBP axis as a therapeutic option to interfere with MASLD are discussed.

SIRT1/SREBPs-mediated regulation of lipid metabolism

Sirtuins, also called silent information regulator 2, are enzymes that rely on nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) to function as histone deacetylases. Further investigation is warranted to explore the advantageous impacts of Sirtuin 1 (SIRT1), a constituent of the sirtuin group, on lipid metabolism, in addition to its well-researched involvement in extending lifespan. The regulation of gene expression has been extensively linked to SIRT1. Sterol regulatory element-binding protein (SREBP) is a substrate of SIRT1 that has attracted significant interest due to its role in multiple cellular processes including cell cycle regulation, DNA damage repair, and metabolic functions. Hence, the objective of this analysis was to investigate and elucidate the correlation between SIRT1 and SREBPs, as well as assess the contribution of SIRT1/SREBPs in mitigating lipid metabolism dysfunction. The objective of this research was to investigate whether SIRT1 and SREBPs could be utilized as viable targets for therapeutic intervention in managing complications associated with diabetes.

Enzymatically Formed Oxysterols and Cell Death

The side-chain hydroxylation of cholesterol by specific enzymes produces 24(S)-hydroxycholesterol, 25-hydroxycholesterol, 27-hydroxycholesterol, and other products. These enzymatically formed side-chain oxysterols act as intermediates in the biosynthesis of bile acids and serve as signaling molecules that regulate cholesterol homeostasis. Besides these intracellular functions, an imbalance in oxysterol homeostasis is implicated in pathophysiology. Furthermore, growing evidence reveals that oxysterols affect cell proliferation and cause cell death. This chapter provides an overview of the pathophysiological role of side-chain oxysterols in developing human diseases. We also summarize our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying the induction of various forms of cell death by side-chain oxysterols.

Lipid Metabolism Regulators Are the Possible Determinant for Characteristics of Myopic Human Scleral Stroma Fibroblasts (HSSFs)

The purpose of the current investigation was to elucidate what kinds of responsible mechanisms induce elongation of the sclera in myopic eyes. To do this, two-dimensional (2D) cultures of human scleral stromal fibroblasts (HSSFs) obtained from eyes with two different axial length (AL) groups, <26 mm (low AL group, n = 2) and >27 mm (high AL group, n = 3), were subjected to (1) measurements of Seahorse mitochondrial and glycolytic indices to evaluate biological aspects and (2) analysis by RNA sequencing. Extracellular flux analysis revealed that metabolic indices related to mitochondrial and glycolytic functions were higher in the low AL group than in the high AL group, suggesting that metabolic activities of HSSF cells are different depending the degree of AL. Based upon RNA sequencing of these low and high AL groups, the bioinformatic analyses using gene ontology (GO) enrichment analysis and ingenuity pathway analysis (IPA) of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) identified that sterol regulatory element-binding transcription factor 2 (SREBF2) is both a possible upstream regulator and a causal network regulator. Furthermore, SREBF1, insulin-induced gene 1 (INSIG1), and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1) were detected as upstream regulators, and protein tyrosine phosphatase receptor type O (PTPRO) was detected as a causal network regulator. Since those possible regulators were all pivotally involved in lipid metabolisms including fatty acid (FA), triglyceride (TG) and cholesterol (Chol) biosynthesis, the findings reported here indicate that FA, TG and Chol biosynthesis regulation may be responsible mechanisms inducing AL elongation via HSSF.

Insulin Regulation of Hepatic Lipid Homeostasis

The incidence of obesity, insulin resistance, and type II diabetes (T2DM) continues to rise worldwide. The liver is a central insulin-responsive metabolic organ that governs whole-body metabolic homeostasis. Therefore, defining the mechanisms underlying insulin action in the liver is essential to our understanding of the pathogenesis of insulin resistance. During periods of fasting, the liver catabolizes fatty acids and stored glycogen to meet the metabolic demands of the body. In postprandial conditions, insulin signals to the liver to store excess nutrients into triglycerides, cholesterol, and glycogen. In insulin-resistant states, such as T2DM, hepatic insulin signaling continues to promote lipid synthesis but fails to suppress glucose production, leading to hypertriglyceridemia and hyperglycemia. Insulin resistance is associated with the development of metabolic disorders such as cardiovascular and kidney disease, atherosclerosis, stroke, and cancer. Of note, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), a spectrum of diseases encompassing fatty liver, inflammation, fibrosis, and cirrhosis, is linked to abnormalities in insulin-mediated lipid metabolism. Therefore, understanding the role of insulin signaling under normal and pathologic states may provide insights into preventative and therapeutic opportunities for the treatment of metabolic diseases. Here, we provide a review of the field of hepatic insulin signaling and lipid regulation, including providing historical context, detailed molecular mechanisms, and address gaps in our understanding of hepatic lipid regulation and the derangements under insulin-resistant conditions. © 2023 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 13:4785-4809, 2023.

Endoplasmic reticulum stress and lipids in health and diseases

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a complex and dynamic organelle that regulates many cellular pathways, including protein synthesis, protein quality control, and lipid synthesis. When one or multiple ER roles are dysregulated and saturated, the ER enters a stress state, which, in turn, activates the highly conserved unfolded protein response (UPR). By sensing the accumulation of unfolded proteins or lipid bilayer stress (LBS) at the ER, the UPR triggers pathways to restore ER homeostasis and eventually induces apoptosis if the stress remains unresolved. In recent years, it has emerged that the UPR works intimately with other cellular pathways to maintain lipid homeostasis at the ER, and so does at cellular levels. Lipid distribution, along with lipid anabolism and catabolism, are tightly regulated, in part, by the ER. Dysfunctional and overwhelmed lipid-related pathways, independently or in combination with ER stress, can have reciprocal effects on other cellular functions, contributing to the development of diseases. In this review, we summarize the current understanding of the UPR in response to proteotoxic stress and LBS and the breadth of the functions mitigated by the UPR in different tissues and in the context of diseases.

Hydroxylation site-specific and production-dependent effects of endogenous oxysterols on cholesterol homeostasis: Implications for SREBP-2 and LXR

The cholesterol metabolites, oxysterols, play central roles in cholesterol feedback control. They modulate the activity of two master transcription factors that control cholesterol homeostatic responses, sterol regulatory element-binding protein-2 (SREBP-2) and liver X receptor (LXR). Although the role of exogenous oxysterols in regulating these transcription factors has been well established, whether endogenously synthesized oxysterols similarly control both SREBP-2 and LXR remains poorly explored. Here, we carefully validate the role of oxysterols enzymatically synthesized within cells in cholesterol homeostatic responses. We first show that SREBP-2 responds more sensitively to exogenous oxysterols than LXR in Chinese hamster ovary cells and rat primary hepatocytes. We then show that 25-hydroxycholesterol (25-HC), 27-hydroxycholesterol, and 24S-hydroxycholesterol endogenously synthesized by CH25H, CYP27A1, and CYP46A1, respectively, suppress SREBP-2 activity at different degrees by stabilizing Insig (insulin-induced gene) proteins, whereas 7α-hydroxycholesterol has little impact on SREBP-2. These results demonstrate the role of site-specific hydroxylation of endogenous oxysterols. In contrast, the expression of CH25H, CYP46A1, CYP27A1, or CYP7A1 fails to induce LXR target gene expression. We also show the 25-HC production-dependent suppression of SREBP-2 using a tetracycline-inducible CH25H expression system. To induce 25-HC production physiologically, murine macrophages are stimulated with a Toll-like receptor 4 ligand, and its effect on SREBP-2 and LXR is examined. The results also suggest that de novo synthesis of 25-HC preferentially regulates SREBP-2 activity. Finally, we quantitatively determine the specificity of the four cholesterol hydroxylases in living cells. Based on our current findings, we conclude that endogenous side-chain oxysterols primarily regulate the activity of SREBP-2, not LXR.

Cell-Type Resolved Insights into the Cis-Regulatory Genome of NAFLD

The prevalence of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is increasing rapidly, and unmet treatment can result in the development of hepatitis, fibrosis, and liver failure. There are difficulties involved in diagnosing NAFLD early and for this reason there are challenges involved in its treatment. Furthermore, no drugs are currently approved to alleviate complications, a fact which highlights the need for further insight into disease mechanisms. NAFLD pathogenesis is associated with complex cellular changes, including hepatocyte steatosis, immune cell infiltration, endothelial dysfunction, hepatic stellate cell activation, and epithelial ductular reaction. Many of these cellular changes are controlled by dramatic changes in gene expression orchestrated by the cis-regulatory genome and associated transcription factors. Thus, to understand disease mechanisms, we need extensive insights into the gene regulatory mechanisms associated with tissue remodeling. Mapping cis-regulatory regions genome-wide is a step towards this objective and several current and emerging technologies allow detection of accessible chromatin and specific histone modifications in enriched cell populations of the liver, as well as in single cells. Here, we discuss recent insights into the cis-regulatory genome in NAFLD both at the organ-level and in specific cell populations of the liver. Moreover, we highlight emerging technologies that enable single-cell resolved analysis of the cis-regulatory genome of the liver.

Activation of Liver mTORC1 Protects Against NASH via Dual Regulation of VLDL-TAG Secretion and De Novo Lipogenesis

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Dysregulation of liver lipid metabolism is associated with the development and progression of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, a spectrum of liver diseases including nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). In the liver, insulin controls lipid homeostasis by increasing triglyceride (TAG) synthesis, suppressing fatty acid oxidation, and enhancing TAG export via very low-density lipoproteins. Downstream of insulin signaling, the mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1), is a key regulator of lipid metabolism. Here, we define the role of hepatic mTORC1 activity in mouse models of NASH and investigate the mTORC1-dependent mechanisms responsible for protection against liver damage in NASH.

METHODS

Utilizing 2 rodent NASH-promoting diets, we demonstrate that hepatic mTORC1 activity was reduced in mice with NASH, whereas under conditions of insulin resistance and benign fatty liver, mTORC1 activity was elevated. To test the beneficial effects of hepatic mTORC1 activation in mouse models of NASH, we employed an acute, liver-specific knockout model of TSC1 (L-TSC-KO), a negative regulator of mTORC1.

RESULTS

L-TSC-KO mice are protected from and have improved markers of NASH including reduced steatosis, decreased circulating transaminases, and reduced expression of inflammation and fibrosis genes. Mechanistically, protection from hepatic inflammation and fibrosis by constitutive mTORC1 activity occurred via promotion of the phosphatidylcholine synthesizing enzyme, CCTα, and enhanced very low-density lipoprotein-triglyceride export. Additionally, activation of mTORC1 protected from hepatic steatosis via negative feedback of the mTORC2-AKT-FOXO-SREBP1c lipogenesis axis.

CONCLUSIONS

Collectively, this study identifies a protective role for liver mTORC1 signaling in the initiation and progression of NASH in mice via dual control of lipid export and synthesis.

Structural advances in sterol-sensing domain-containing proteins

The sterol-sensing domain (SSD) is present in several membrane proteins that function in cholesterol metabolism, transport, and signaling. Recent progress in structural studies of SSD-containing proteins, such as sterol regulatory element-binding protein (SREBP)-cleavage activating protein (Scap), Patched, Niemann-Pick disease type C1 (NPC1), and related proteins, reveals a conserved core that is essential for their sterol-dependent functions. This domain, by its name, 'senses' the presence of sterol substrates through interactions and may modulate protein behaviors with changing sterol levels. We summarize recent advances in structural and mechanistic investigations of these proteins and propose to divide them to two classes: M for 'moderator' proteins that regulate sterol metabolism in response to membrane sterol levels, and T for 'transporter' proteins that harbor inner tunnels for cargo trafficking across cellular membranes.

Sterol uptake by the NPC system in eukaryotes: a Saccharomyces cerevisiae perspective

Sterols are an essential component of membranes in all eukaryotic cells and the precursor of multiple indispensable cellular metabolites. After endocytotic uptake, sterols are integrated into the lysosomal membrane by the Niemann-Pick type C (NPC) system before redistribution to other membranes. The process is driven by two proteins that, together, compose the NPC system: the lysosomal sterol shuttle protein NPC2 and the membrane protein NPC1 (named NCR1 in fungi), which integrates sterols into the lysosomal membrane. The Saccharomyces cerevisiae NPC system provides a compelling model to study the molecular mechanism of sterol integration into membranes and sterol homeostasis. This review summarizes recent advances in the field, and by interpreting available structural data, we propose a unifying conceptual model for sterol loading, transfer and transport by NPC proteins.

Aqueous extracts of lingonberry and blackberry leaves identified by high-content screening beneficially act on cholesterol metabolism

Decreasing circulating low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels leads to decreased risk of cardiovascular diseases. Natural compounds are capable of lowering LDL-cholesterol even on top of lifestyle modification or medication. To identify novel plant-derived compounds to lower plasma LDL cholesterol levels, we performed high-content screening based on the transcriptional activation of the promoter of the LDL receptor (LDLR). The identified hits were thoroughly validated in human hepatic cell lines in terms of increasing LDLR mRNA and protein levels, lowering cellular cholesterol levels and increasing cellular LDL uptake. By means of this incremental validation process in vitro, aqueous extracts prepared from leaves of lingonberries (Vaccinium vitis-idaea) as well as blackberries (Rubus fruticosus) were found to have effects comparable to lovastatin, a prototypic cholesterol-lowering drug. When applied in vivo in mice, both extracts induced subtle increases in hepatic LDLR expression. In addition, a significant increase in high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol was observed. Taken together, aqueous extracts from lingonberry or blackberry leaves were identified and characterized as strong candidates to provide cardiovascular protection.

Scap structures highlight key role for rotation of intertwined luminal loops in cholesterol sensing

The cholesterol-sensing protein Scap induces cholesterol synthesis by transporting membrane-bound transcription factors called sterol regulatory element-binding proteins (SREBPs) from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to the Golgi apparatus for proteolytic activation. Transport requires interaction between Scap's two ER luminal loops (L1 and L7), which flank an intramembrane sterol-sensing domain (SSD). Cholesterol inhibits Scap transport by binding to L1, which triggers Scap's binding to Insig, an ER retention protein. Here we used cryoelectron microscopy (cryo-EM) to elucidate two structures of full-length chicken Scap: (1) a wild-type free of Insigs and (2) mutant Scap bound to chicken Insig without cholesterol. Strikingly, L1 and L7 intertwine tightly to form a globular domain that acts as a luminal platform connecting the SSD to the rest of Scap. In the presence of Insig, this platform undergoes a large rotation accompanied by rearrangement of Scap's transmembrane helices. We postulate that this conformational change halts Scap transport of SREBPs and inhibits cholesterol synthesis.

DHT causes liver steatosis via transcriptional regulation of SCAP in normal weight female mice

Hyperandrogenemia (HA) is a hallmark of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) and is an integral element of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NALFD) in females. Administering low-dose dihydrotestosterone (DHT) induced a normal weight PCOS-like female mouse model displaying NAFLD. The molecular mechanism of HA-induced NAFLD has not been fully determined. We hypothesized that DHT would regulate hepatic lipid metabolism via increased SREBP1 expression leading to NAFLD. We extracted liver from control and low-dose DHT female mice; and performed histological and biochemical lipid profiles, Western blot, immunoprecipitation, chromatin immunoprecipitation, and real-time quantitative PCR analyses. DHT lowered the 65 kD form of cytosolic SREBP1 in the liver compared to controls. However, DHT did not alter the levels of SREBP2 in the liver. DHT mice displayed increased SCAP protein expression and SCAP-SREBP1 binding compared to controls. DHT mice exhibited increased AR binding to intron-8 of SCAP leading to increased SCAP mRNA compared to controls. FAS mRNA and protein expression was increased in the liver of DHT mice compared to controls. p-ACC levels were unaltered in the liver. Other lipid metabolism pathways were examined in the liver, but no changes were observed. Our findings support evidence that DHT increased de novo lipogenic proteins resulting in increased hepatic lipid content via regulation of SREBP1 in the liver. We show that in the presence of DHT, the SCAP-SREBP1 interaction was elevated leading to increased nuclear SREBP1 resulting in increased de novo lipogenesis. We propose that the mechanism of action may be increased AR binding to an ARE in SCAP intron-8.

Posttranslational Regulation of HMG CoA Reductase, the Rate-Limiting Enzyme in Synthesis of Cholesterol

The polytopic, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane protein 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG CoA) reductase produces mevalonate, the key intermediate in the synthesis of cholesterol and many nonsterol isoprenoids including geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGpp). Transcriptional, translational, and posttranslational feedback mechanisms converge on this reductase to ensure cells maintain a sufficient supply of essential nonsterol isoprenoids but avoid overaccumulation of cholesterol and other sterols. The focus of this review is mechanisms for the posttranslational regulation of HMG CoA reductase, which include sterol-accelerated ubiquitination and ER-associated degradation (ERAD) that is augmented by GGpp. We discuss how GGpp-induced ER-to-Golgi trafficking of the vitamin K₂ synthetic enzyme UbiA prenyltransferase domain-containing protein-1 (UBIAD1) modulates HMG CoA reductase ERAD to balance the synthesis of sterol and nonsterol isoprenoids. We also summarize the characterization of genetically manipulated mice, which established that sterol-accelerated, UBIAD1-modulated ERAD plays a major role in regulation of HMG CoA reductase and cholesterol metabolism in vivo.

Sterol-resistant SCAP Overexpression in Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells Accelerates Atherosclerosis by Increasing Local Vascular Inflammation through Activation of the NLRP3 Inflammasome in Mice

Atherosclerosis is a serious age-related pathology, and one of its hallmarks is the presence of chronic inflammation. Sterol regulatory element-binding protein (SREBP) cleavage-activating protein (SCAP) is a cholesterol sensor that plays an essential role in regulating intracellular cholesterol homeostasis. Accordingly, dysregulation of the SCAP-SREBP pathway has been reported to be closely associated with an increased risk of obesity, hypercholesterolemia, and cardiovascular disease. In this study, we explored whether sterol-resistant SCAP (D443N mutation) in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) of mice promotes vascular inflammation and accelerates the occurrence and progression of atherosclerosis. We established a transgenic knock-in mouse model of atherosclerosis with an activating D443N mutation at the sterol-sensing domain of SCAP (SCAP^D443N) by microinjection. Next, SCAP^D443N/ApoE^-/- mice were generated by crossing SCAP^D443N mice with apolipoprotein E^-/- (ApoE^-/-) background mice. We found that sterol-resistant SCAP markedly amplified and accelerated the progression of atherosclerotic plaques in SCAP^D443N/ApoE^-/- mice compared with that in control ApoE^-/- mice. Similarly, in SCAP^D443N mice, aortic atherosclerotic plaques both appeared earlier and were greater in number than that in control SCAP^+/+ mice, both of which were fed a Western diet for 12 or 24 weeks. Moreover, we observed that sterol-resistant SCAP significantly increased local inflammation and induced endothelial dysfunction in the aortas of SCAP^D443N mice and SCAP^D443N/ApoE^-/- mice. In vitro, we also found that sterol-resistant SCAP overexpression in VSMCs increased the release of inflammatory cytokines and induced endothelial cell injury when both cell types were cocultured. Furthermore, we demonstrated that sterol-resistant SCAP overexpression in VSMCs promoted SCAP and NLRP3 inflammasome cotranslocation to the Golgi and increased the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway. These findings suggested that sterol-resistant SCAP in VSMCs of mice induced vascular inflammation and endothelial dysfunction, consequently accelerating atherosclerosis by activating the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway.

The ER cholesterol sensor SCAP promotes CARTS biogenesis at ER-Golgi membrane contact sites

In response to cholesterol deprivation, SCAP escorts SREBP transcription factors from the endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi complex for their proteolytic activation, leading to gene expression for cholesterol synthesis and uptake. Here, we show that in cholesterol-fed cells, ER-localized SCAP interacts through Sac1 phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate (PI4P) phosphatase with a VAP-OSBP complex, which mediates counter-transport of ER cholesterol and Golgi PI4P at ER-Golgi membrane contact sites (MCSs). SCAP knockdown inhibited the turnover of PI4P, perhaps due to a cholesterol transport defect, and altered the subcellular distribution of the VAP-OSBP complex. As in the case of perturbation of lipid transfer complexes at ER-Golgi MCSs, SCAP knockdown inhibited the biogenesis of the trans-Golgi network-derived transport carriers CARTS, which was reversed by expression of wild-type SCAP or a Golgi transport-defective mutant, but not of cholesterol sensing-defective mutants. Altogether, our findings reveal a new role for SCAP under cholesterol-fed conditions in the facilitation of CARTS biogenesis via ER-Golgi MCSs, depending on the ER cholesterol.

Relationship between lipid metabolism and Hedgehog signaling pathway

The Hedgehog (Hh) signaling pathway is highly conserved signaling pathway in cells. Steroids was found to play a vital role in Hh signaling pathway and aberrant Hh signaling was found to lead a series of disease correlate with abnormal lipid metabolism. This paper aimed to elucidate the relationship between lipid metabolism and Hedgehog signaling pathway.

A structure of human Scap bound to Insig-2 suggests how their interaction is regulated by sterols

The sterol regulatory element-binding protein (SREBP) pathway controls cellular homeostasis of sterols. The key players in this pathway, Scap and Insig-1 and -2, are membrane-embedded sterol sensors. The 25-hydroxycholesterol (25HC)-dependent association of Scap and Insig acts as the master switch for the SREBP pathway. Here, we present cryo-electron microscopy analysis of the human Scap and Insig-2 complex in the presence of 25HC, with the transmembrane (TM) domains determined at an average resolution of 3.7 angstrom. The sterol-sensing domain in Scap and all six TMs in Insig-2 were resolved. A 25HC molecule is sandwiched between the S4 to S6 segments in Scap and TMs 3 and 4 in Insig-2 in the luminal leaflet of the membrane. Unwinding of the middle of the Scap-S4 segment is crucial for 25HC binding and Insig association.

Dipyridamole Inhibits Lipogenic Gene Expression by Retaining SCAP-SREBP in the Endoplasmic Reticulum

Sterol regulatory element-binding proteins (SREBPs) are master transcriptional regulators of the mevalonate pathway and lipid metabolism and represent an attractive therapeutic target for lipid metabolic disorders. SREBPs are maintained in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in a tripartite complex with SREBP cleavage-activating protein (SCAP) and insulin-induced gene protein (INSIG). When new lipid synthesis is required, the SCAP-SREBP complex dissociates from INSIG and undergoes ER-to-Golgi transport where the N-terminal transcription factor domain is released by proteolysis. The mature transcription factor translocates to the nucleus and stimulates expression of the SREBP gene program. Previous studies showed that dipyridamole, a clinically prescribed phosphodiesterase (PDE) inhibitor, potentiated statin-induced tumor growth inhibition. Dipyridamole limited nuclear accumulation of SREBP, but the mechanism was not well resolved. In this study, we show that dipyridamole selectively blocks ER-to-Golgi movement of the SCAP-SREBP complex and that this is independent of its PDE inhibitory activity.

An Atomic-Level Perspective of HMG-CoA-Reductase: The Target Enzyme to Treat Hypercholesterolemia

This review provides an updated atomic-level perspective regarding the enzyme 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase (HMG-CoAR), linking the more recent data on this enzyme with a structure/function interpretation. This enzyme catalyzes one of the most important steps in cholesterol biosynthesis and is regarded as one of the most important drug targets in the treatment of hypercholesterolemia. Taking this into consideration, we review in the present article several aspects of this enzyme, including its structure and biochemistry, its catalytic mechanism and different reported and proposed approaches for inhibiting this enzyme, including the commercially available statins or the possibility of using dimerization inhibitors.

Metabolic coessentiality mapping identifies C12orf49 as a regulator of SREBP processing and cholesterol metabolism

Coessentiality mapping has been useful to systematically cluster genes into biological pathways and identify gene functions1-3. Here, using the debiased sparse partial correlation (DSPC) method3, we construct a functional coessentiality map for cellular metabolic processes across human cancer cell lines. This analysis reveals 35 modules associated with known metabolic pathways and further assigns metabolic functions to unknown genes. In particular, we identify C12orf49 as an essential regulator of cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism in mammalian cells. Mechanistically, C12orf49 localizes to the Golgi, binds membrane-bound transcription factor peptidase, site 1 (MBTPS1, site 1 protease) and is necessary for the cleavage of its substrates, including sterol regulatory element binding protein (SREBP) transcription factors. This function depends on the evolutionarily conserved uncharacterized domain (DUF2054) and promotes cell proliferation under cholesterol depletion. Notably, c12orf49 depletion in zebrafish blocks dietary lipid clearance in vivo, mimicking the phenotype of mbtps1 mutants. Finally, in an electronic health record (EHR)-linked DNA biobank, C12orf49 is associated with hyperlipidaemia through phenome analysis. Altogether, our findings reveal a conserved role for C12orf49 in cholesterol and lipid homeostasis and provide a platform to identify unknown components of other metabolic pathways.

Dysregulated Brain Cholesterol Metabolism Is Linked to Neuroinflammation in Huntington's Disease

Huntington's disease is an autosomal-dominant, neurodegenerative disorder caused by a CAG repeat expansion in exon-1 of the huntingtin gene. Alterations in cholesterol metabolism and distribution have been reported in Huntington's disease, including abnormal interactions between mutant huntingtin and sterol regulatory element-binding proteins, decreased levels of apolipoprotein E/cholesterol/low-density lipoprotein receptor complexes, and alterations in the synthesis of ATP-binding cassette transporter A1. Plasma levels of 24S-hydroxycholestrol, a key intermediary in cholesterol metabolism and a possible marker in neurodegenerative diseases, decreased proportionally to the degree of caudate nucleus atrophy. The interaction of mutant huntingtin with sterol regulatory element-binding proteins is of particular interest given that sterol regulatory element-binding proteins play a dual role: They take part in lipid and cholesterol metabolism, but also in the inflammatory response that induces immune cell migration as well as toxic effects, particularly in astrocytes. This work summarizes current evidence on the metabolic and immune implications of sterol regulatory element-binding protein dysregulation in Huntington's disease, highlighting the potential use of drugs that modulate these alterations. © 2020 International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

Molecular Genetics of Niemann-Pick Type C Disease in Italy: An Update on 105 Patients and Description of 18 NPC1 Novel Variants

Niemann-Pick type C (NPC) disease is an autosomal recessive lysosomal storage disorder caused by mutations in NPC1 or NPC2 genes. In 2009, the molecular characterization of 44 NPC Italian patients has been published. Here, we present an update of the genetic findings in 105 Italian NPC patients belonging to 83 unrelated families (77 NPC1 and 6 NPC2). NPC1 and NPC2 genes were studied following an algorithm recently published. Eighty-four different NPC1 and five NPC2 alleles were identified. Only two NPC1 alleles remained non detected. Sixty-two percent of NPC1 alleles were due to missense variants. The most frequent NPC1 mutation was the p.F284Lfs*26 (5.8% of the alleles). All NPC2 mutations were found in the homozygous state, and all but one was severe. Among newly diagnosed patients, 18 novel NPC1 mutations were identified. The pathogenic nature of 7/9 missense alleles and 3/4 intronic variants was confirmed by filipin staining and NPC1 protein analysis or mRNA expression in patient’s fibroblasts. Taken together, our previous published data and new results provide an overall picture of the molecular characteristics of NPC patients diagnosed so far in Italy.

Haploid genetic screens identify SPRING/C12ORF49 as a determinant of SREBP signaling and cholesterol metabolism

The sterol-regulatory element binding proteins (SREBP) are central transcriptional regulators of lipid metabolism. Using haploid genetic screens we identify the SREBP Regulating Gene (SPRING/C12ORF49) as a determinant of the SREBP pathway. SPRING is a glycosylated Golgi-resident membrane protein and its ablation in Hap1 cells, Hepa1-6 hepatoma cells, and primary murine hepatocytes reduces SREBP signaling. In mice, Spring deletion is embryonic lethal yet silencing of hepatic Spring expression also attenuates the SREBP response. Mechanistically, attenuated SREBP signaling in SPRING^KO cells results from reduced SREBP cleavage-activating protein (SCAP) and its mislocalization to the Golgi irrespective of the cellular sterol status. Consistent with limited functional SCAP in SPRING^KO cells, reintroducing SCAP restores SREBP-dependent signaling and function. Moreover, in line with the role of SREBP in tumor growth, a wide range of tumor cell lines display dependency on SPRING expression. In conclusion, we identify SPRING as a previously unrecognized modulator of SREBP signaling.

Cholesterol and beyond - The role of the mevalonate pathway in cancer biology

Cancer is a multifaceted global disease. Transformation of a normal to a malignant cell takes several steps, including somatic mutations, epigenetic alterations, metabolic reprogramming and loss of cell growth control. Recently, the mevalonate pathway has emerged as a crucial regulator of tumor biology and a potential therapeutic target. This pathway controls cholesterol production and posttranslational modifications of Rho-GTPases, both of which are linked to several key steps of tumor progression. Inhibitors of the mevalonate pathway induce pleiotropic antitumor-effects in several human malignancies, identifying the pathway as an attractive candidate for novel therapies. In this review, we will provide an overview about the role and regulation of the mevalonate pathway in certain aspects of cancer initiation and progression and its potential for therapeutic intervention in oncology.

PNPLA3-I148M: a problem of plenty in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease

Fatty liver disease (FLD) affects more than one-third of the population in the western world and an increasing number of children in the United States. It is a leading cause of obesity and liver transplantation. Mechanistic insights into the causes of FLD are urgently needed since no therapeutic intervention has proven to be effective. A sequence variation in patatin like phospholipase domain-containing protein 3 (PNPLA3), rs 738409, is strongly associated with the progression of fatty liver disease. The resulting mutant causes a substitution of isoleucine to methionine at position 148. The underlying mechanism of this disease remains unsolved although several studies have illuminated key insights into its pathogenesis. This review highlights the progress in our understanding of PNPLA3 function in lipid droplet dynamics and explores possible therapeutic interventions to ameliorate this human health hazard.

Anti-obesity potential of rare sugar d-psicose by regulating lipid metabolism in rats

d-Psicose is a new-generation sugar substitute with a low calorie count and can still offer the desirable sweetness. The objective of this study was to investigate the antiobesity potential of d-psicose and the possible mechanism using Wistar rats as the animal model. The animals were divided into five groups and supplemented with diets containing 5% of different carbohydrates, such as glucose, fructose, cellulose, d-psicose, and a control diet, for 4 weeks. After sacrifice, blood lipid profile, tissue morphology, and related genes participating in lipid metabolism were analyzed. The results indicated that the supplementation by d-psicose leads to minimum fat accumulation in rats when compared with the other carbohydrates. The blood lipid profile and antioxidative activity of the rat were also improved. d-Psicose can regulate lipid metabolism by increasing the lipid-metabolism-related enzymes such as SDH in serum and liver and HL in the liver. d-Psicose can prevent fat accumulation by suppressing the expression of lipogenesis-related gene ACCα and hepatic fatty acid uptake gene (FAS and SREBP-1c), while stimulating the expression for fatty-acid-oxidation-related gene including AMPK2α, HSL, and PPARα. In conclusion, d-psicose can be considered to be a healthy alternative to traditional sweeteners.

Regulation of glucose and lipid metabolism in health and disease

Glucose and fatty acids are the major sources of energy for human body. Cholesterol, the most abundant sterol in mammals, is a key component of cell membranes although it does not generate ATP. The metabolisms of glucose, fatty acids and cholesterol are often intertwined and regulated. For example, glucose can be converted to fatty acids and cholesterol through de novo lipid biosynthesis pathways. Excessive lipids are secreted in lipoproteins or stored in lipid droplets. The metabolites of glucose and lipids are dynamically transported intercellularly and intracellularly, and then converted to other molecules in specific compartments. The disorders of glucose and lipid metabolism result in severe diseases including cardiovascular disease, diabetes and fatty liver. This review summarizes the major metabolic aspects of glucose and lipid, and their regulations in the context of physiology and diseases.

Nutrient-Based Chemical Library as a Source of Energy Metabolism Modulators

Covalent conjugates of multiple nutrients often exhibit greater biological activities than each individual nutrient and more predictable safety profiles than completely unnatural chemical entities. Here, we report the construction and application of a focused chemical library of 308 covalent conjugates of a variety of small-molecule nutrients. Screening of the library with a reporter gene of sterol regulatory element-binding protein (SREBP), a master regulator of mammalian lipogenesis, led to the discovery of a conjugate of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), glucosamine, and amino acids as an inhibitor of SREBP (molecule 1, DHG). Mechanistic analyses indicate that molecule 1 impairs the SREBP activity by inhibiting glucose transporters and thereby activating AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK). Oral administration of molecule 1 suppressed the intestinal absorption of glucose in mice. These results suggest that such synthetic libraries of nutrient conjugates serve as a source of novel chemical tools and pharmaceutical seeds that modulate energy metabolism.

Structural Insight into Eukaryotic Sterol Transport through Niemann-Pick Type C Proteins

Niemann-Pick type C (NPC) proteins are essential for sterol homeostasis, believed to drive sterol integration into the lysosomal membrane before redistribution to other cellular membranes. Here, using a combination of crystallography, cryo-electron microscopy, and biochemical and in vivo studies on the Saccharomyces cerevisiae NPC system (NCR1 and NPC2), we present a framework for sterol membrane integration. Sterols are transferred between hydrophobic pockets of vacuolar NPC2 and membrane-protein NCR1. NCR1 has its N-terminal domain (NTD) positioned to deliver a sterol to a tunnel connecting NTD to the luminal membrane leaflet 50 Å away. A sterol is caught inside this tunnel during transport, and a proton-relay network of charged residues in the transmembrane region is linked to this tunnel supporting a proton-driven transport mechanism. We propose a model for sterol integration that clarifies the role of NPC proteins in this essential eukaryotic pathway and that rationalizes mutations in patients with Niemann-Pick disease type C.

Structural basis of sterol recognition by human hedgehog receptor PTCH1

Hedgehog signaling is central in embryonic development and tissue regeneration. Disruption of the pathway is linked to genetic diseases and cancer. Binding of the secreted ligand, Sonic hedgehog (ShhN) to its receptor Patched (PTCH1) activates the signaling pathway. Here, we describe a 3.4-Å cryo-EM structure of the human PTCH1 bound to ShhN_C24II, a modified hedgehog ligand mimicking its palmitoylated form. The membrane-embedded part of PTCH1 is surrounded by 10 sterol molecules at the inner and outer lipid bilayer portion of the protein. The annular sterols interact at multiple sites with both the sterol-sensing domain (SSD) and the SSD-like domain (SSDL), which are located on opposite sides of PTCH1. The structure reveals a possible route for sterol translocation across the lipid bilayer by PTCH1 and homologous transporters.

Structures of vertebrate Patched and Smoothened reveal intimate links between cholesterol and Hedgehog signalling

The Hedgehog (HH) signalling pathway is a cell-cell communication system that controls the patterning of multiple tissues during embryogenesis in metazoans. In adults, HH signals regulate tissue stem cells and regenerative responses. Abnormal signalling can cause birth defects and cancer. The HH signal is received on target cells by Patched (PTCH1), the receptor for HH ligands, and then transmitted across the plasma membrane by Smoothened (SMO). Recent structural and biochemical studies have pointed to a sterol lipid, likely cholesterol itself, as the elusive second messenger that communicates the HH signal between PTCH1 and SMO, thus linking ligand reception to transmembrane signalling.

Nuclear receptors, cholesterol homeostasis and the immune system

Cholesterol is essential for maintaining membrane fluidity in eukaryotes. Additionally, the synthetic cascade of cholesterol results in precursor molecules important for cellular function such as lipid raft formation and protein prenylation. As such, cholesterol homeostasis is tightly regulated. Interestingly, it is now known that some cholesterol precursors and many metabolites serve as active signaling molecules, binding to different classes of receptors including the nuclear receptors. Furthermore, many cholesterol metabolites or their nuclear receptors have been implicated in the regulation of the immune system in normal physiology and disease. Therefore, in this focused review, cholesterol homeostasis and nuclear receptors involved in this regulation will be discussed, with particular emphasis on how these cascades influence the immune system.

Small Heterodimer Partner Regulates Dichotomous T Cell Expansion by Macrophages

The involvement of small heterodimer partner (SHP) in the inhibition of hepatic bile acid synthesis from cholesterol has been established. However, extrahepatic expression of SHP implies that SHP may have regulatory functions other than those in the liver. Here, we find that SHP mRNA expression is high in murine bone marrow cells, suggesting a physiological role within macrophages. Indeed, expression of SHP in macrophages decreases the transcriptional activity and nuclear localization of nuclear factor κB, whereas downregulation of SHP has the opposite effects. Expression of genes associated with macrophage-T cell crosstalk were altered by overexpression or downregulation of SHP. Intriguingly, increasing SHP expression in macrophages resulted in decreased T cell expansion, a hallmark of T cell activation, whereas knockdown of SHP resulted in increased expansion. Analyses of the expanded T cells revealed a dichotomous skewing between effector T cells and regulatory T cells (Tregs), with SHP overexpression reducing Tregs and downregulation of SHP increasing their expansion. The expanded Tregs were confirmed to be suppressive via adoptive transfers. IL-2 and TGF-β, known inducers of Treg differentiation, were found to be regulated by SHP. Furthermore, SHP occupancy at the promoter region of IL-2 was increased after macrophages were challenged with lipopolysaccharide. Neutralizing antibodies to IL-2 and TGF-β inhibited the expansion of Tregs mediated by downregulation of SHP. This study demonstrates that expression and activity of SHP within macrophages can alter T cell fate and identifies SHP as a potential therapeutic target for autoimmune diseases or solid cancers.

Lipids and their (un)known effects on ER-associated protein degradation (ERAD)

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-associated protein degradation (ERAD) is a conserved cellular process that apart from protein quality control and maintenance of ER membrane identity has pivotal functions in regulating the lipid composition of the ER membrane. A general trigger for ERAD activation is the exposure of normally buried protein domains due to protein misfolding, absence of binding partners or conformational changes. Several feedback loops for ER lipid homeostasis exploit the induction of conformational changes in key enzymes of lipid biosynthesis or in ER membrane-embedded transcription factors upon shortage or abundance of specific lipids, leading to enzyme degradation or mobilization of transcription factors. Similarly, an insufficient amount of lipids triggers ERAD of apolipoproteins during lipoprotein formation. Lipids might even have a role in ER protein quality control: when proteins destined for ER export are covalently modified with lipids their ER residence time and their susceptibility to ERAD is reduced. Here we summarize and compare the various interconnections of lipids with ER membrane proteins and ERAD. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Endoplasmic reticulum platforms for lipid dynamics edited by Shamshad Cockcroft and Christopher Stefan.

Niemann-Pick Disease Type C: Mutation Spectrum and Novel Sequence Variations in the Human NPC1 Gene

Niemann-Pick type C (NP-C) is a rare autosomal recessive disorder characterized by storage of unesterified glycolipids and cholesterol in lysosome and/or late endosome due to mutations in either NPC1 or NPC2 gene. This study aims to identify the spectrum of sequence alterations associated to NP-C in individuals with clinical suspicion of this disease. The entire coding region and flanking sequences of both genes associated to NP-C were evaluated in a total of 265 individuals that were referred to our laboratory. Clinical and/or biochemical suspicion of NP-C was confirmed by molecular analysis in 54 subjects. In this cohort, 33 different sequence alterations were identified in NPC1 and one in NPC2. Among those, 5 novel alterations in NPC1 gene were identified as follows: one deletion (p.Lys38_Tyr40del), one frameshift (p.Asn195Lysfs*2), and three missense mutations (p.Cys238Arg, p.Ser365Pro and, p.Val694Met) that are likely to be pathogenic through different approaches, including in silico tools as well as multiple sequence alignment throughout different species. We have also reported main clinical symptoms of patients with novel alterations and distribution of frequent symptoms in the cohort. Findings reported here contribute to the knowledge of mutation spectrum of NP-C, defining frequent mutations as well as novel sequence alterations associated to the disease.

Therapeutic targets of hypercholesterolemia: HMGCR and LDLR

Cholesterol homeostasis is critical and necessary for the body's functions. Hypercholesterolemia can lead to significant clinical problems, such as cardiovascular disease (CVD). 3-Hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase (HMGCR) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol receptor (LDLR) are major points of control in cholesterol homeostasis. We summarize the regulatory mechanisms of HMGCR and LDLR, which may provide insight for new drug design and development.

Elevated Membrane Cholesterol Disrupts Lysosomal Degradation to Induce β-Amyloid Accumulation: The Potential Mechanism Underlying Augmentation of β-Amyloid Pathology by Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

The endocytic membrane trafficking system is altered in the brains of early-stage Alzheimer disease (AD) patients, and endocytic disturbance affects the metabolism of β-amyloid (Aβ) protein, a key molecule in AD pathogenesis. It is widely accepted that type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is one of the strongest risk factors for development of AD. Supporting this link, experimentally induced T2DM enhances AD pathology in various animal models. Spontaneous T2DM also enhances Aβ pathology with severe endocytic pathology, even in nonhuman primate brains. However, it remains unclear how T2DM accelerates Aβ pathology. Herein, we demonstrate that cholesterol metabolism-related protein levels are increased and that membrane cholesterol level is elevated in spontaneous T2DM-affected cynomolgus monkey brains. Moreover, in vitro studies that manipulate cellular cholesterol reveal that elevated membrane cholesterol disrupts lysosomal degradation and enhances chemical-induced endocytic disturbance, resulting in great accumulation of Aβ in Neuro2a cells. These findings suggest that an alteration of cerebral cholesterol metabolism may be responsible for augmentation of Aβ pathology in T2DM-affected brains, which, in turn, may increase the risk for developing AD.

Activation of sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1 (SREBP1)-mediated lipogenesis by the Epstein-Barr virus-encoded latent membrane protein 1 (LMP1) promotes cell proliferation and progression of nasopharyngeal carcinoma

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is closely associated with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection. The EBV-encoded latent membrane protein 1 (LMP1), which is commonly expressed in NPC, engages multiple signaling pathways that promote cell growth, transformation, and metabolic reprogramming. Here, we report a novel function of LMP1 in promoting de novo lipogenesis. LMP1 increases the expression, maturation and activation of sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1 (SREBP1), a master regulator of lipogenesis, and its downstream target fatty acid synthase (FASN). LMP1 also induces de novo lipid synthesis and lipid droplet formation. In contrast, small interfering RNA (siRNA) knockdown of LMP1 in EBV-infected epithelial cells diminished SREBP1 activation and lipid biosynthesis. Furthermore, inhibition of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway, through the use of either mTOR inhibitors or siRNAs, significantly reduced LMP1-mediated SREBP1 activity and lipogenesis, indicating that LMP1 activation of the mTOR pathway is required for SREBP1-mediated lipogenesis. In primary NPC tumors, FASN overexpression is common, with high levels correlating significantly with LMP1 expression. Moreover, elevated FASN expression was associated with aggressive disease and poor survival in NPC patients. Luteolin and fatostatin, two inhibitors of lipogenesis, suppressed lipogenesis and proliferation of nasopharyngeal epithelial cells, effects that were more profound in cells expressing LMP1. Luteolin and fatostatin also dramatically inhibited NPC tumor growth in vitro and in vivo. Our findings demonstrate that LMP1 activation of SREBP1-mediated lipogenesis promotes tumor cell growth and is involved in EBV-driven NPC pathogenesis. Our results also reveal the therapeutic potential of utilizing lipogenesis inhibitors in the treatment of locally advanced or metastatic NPC. © 2018 The Authors. The Journal of Pathology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland.