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Yang H, Qi Q, Zhang Y, Wen N, Cao L, Liu Y, Fan C, Yan D, Zhu X, Hao L, Zhu S, Ma Q, Liu J, Ma C, Nan L, Chen Y, Ma X, Chen N, Deng K, Shao G, Ding X, An Z, Rodewald LE, Li X, Wang D, Zhu H, Wang H, Feng Z, Xu W, Zhou J, Yin Z. Analysis of a Sabin-Strain Inactivated Poliovirus Vaccine Response to a Circulating Type 2 Vaccine-Derived Poliovirus Event in Sichuan Province, China 2019-2021. JAMA Netw Open 2023; 6:e2249710. [PMID: 36602797 PMCID: PMC9856606 DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.49710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE The Sabin-strain inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) may be a tool for polio outbreak response in certain situations. OBJECTIVE To investigate the response to a type 2 vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV2) outbreak. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS This case series was conducted in China after a VDPV2 was detected in stool specimens from a child with acute flaccid paralysis (AFP) in Sichuan Province in 2019, 3 years after the global withdrawal of live, attenuated type 2 oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV). Investigation followed National Health Commission and World Health Organization guidance and included searching hospitals for unreported AFP cases; testing stool specimens from the child, his contacts, and local children; enhanced environmental surveillance for VDPV2s in wastewater; and measuring vaccination coverage. Sabin-strain IPV campaigns were conducted in a wide geographic area. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES Any VDPV2 detection after completion of the supplementary immunization activities. RESULTS A 28-nucleotide-change VDPV2 was isolated from a young boy. Three VDPV2s were detected in healthy children; 2 were contacts of the original child, and none had paralysis. A search of 31 million hospital records found 10 unreported AFP cases; none were polio. No type 2 polioviruses were found in wastewater. Prior to the event, polio vaccine coverage was 65% among children younger than 5 years. Sabin-strain IPV campaigns reached more than 97% of targeted children, administering 1.4 million doses. No transmission source was identified. More than 1 year of enhanced poliovirus environmental and AFP surveillance detected no additional VDPVs. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE These findings suggest that the circulating VPDV2 outbreak in 2019 was associated with low vaccine coverage. An investigation discovered 3 infected but otherwise healthy children and no evidence of the virus in wastewater. Following Sabin-strain IPV-only campaigns expanding from county to prefecture, the poliovirus was not detected, and the outbreak response was considered by an expert panel and the World Health Organization to have been successful. This success suggests that the Sabin-strain IPV may be a useful tool for responding to circulating VDPV2 outbreaks when high-quality supplementary immunization activities can be conducted and carefully monitored in settings with good sanitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Yang
- National Immunization Program, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Qi Qi
- Sichuan Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Chengdu, China
| | - Yong Zhang
- Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Ning Wen
- National Immunization Program, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Lei Cao
- National Immunization Program, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Yu Liu
- Sichuan Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Chengdu, China
| | - Chunxiang Fan
- National Immunization Program, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Dongmei Yan
- Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaoping Zhu
- Sichuan Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Chengdu, China
| | - Lixin Hao
- National Immunization Program, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Shuangli Zhu
- Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Qianli Ma
- Sichuan Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Chengdu, China
| | - Jiajie Liu
- Sichuan Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Chengdu, China
| | - Chao Ma
- National Immunization Program, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Lei Nan
- Liangshan Prefectural Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Liangshan, China
| | - Yong Chen
- Leibo County Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Liangshan, China
| | - Xiaozhen Ma
- Sichuan Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Chengdu, China
| | - Na Chen
- Sichuan Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Chengdu, China
| | - Kun Deng
- Liangshan Prefectural Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Liangshan, China
| | - Ge Shao
- Chinese Field Epidemiology Training Program, Beijing, China
| | - Xianxiang Ding
- Chinese Field Epidemiology Training Program, Beijing, China
| | - Zhijie An
- National Immunization Program, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Lance E. Rodewald
- National Immunization Program, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaolei Li
- Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Dongyan Wang
- Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Hui Zhu
- Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Huaqing Wang
- National Immunization Program, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Zijian Feng
- Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Wenbo Xu
- Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Jiushun Zhou
- Sichuan Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Chengdu, China
| | - Zundong Yin
- National Immunization Program, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
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First evidence of enterovirus A71 and echovirus 30 in Uruguay and genetic relationship with strains circulating in the South American region. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0255846. [PMID: 34383835 PMCID: PMC8360592 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0255846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2021] [Accepted: 07/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Human enteroviruses (EVs) comprise more than 100 types of coxsackievirus, echovirus, poliovirus and numbered enteroviruses, which are mainly transmitted by the faecal-oral route leading to diverse diseases such as aseptic meningitis, encephalitis, and acute flaccid paralysis, among others. Since enteroviruses are excreted in faeces, wastewater-based epidemiology approaches are useful to describe EV diversity in a community. In Uruguay, knowledge about enteroviruses is extremely limited. This study assessed the diversity of enteroviruses through Illumina next-generation sequencing of VP1-amplicons obtained by RT-PCR directly applied to viral concentrates of 84 wastewater samples collected in Uruguay during 2011-2012 and 2017-2018. Fifty out of the 84 samples were positive for enteroviruses. There were detected 27 different types belonging to Enterovirus A species (CVA2-A6, A10, A16, EV-A71, A90), Enterovirus B species (CVA9, B1-B5, E1, E6, E11, E14, E21, E30) and Enterovirus C species (CVA1, A13, A19, A22, A24, EV-C99). Enterovirus A71 (EV-A71) and echovirus 30 (E30) strains were studied more in depth through phylogenetic analysis, together with some strains previously detected by us in Argentina. Results unveiled that EV-A71 sub-genogroup C2 circulates in both countries at least since 2011-2012, and that the C1-like emerging variant recently entered in Argentina. We also confirmed the circulation of echovirus 30 genotypes E and F in Argentina, and reported the detection of genotype E in Uruguay. To the best of our knowledge this is the first report of the EV-A71 C1-like emerging variant in South-America, and the first report of EV-A71 and E30 in Uruguay.
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Fagnant‐Sperati C, Ren Y, Zhou N, Komen E, Mwangi B, Hassan J, Chepkurui A, Nzunza R, Nyangao J, van Zyl W, Wolfaardt M, Matsapola P, Ngwana F, Jeffries‐Miles S, Coulliette‐Salmond A, Peñaranda S, Vega E, Shirai J, Kossik A, Beck N, Boyle D, Burns C, Taylor M, Borus P, Meschke J. Validation of the bag-mediated filtration system for environmental surveillance of poliovirus in Nairobi, Kenya. J Appl Microbiol 2021; 130:971-981. [PMID: 32743931 PMCID: PMC7854911 DOI: 10.1111/jam.14807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2020] [Revised: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 07/25/2020] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
AIMS This study compared the bag-mediated filtration system (BMFS) and standard WHO two-phase separation methods for poliovirus (PV) environmental surveillance, examined factors impacting PV detection and monitored Sabin-like (SL) PV type 2 presence with withdrawal of oral polio vaccine type 2 (OPV2) in April 2016. METHODS AND RESULTS Environmental samples were collected in Nairobi, Kenya (Sept 2015-Feb 2017), concentrated via BMFS and two-phase separation methods, then assayed using the WHO PV isolation algorithm and intratypic differentiation diagnostic screening kit. SL1, SL2 and SL3 were detected at higher rates in BMFS than two-phase samples (P < 0·05). In BMFS samples, SL PV detection did not significantly differ with volume filtered, filtration time or filter shipment time (P > 0·05), while SL3 was detected less frequently with higher shipment temperatures (P = 0·027). SL2 was detected more frequently before OPV2 withdrawal in BMFS and two-phase samples (P < 1 × 10-5 ). CONCLUSIONS Poliovirus was detected at higher rates with the BMFS, a method that includes a secondary concentration step, than using the standard WHO two-phase method. SL2 disappearance from the environment was commensurate with OPV2 withdrawal. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY The BMFS offers comparable or improved PV detection under the conditions in this study, relative to the two-phase method.
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Affiliation(s)
- C.S. Fagnant‐Sperati
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health SciencesUniversity of WashingtonSeattleWAUSA
| | - Y. Ren
- Department of BiostatisticsUniversity of WashingtonSeattleWAUSA
| | - N.A. Zhou
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health SciencesUniversity of WashingtonSeattleWAUSA
| | - E. Komen
- Centre for Viral ResearchKenya Medical Research InstituteNairobiKenya
| | - B. Mwangi
- Centre for Viral ResearchKenya Medical Research InstituteNairobiKenya
| | - J. Hassan
- Centre for Viral ResearchKenya Medical Research InstituteNairobiKenya
| | - A. Chepkurui
- Centre for Viral ResearchKenya Medical Research InstituteNairobiKenya
| | - R. Nzunza
- Centre for Viral ResearchKenya Medical Research InstituteNairobiKenya
| | - J. Nyangao
- Centre for Viral ResearchKenya Medical Research InstituteNairobiKenya
| | - W.B. van Zyl
- Department of Medical VirologyUniversity of PretoriaPretoriaSouth Africa
| | - M. Wolfaardt
- Department of Medical VirologyUniversity of PretoriaPretoriaSouth Africa
| | - P.N. Matsapola
- Department of Medical VirologyUniversity of PretoriaPretoriaSouth Africa
| | - F.B. Ngwana
- Department of Medical VirologyUniversity of PretoriaPretoriaSouth Africa
| | - S. Jeffries‐Miles
- Cherokee Nation Assurance a contracting agency to the Division of Viral DiseasesCenters for Disease Control and PreventionAtlantaGAUSA
| | | | - S. Peñaranda
- Division of Viral DiseasesCenters for Disease Control and PreventionAtlantaGAUSA
| | - E. Vega
- Division of Viral DiseasesCenters for Disease Control and PreventionAtlantaGAUSA
| | - J.H. Shirai
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health SciencesUniversity of WashingtonSeattleWAUSA
| | - A.L. Kossik
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health SciencesUniversity of WashingtonSeattleWAUSA
| | - N.K. Beck
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health SciencesUniversity of WashingtonSeattleWAUSA
| | | | - C.C. Burns
- Division of Viral DiseasesCenters for Disease Control and PreventionAtlantaGAUSA
| | - M.B. Taylor
- Department of Medical VirologyUniversity of PretoriaPretoriaSouth Africa
| | - P. Borus
- Centre for Viral ResearchKenya Medical Research InstituteNairobiKenya
| | - J.S. Meschke
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health SciencesUniversity of WashingtonSeattleWAUSA
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Serratos-Sotelo L. Were there long-term economic effects of exposure to polio vaccination? An analysis of migrants to Sweden 1946-2003. SSM Popul Health 2020; 11:100589. [PMID: 32577493 PMCID: PMC7305338 DOI: 10.1016/j.ssmph.2020.100589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2019] [Revised: 04/07/2020] [Accepted: 04/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent research showed that exposure to the vaccine against polio in early life had no long-term economic benefits among native Swedes. However, whether this result holds for individuals from other countries remains unexplored. This study explores the relationship between exposure to the vaccine and later-life outcomes, but focuses on individuals who migrated to Sweden (birth cohorts 1946-1971), and constitute a diverse sample in terms of national origin. Using a differences-in-differences approach and register data from the Swedish Longitudinal Immigrant Database, this study explores if being exposed to the vaccine against polio in the year of birth in the country of origin has any impact on adult income, educational achievement, or days or number of hospitalizations. The results are in line with the previous research in showing that there are no statistically significant effects on adult income, education, or health from exposure to the vaccine against polio, regardless of national origin. Furthermore, no scarring effects of exposure to polio epidemics were found on any of the outcomes, reinforcing the hypothesis that polio did not scar individuals in the same way as other contemporary epidemic diseases did, and that the lack of scarring could explain the absence of long-term impact from vaccine exposure.
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Falman JC, Fagnant-Sperati CS, Kossik AL, Boyle DS, Meschke JS. Evaluation of Secondary Concentration Methods for Poliovirus Detection in Wastewater. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2019; 11:20-31. [PMID: 30612304 PMCID: PMC6394643 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-018-09364-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2018] [Accepted: 12/31/2018] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Effective surveillance of human enteric viruses is critical to estimate disease prevalence within a community and can be a vital supplement to clinical surveillance. This study sought to evaluate simple, effective, and inexpensive secondary concentration methods for use with ViroCap™ filter eluate for environmental surveillance of poliovirus. Wastewater was primary concentrated using cartridge ViroCap filters, seeded with poliovirus type 1 (PV1), and then concentrated using five secondary concentration methods (beef extract-Celite, ViroCap flat disc filter, InnovaPrep® Concentrating Pipette, polyethylene glycol [PEG]/sodium chloride [NaCl] precipitation, and skimmed-milk flocculation). PV1 was enumerated in secondary concentrates by plaque assay on BGMK cells. Of the five tested methods, PEG/NaCl precipitation and skimmed-milk flocculation resulted in the highest PV1 recoveries. Optimization of the skimmed-milk flocculation method resulted in a greater PV1 recovery (106 ± 24.8%) when compared to PEG/NaCl precipitation (59.5 ± 19.4%) (p = 0.004, t-test). The high PV1 recovery, short processing time, low reagent cost, no required refrigeration, and requirement for only standard laboratory equipment suggest that the skimmed-milk flocculation method would be a good candidate to be field-validated for secondary concentration of environmental ViroCap filter samples containing poliovirus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jill C Falman
- Department of Environmental & Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, 4225 Roosevelt Way NE, Suite 100, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
| | - Christine S Fagnant-Sperati
- Department of Environmental & Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, 4225 Roosevelt Way NE, Suite 100, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
| | - Alexandra L Kossik
- Department of Environmental & Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, 4225 Roosevelt Way NE, Suite 100, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
| | - David S Boyle
- PATH, 2201 Westlake Avenue, Suite 200, Seattle, WA, 98121, USA
| | - John Scott Meschke
- Department of Environmental & Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, 4225 Roosevelt Way NE, Suite 100, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA.
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Balde C, Lam M, Bah A, Bowong S, Tewa JJ. Theoretical assessment of the impact of environmental contamination on the dynamical transmission of polio. INT J BIOMATH 2019. [DOI: 10.1142/s1793524519500128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
A mathematical model for the dynamical transmission of polio is considered, with the aim of investigating the impact of environment contamination. The model captures two infection pathways through both direct human-to-human transmission and indirect human-to-environment-to-human transmission by incorporating the environment as a transition and/or reservoir of viruses. We derive the basic reproduction number [Formula: see text]. We show that the disease free equilibrium is globally asymptotically stable (GAS) if [Formula: see text], while if [Formula: see text], there exists a unique endemic equilibrium which is locally asymptotically stable (LAS). Similar results hold for environmental contamination free sub-model (without the incorporation of the indirect transmission). At the endemic level, we show that the number of infected individuals for the model with the environmental-related contagion is greater than the corresponding number for the environmental contamination free sub-model. In conjunction with the inequality [Formula: see text], where [Formula: see text] is the basic reproduction number for the environmental contamination free sub-model, our finding suggests that the contaminated environment plays a detrimental role on the transmission dynamics of polio disease by increasing the endemic level and the severity of the outbreak. Therefore, it is natural to implement control strategies to reduce the severity of the disease by providing adequate hygienic living conditions, educate populations at risk to follow rigorously those basic hygienic rules in order to avoid adequate contacts with suspected contaminated objects. Further, we perform numerical simulations to support the theory.
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Affiliation(s)
- C. Balde
- Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science and Technic, University Cheikh Anta Diop, Dakar, Senegal
| | - M. Lam
- Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science and Technic, University Cheikh Anta Diop, Dakar, Senegal
| | - A. Bah
- Department of Computer Engineering, National Advanced School of Engineering, University Cheikh Anta Diop, Dakar, Senegal
| | - S. Bowong
- Laboratory of Mathematics, Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Faculty of Science, University of Douala, P. O. Box 24157 Douala, Cameroon
- IRD, Sorbonne University, UHHISCO, F-93143, Bondy, France
- Team GRIMCAPE, Yaounde, Cameroon
- The African Center of Excellence in Information, and Communication Technologies (CETIC), University of Yaounde 1, Cameroon
| | - J. J. Tewa
- National Advanced School of Engineering, University of Yaounde I, P. O. Box 8390 Yaounde, Cameroon
- IRD, Sorbonne University, UHHISCO, F-93143, Bondy, France
- Team GRIMCAPE, Yaounde, Cameroon
- The African Center of Excellence in Information, and Communication Technologies (CETIC), University of Yaounde 1, Cameroon
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Kroiss SJ, Ahmadzai M, Ahmed J, Alam MM, Chabot-Couture G, Famulare M, Mahamud A, McCarthy KA, Mercer LD, Muhammad S, Safdar RM, Sharif S, Shaukat S, Shukla H, Lyons H. Assessing the sensitivity of the polio environmental surveillance system. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0208336. [PMID: 30592720 PMCID: PMC6310268 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0208336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2018] [Accepted: 11/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The polio environmental surveillance (ES) system has been an incredible tool for advancing polio eradication efforts because of its ability to highlight the spatial and temporal extent of poliovirus circulation. While ES often outperforms, or is more sensitive than AFP surveillance, the sensitivity of the ES system has not been well characterized. Fundamental uncertainty of ES site sensitivity makes it difficult to interpret results from ES, particularly negative results. METHODS AND FINDINGS To study ES sensitivity, we used data from Afghanistan and Pakistan to examine the probability that each ES site detected the Sabin 1, 2, or 3 components of the oral polio vaccine (OPV) as a function of virus prevalence within the same district (estimated from AFP data). Accounting for virus prevalence is essential for estimating site sensitivity because Sabin detection rates should vary with prevalence-high immediately after supplemental immunization activities (SIAs), but low in subsequent months. We found that most ES sites in Pakistan and Afghanistan are highly sensitive for detecting poliovirus relative to AFP surveillance in the same districts. For example, even when Sabin poliovirus is at low prevalence of ~0.5-3% in AFP surveillance, most ES sites have ~34-50% probability of detecting Sabin. However, there was considerable variation in ES site sensitivity and we flagged several sites for re-evaluation based on low sensitivity rankings and low wild polio virus detection rates. In these areas, adding new sites or modifying collection methods in current sites could improve sensitivity of environmental surveillance. CONCLUSIONS Relating ES detections to virus prevalence significantly improved our ability to evaluate site sensitivity compared to evaluations based solely on ES detection rates. To extend our approach to new sites and regions, we provide a preliminary framework for relating ES and AFP detection rates, and descriptions of how detection rates might relate to SIAs and natural seasonality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steve J. Kroiss
- Institute for Disease Modeling, Bellevue, WA, United States of America
| | - Maiwand Ahmadzai
- National Emergency Operations Centre for Polio Eradication, Kabul, Afghanistan
| | - Jamal Ahmed
- World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Muhammad Masroor Alam
- Department of Virology, National Institute of Health, Chak Shahzad, Islamabad, Pakistan
- World Health Organization, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | | | - Michael Famulare
- Institute for Disease Modeling, Bellevue, WA, United States of America
| | - Abdirahman Mahamud
- World Health Organization, Islamabad, Pakistan
- National Emergency Operations Centre for Polio Eradication, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Kevin A. McCarthy
- Institute for Disease Modeling, Bellevue, WA, United States of America
| | - Laina D. Mercer
- Institute for Disease Modeling, Bellevue, WA, United States of America
| | - Salman Muhammad
- Department of Virology, National Institute of Health, Chak Shahzad, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Rana M. Safdar
- National Emergency Operations Centre for Polio Eradication, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Salmaan Sharif
- Department of Virology, National Institute of Health, Chak Shahzad, Islamabad, Pakistan
- World Health Organization, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Shahzad Shaukat
- Department of Virology, National Institute of Health, Chak Shahzad, Islamabad, Pakistan
- World Health Organization, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Hemant Shukla
- National Emergency Operations Centre for Polio Eradication, Kabul, Afghanistan
| | - Hil Lyons
- Institute for Disease Modeling, Bellevue, WA, United States of America
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Lizasoain A, Burlandy FM, Victoria M, Tort LFL, da Silva EE, Colina R. An Environmental Surveillance in Uruguay Reveals the Presence of Highly Divergent Types of Human Enterovirus Species C and a High Frequency of Species A and B Types. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2018; 10:343-352. [PMID: 29907902 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-018-9351-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2018] [Accepted: 06/12/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Information about Human Enterovirus circulation in Uruguay is scarce. The aim of this study was to generate the first description about their circulation in the country through the study of sewage samples collected before and after the switch from Oral Poliovirus Vaccine to Inactivated Poliovirus Vaccine. Viruses were concentrated by an adsorption-elution to a negatively charged membrane, and real-time quantitative PCR and qualitative PCR methods were used to detect, quantify, and characterize enteroviruses. Positive samples were inoculated in RD cells and two passages were performed. Additionally, RD+ samples were subsequently passed onto L20B cells. Human Enteroviruses were detected in 67.6% of the samples, with concentrations between 4.9 and 6.6 Log10 genomic copies per liter. 10% of positive samples replicated in RD cells, of which none in L20B cells. Molecular characterization of Human Enterovirus strains directly detected from sewage sample concentrates allowed the identification of highly divergent members of species C such as Enterovirus C99 and Coxsackievirus A13, as well as the frequent detection of species A and B members (particularly Coxsackievirus A16 and Echovirus 6, respectively). Other detected types were Coxsackievirus A2, A22, B1, B5, Echovirus 5, and 9. The characterization of viruses isolated in cell culture revealed the presence of Echovirus 6 and Coxsackievirus B3. Despite the absence of poliovirus, a wide circulation of different enterovirus types was evidenced in Uruguayan sewage samples, highlighting that the local populations are exposed to different kinds of diseases originated by several human enterovirus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrés Lizasoain
- Laboratorio de Virología Molecular, CENUR Litoral Norte, Sede Salto, Universidad de la República, Gral. Rivera 1350, 50000, Salto, Uruguay
| | - Fernanda M Burlandy
- Laboratório de Enterovírus, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Avda. Brasil 4365, Rio de Janeiro, 21040-360, Brazil
| | - Matías Victoria
- Laboratorio de Virología Molecular, CENUR Litoral Norte, Sede Salto, Universidad de la República, Gral. Rivera 1350, 50000, Salto, Uruguay
| | - Luis F López Tort
- Laboratorio de Virología Molecular, CENUR Litoral Norte, Sede Salto, Universidad de la República, Gral. Rivera 1350, 50000, Salto, Uruguay
| | - Edson E da Silva
- Laboratório de Enterovírus, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Avda. Brasil 4365, Rio de Janeiro, 21040-360, Brazil
| | - Rodney Colina
- Laboratorio de Virología Molecular, CENUR Litoral Norte, Sede Salto, Universidad de la República, Gral. Rivera 1350, 50000, Salto, Uruguay.
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Dynamics of Evolution of Poliovirus Neutralizing Antigenic Sites and Other Capsid Functional Domains during a Large and Prolonged Outbreak. J Virol 2018; 92:JVI.01949-17. [PMID: 29444940 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01949-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2017] [Accepted: 02/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
We followed the dynamics of capsid amino acid replacement among 403 Nigerian outbreak isolates of type 2 circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus (cVDPV2) from 2005 through 2011. Four different functional domains were analyzed: (i) neutralizing antigenic (NAg) sites, (ii) residues binding the poliovirus receptor (PVR), (iii) VP1 residues 1 to 32, and (iv) the capsid structural core. Amino acid replacements mapped to 37 of 43 positions across all 4 NAg sites; the most variable and polymorphic residues were in NAg sites 2 and 3b. The most divergent of the 120 NAg variants had no more than 5 replacements in all NAg sites and were still neutralized at titers similar to those of Sabin 2. PVR-binding residues were less variable (25 different variants; 0 to 2 replacements per isolate; 30/44 invariant positions), with the most variable residues also forming parts of NAg sites 2 and 3a. Residues 1 to 32 of VP1 were highly variable (133 different variants; 0 to 6 replacements per isolate; 5/32 invariant positions), with residues 1 to 18 predicted to form a well-conserved amphipathic helix. Replacement events were dated by mapping them onto the branches of time-scaled phylogenies. Rates of amino acid replacement varied widely across positions and followed no simple substitution model. Replacements in the structural core were the most conservative and were fixed at an overall rate ∼20-fold lower than the rates for the NAg sites and VP1 1 to 32 and ∼5-fold lower than the rate for the PVR-binding sites. Only VP1 143-Ile, a non-NAg site surface residue and known attenuation site, appeared to be under strong negative selection.IMPORTANCE The high rate of poliovirus evolution is offset by strong selection against amino acid replacement at most positions of the capsid. Consequently, poliovirus vaccines developed from strains isolated decades ago have been used worldwide to bring wild polioviruses almost to extinction. The apparent antigenic stability of poliovirus obscures a dynamic of continuous change within the neutralizing antigenic (NAg) sites. During 7 years of a large outbreak in Nigeria, the circulating type 2 vaccine-derived polioviruses generated 120 different NAg site variants via multiple independent pathways. Nonetheless, overall antigenic evolution was constrained, as no isolate had fixed more than 5 amino acid differences from the Sabin 2 NAg sites, and the most divergent isolates were efficiently neutralized by human immune sera. Evolution elsewhere in the capsid was also constrained. Amino acids binding the poliovirus receptor were strongly conserved, and extensive variation in the VP1 amino terminus still conserved a predicted amphipathic helix.
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Duintjer Tebbens RJ, Zimmermann M, Pallansch M, Thompson KM. Insights from a Systematic Search for Information on Designs, Costs, and Effectiveness of Poliovirus Environmental Surveillance Systems. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2017; 9:361-382. [PMID: 28687986 PMCID: PMC7879701 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-017-9314-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2017] [Accepted: 06/30/2017] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Poliovirus surveillance plays a critical role in achieving and certifying eradication and will play a key role in the polio endgame. Environmental surveillance can provide an opportunity to detect circulating polioviruses prior to the observation of any acute flaccid paralysis cases. We completed a systematic review of peer-reviewed publications on environmental surveillance for polio including the search terms "environmental surveillance" or "sewage," and "polio," "poliovirus," or "poliomyelitis," and compared characteristics of the resulting studies. The review included 146 studies representing 101 environmental surveillance activities from 48 countries published between 1975 and 2016. Studies reported taking samples from sewage treatment facilities, surface waters, and various other environmental sources, although they generally did not present sufficient details to thoroughly evaluate the sewage systems and catchment areas. When reported, catchment areas varied from 50 to over 7.3 million people (median of 500,000 for the 25% of activities that reported catchment areas, notably with 60% of the studies not reporting this information and 16% reporting insufficient information to estimate the catchment area population size). While numerous studies reported the ability of environmental surveillance to detect polioviruses in the absence of clinical cases, the review revealed very limited information about the costs and limited information to support quantitative population effectiveness of conducting environmental surveillance. This review motivates future studies to better characterize poliovirus environmental surveillance systems and the potential value of information that they may provide in the polio endgame.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Marita Zimmermann
- Kid Risk, Inc., 10524 Moss Park Rd., Ste. 204-364, Orlando, FL 32832
- Correspondence to: Radboud J. Duintjer Tebbens, Kid Risk, Inc., 10524 Moss Park Rd., Ste. 204-364, Orlando, FL 32832, USA,
| | - Mark Pallansch
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of Viral Diseases, Atlanta, GA 30333
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Kroiss SJ, Famulare M, Lyons H, McCarthy KA, Mercer LD, Chabot-Couture G. Evaluating cessation of the type 2 oral polio vaccine by modeling pre- and post-cessation detection rates. Vaccine 2017; 35:5674-5681. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2017.08.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2017] [Revised: 08/02/2017] [Accepted: 08/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Cowger TL, Burns CC, Sharif S, Gary HE, Iber J, Henderson E, Malik F, Zahoor Zaidi SS, Shaukat S, Rehman L, Pallansch MA, Orenstein WA. The role of supplementary environmental surveillance to complement acute flaccid paralysis surveillance for wild poliovirus in Pakistan - 2011-2013. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0180608. [PMID: 28742803 PMCID: PMC5526532 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0180608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2016] [Accepted: 06/19/2017] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Background More than 99% of poliovirus infections are non-paralytic and therefore, not detected by acute flaccid paralysis (AFP) surveillance. Environmental surveillance (ES) can detect circulating polioviruses from sewage without relying on clinical presentation. With extensive ES and continued circulation of polioviruses, Pakistan presents a unique opportunity to quantify the impact of ES as a supplement to AFP surveillance on overall completeness and timeliness of poliovirus detection. Methods Genetic, geographic and temporal data were obtained for all wild poliovirus (WPV) isolates detected in Pakistan from January 2011 through December 2013. We used viral genetics to assess gaps in AFP surveillance and ES as measured by detection of ‘orphan viruses’ (≥1.5% different in VP1 capsid nucleotide sequence). We compared preceding detection of closely related circulating isolates (≥99% identity) detected by AFP surveillance or ES to determine which surveillance system first detected circulation before the presentation of each polio case. Findings A total of 1,127 WPV isolates were detected by AFP surveillance and ES in Pakistan from 2011–2013. AFP surveillance and ES combined exhibited fewer gaps (i.e., % orphan viruses) in detection than AFP surveillance alone (3.3% vs. 7.7%, respectively). ES detected circulation before AFP surveillance in nearly 60% of polio cases (200 of 346). For polio cases reported from provinces conducting ES, ES detected circulation nearly four months sooner on average (117.6 days) than did AFP surveillance. Interpretation Our findings suggest ES in Pakistan is providing earlier, more sensitive detection of wild polioviruses than AFP surveillance alone. Overall, targeted ES through strategic selection of sites has important implications in the eradication endgame strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tori L. Cowger
- Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Cara C. Burns
- Division of Viral Diseases, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Salmaan Sharif
- WHO Regional Reference Laboratory for Polio Eradication Initiative, Department of Virology, National Institute of Health (NIH), Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Howard E. Gary
- Global Immunization Division, Center for Global Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Jane Iber
- Division of Viral Diseases, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Elizabeth Henderson
- Division of Viral Diseases, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Farzana Malik
- WHO Regional Reference Laboratory for Polio Eradication Initiative, Department of Virology, National Institute of Health (NIH), Islamabad, Pakistan
| | | | - Shahzad Shaukat
- WHO Regional Reference Laboratory for Polio Eradication Initiative, Department of Virology, National Institute of Health (NIH), Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Lubna Rehman
- WHO Regional Reference Laboratory for Polio Eradication Initiative, Department of Virology, National Institute of Health (NIH), Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Mark A. Pallansch
- Division of Viral Diseases, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Walter A. Orenstein
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
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Derrough T, Salekeen A. Lessons learnt to keep Europe polio-free: a review of outbreaks in the European Union, European Economic Area, and candidate countries, 1973 to 2013. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017; 21:30210. [PMID: 27123992 DOI: 10.2807/1560-7917.es.2016.21.16.30210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2015] [Accepted: 04/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Between 1973 and 2013, 12 outbreaks of paralytic poliomyelitis with a cumulative total of 660 cases were reported in the European Union, European Economic Area and candidate countries. Outbreaks lasted seven to 90 weeks (median: 24 weeks) and were identified through the diagnosis of cases of acute flaccid paralysis, for which infection with wild poliovirus was subsequently identified. In two countries, environmental surveillance was in place before the outbreaks, but did not detect any wild strain before the occurrence of clinical cases. This surveillance nonetheless provided useful information to monitor the outbreaks and their geographical spread. Outbreaks were predominantly caused by poliovirus type 1 and typically involved unvaccinated or inadequately vaccinated groups within highly immunised communities. Oral polio vaccine was primarily used to respond to the outbreaks with catch-up campaigns implemented either nationwide or in restricted geographical areas or age groups. The introduction of supplementary immunisation contained the outbreaks. In 2002, the European region of the World Health Organization was declared polio-free and it has maintained this status since. However, as long as there are non-vaccinated or under-vaccinated groups in European countries and poliomyelitis is not eradicated, countries remain continuously at risk of reintroduction and establishment of the virus. Continued efforts to reach these groups are needed in order to ensure a uniform and high vaccination coverage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tarik Derrough
- European Centre of Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC), Stockholm, Sweden
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Abstract
Since the beginning of Global Polio Eradication Initiative in 1988, poliomyelitis cases caused by wild poliovirus (PV) have been drastically reduced, with only 74 cases reported in 2 endemic countries in 2015. The current limited PV transmission suggests that we are in the endgame of the polio eradication program. However, specific challenges have emerged in the endgame, including tight budget, switching of the vaccines, and changes in biorisk management of PV. To overcome these challenges, several PV studies have been implemented in the eradication program. Some of the responses to the emerging challenges in the polio endgame might be valuable in other infectious diseases eradication programs. Here, I will review challenges that confront the polio eradication program and current research to address these challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minetaro Arita
- Department of Virology II, National Institute of Infectious Diseases
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15
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Tasher D, Rahav G, Levine H, Sofer D, Linder N, Anis E, Shohat T, Manor Y, Kopel E, Shulman LM, Mendelson E, Shalit I, Somekh E. How many OPV rounds are required to stop wild polio virus circulation in a developed country? Lessons from the Israeli experience. Vaccine 2015; 34:299-301. [PMID: 26679402 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2015.11.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2015] [Revised: 11/22/2015] [Accepted: 11/23/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Diana Tasher
- The Paediatric Infectious Diseases Unit, Wolfson Medical Centre, Holon, Israel; The Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel; Israeli National Polio Accreditation Committee, Wolfson Medical Center, Holon, Israel
| | - Galia Rahav
- The Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel; Infectious Disease Unit, Sheba Medical Centre, Tel Hashomer, Israel; Israeli National Polio Accreditation Committee, Wolfson Medical Center, Holon, Israel
| | - Hagai Levine
- Braun School of Public Health and Community Medicine, Hebrew University-Hadassah, Jerusalem, Israel; Israeli National Polio Accreditation Committee, Wolfson Medical Center, Holon, Israel
| | - Danit Sofer
- The Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel; Central Virology Laboratory, Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, The Chaim Sheba Medical Centre, Tel Hashomer, Israel; Israeli National Polio Accreditation Committee, Wolfson Medical Center, Holon, Israel
| | - Nehama Linder
- The Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel; Department of Neonatology, Rabin Medical Center, Petach Tikva, Israel; Israeli National Polio Accreditation Committee, Wolfson Medical Center, Holon, Israel
| | - Emilia Anis
- Braun School of Public Health and Community Medicine, Hebrew University-Hadassah, Jerusalem, Israel; The Division of Epidemiology, Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel; Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel; Israeli National Polio Accreditation Committee, Wolfson Medical Center, Holon, Israel
| | - Tamy Shohat
- The Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel; Israel Center for Diseases Control, Israel Ministry of Health, Tel Hashomer, Israel; Israeli National Polio Accreditation Committee, Wolfson Medical Center, Holon, Israel
| | - Yosi Manor
- The Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel; Central Virology Laboratory, Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, The Chaim Sheba Medical Centre, Tel Hashomer, Israel; Israeli National Polio Accreditation Committee, Wolfson Medical Center, Holon, Israel
| | - Eran Kopel
- The Division of Epidemiology, Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel; Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel; Israeli National Polio Accreditation Committee, Wolfson Medical Center, Holon, Israel
| | - Lester M Shulman
- The Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel; Central Virology Laboratory, Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, The Chaim Sheba Medical Centre, Tel Hashomer, Israel; Israeli National Polio Accreditation Committee, Wolfson Medical Center, Holon, Israel
| | - Ella Mendelson
- The Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel; Central Virology Laboratory, Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, The Chaim Sheba Medical Centre, Tel Hashomer, Israel; Israeli National Polio Accreditation Committee, Wolfson Medical Center, Holon, Israel
| | - Itamar Shalit
- The Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel; Israeli National Polio Accreditation Committee, Wolfson Medical Center, Holon, Israel
| | - Eli Somekh
- The Paediatric Infectious Diseases Unit, Wolfson Medical Centre, Holon, Israel; The Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel; Israeli National Polio Accreditation Committee, Wolfson Medical Center, Holon, Israel.
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16
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Kaliner E, Kopel E, Anis E, Mendelson E, Moran-Gilad J, Shulman LM, Singer SR, Manor Y, Somekh E, Rishpon S, Leventhal A, Rubin L, Tasher D, Honovich M, Moerman L, Shohat T, Bassal R, Sofer D, Gdalevich M, Lev B, Gamzu R, Grotto I. The Israeli public health response to wild poliovirus importation. THE LANCET. INFECTIOUS DISEASES 2015. [PMID: 26213249 DOI: 10.1016/s1473-3099(15)00064-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In 2013, a silent wild poliovirus type 1 importation and sustained transmission event occurred in southern Israel. With the aim of preventing clinical poliomyelitis and ensuring virus re-elimination, the public health response to the importation event included intensification of clinical and environmental surveillance activities, enhancement of vaccine coverage, and supplemental immunisation with a bivalent oral polio vaccine against wild poliovirus types 1 and 3. A national campaign launched in August, 2013, resulted in vaccination of 943,587 children younger than 10 years (79% of the eligible target population). Expanded environmental surveillance (roughly 80% population coverage) documented a gradual disappearance of wild poliovirus type 1 in the country from September, 2013, to April, 2014. No paralytic poliomyelitis case was detected. A prompt extensive and coordinated national public health response, implemented on the basis of evidence-based decision making, successfully contained this serious importation and sustained transmission event of wild poliovirus to Israel. On April 28, 2015, WHO officially declared Israel as a polio-free country.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ehud Kaliner
- Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Eran Kopel
- Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel; The Division of Epidemiology, Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel.
| | - Emilia Anis
- Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel; The Division of Epidemiology, Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel; Braun School of Public Health and Community Medicine, Hebrew University Hadassah Faculty of Medicine, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Ella Mendelson
- Central Virology Laboratory, Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, The Chaim Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Israel; Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Jacob Moran-Gilad
- Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel; Faculty for Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel
| | - Lester M Shulman
- Central Virology Laboratory, Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, The Chaim Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Israel; Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Shepherd R Singer
- Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel; The Division of Epidemiology, Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Yossi Manor
- Central Virology Laboratory, Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, The Chaim Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Israel
| | - Eli Somekh
- Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel; Pediatric Infectious Diseases Unit, Wolfson Medical Center, Holon, Israel
| | - Shmuel Rishpon
- Haifa District Health Office, Ministry of Health, Haifa, Israel; School of Public Health, Faculty of Health and Welfare Studies, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
| | | | - Lisa Rubin
- Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel; School of Public Health, Faculty of Health and Welfare Studies, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
| | - Diana Tasher
- Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel; Pediatric Infectious Diseases Unit, Wolfson Medical Center, Holon, Israel
| | - Mira Honovich
- Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Larisa Moerman
- Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel; The Division of Epidemiology, Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Tamy Shohat
- Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel; Israel Center for Disease Control, Ministry of Health, Tel Hashomer, Israel
| | - Ravit Bassal
- Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel; Israel Center for Disease Control, Ministry of Health, Tel Hashomer, Israel
| | - Danit Sofer
- Central Virology Laboratory, Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, The Chaim Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Israel
| | - Michael Gdalevich
- Faculty for Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel; South District Health Office, Ministry of Health, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Boaz Lev
- Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Ronni Gamzu
- Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel; Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Itamar Grotto
- Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel; Faculty for Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel
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Shulman LM, Martin J, Sofer D, Burns CC, Manor Y, Hindiyeh M, Gavrilin E, Wilton T, Moran-Gilad J, Gamzo R, Mendelson E, Grotto I. Genetic analysis and characterization of wild poliovirus type 1 during sustained transmission in a population with >95% vaccine coverage, Israel 2013. Clin Infect Dis 2014; 60:1057-64. [PMID: 25550350 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciu1136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Israel has >95% polio vaccine coverage with the last 9 birth cohorts immunized exclusively with inactivated polio vaccine (IPV). Using acute flaccid paralysis and routine, monthly countrywide environmental surveillance, no wild poliovirus circulation was detected between 1989 and February 2013, after which wild type 1 polioviruses South Asia genotype (WPV1-SOAS) have persistently circulated in southern Israel and intermittently in other areas without any paralytic cases as determined by intensified surveillance of environmental and human samples. We aimed to characterize antigenic and neurovirulence properties of WPV1-SOAS silently circulating in a highly vaccinated population. METHODS WPV1-SOAS capsid genes from environmental and stool surveillance isolates were sequenced, their neurovirulence was determined using transgenic mouse expressing the human poliovirus receptor (Tg21-PVR) mice, and their antigenicity was characterized by in vitro neutralization using human sera, epitope-specific monoclonal murine anti-oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV) antibodies, and sera from IPV-immunized rats and mice. RESULTS WPV1 amino acid sequences in neutralizing epitopes varied from Sabin 1 and Mahoney, with little variation among WPV1 isolates. Neutralization by monoclonal antibodies against 3 of 4 OPV epitopes was lost. Three-fold lower geometric mean titers (Z = -4.018; P < .001, Wilcoxon signed-rank test) against WPV1 than against Mahoney in human serum correlated with 4- to 6-fold lower neutralization titers in serum from IPV-immunized rats and mice. WPV1-SOAS isolates were neurovirulent (50% intramuscular paralytic dose in Tg21-PVR mice: log10(7.0)). IPV-immunized mice were protected against WPV1-induced paralysis. CONCLUSIONS Phenotypic and antigenic profile changes of WPV1-SOAS may have contributed to the intense silent transmission, whereas the reduced neurovirulence may have contributed to the absence of paralytic cases in the background of high population immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lester M Shulman
- Public Health Services, Israel Ministry of Health, Central Virology Laboratory, Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Israel
| | - Javier Martin
- Division of Virology, National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Danit Sofer
- Public Health Services, Israel Ministry of Health, Central Virology Laboratory, Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Israel
| | - Cara C Burns
- Polio and Picornavirus Laboratory Branch, Division of Viral Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Yossi Manor
- Public Health Services, Israel Ministry of Health, Central Virology Laboratory, Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Israel
| | - Musa Hindiyeh
- Public Health Services, Israel Ministry of Health, Central Virology Laboratory, Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Israel
| | - Eugene Gavrilin
- World Health Organization EUROPE, Regional Polio Laboratory Network, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Thomas Wilton
- Division of Virology, National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
| | | | | | - Ella Mendelson
- Public Health Services, Israel Ministry of Health, Central Virology Laboratory, Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Israel
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Alam MM, Shaukat S, Sharif S, Angez M, Khurshid A, Malik F, Rehman L, Zaidi SSZ. Detection of multiple cocirculating wild poliovirus type 1 lineages through environmental surveillance: impact and progress during 2011-2013 in Pakistan. J Infect Dis 2014; 210 Suppl 1:S324-32. [PMID: 25316851 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiu160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The environmental surveillance has proven to be a useful tool to identify poliovirus circulation in different countries and was started in Pakistan during July 2009 to support the acute flaccid paralysis (AFP) surveillance system. METHODS Sewage samples were collected from 27 environmental sampling (ENV) sites and processed for poliovirus isolation through 2-phase separation method. Poliovirus isolates were identified as Sabin-like or wild type through real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Wild-type strains were subjected to VP1 gene sequencing and phylogenetic analysis performed using MEGA 5.0. RESULTS During 2011-2013, a total of 668 samples were collected from 4 provinces that resulted in 40% of samples positive for wild poliovirus type-1 (WPV-1). None of the samples were positive for WPV-3. The areas with high frequency of WPV-1 detection were Karachi-Gadap (69%), Peshawar (82%), and Rawalpindi (65%), whereas the samples from Quetta and Sukkur remained negative for WPV during 2013. Phylogenetic analysis revealed 3 major clusters with multiple poliovirus lineages circulating across different country areas as well as in bordering areas of Afghanistan. CONCLUSIONS Environmental surveillance in Pakistan has been proven to be a powerful tool to detect WPV circulation in the absence of poliomyelitis cases in many communities. Our findings emphasize the need to continue and expand such surveillance activities to other high-risk areas in the country.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Masroor Alam
- WHO Regional Reference Laboratory for Polio Eradication Initiative, Department of Virology, National Institute of Health, Chak Shahzad, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Shahzad Shaukat
- WHO Regional Reference Laboratory for Polio Eradication Initiative, Department of Virology, National Institute of Health, Chak Shahzad, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Salmaan Sharif
- WHO Regional Reference Laboratory for Polio Eradication Initiative, Department of Virology, National Institute of Health, Chak Shahzad, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Mehar Angez
- WHO Regional Reference Laboratory for Polio Eradication Initiative, Department of Virology, National Institute of Health, Chak Shahzad, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Adnan Khurshid
- WHO Regional Reference Laboratory for Polio Eradication Initiative, Department of Virology, National Institute of Health, Chak Shahzad, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Farzana Malik
- WHO Regional Reference Laboratory for Polio Eradication Initiative, Department of Virology, National Institute of Health, Chak Shahzad, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Lubna Rehman
- WHO Regional Reference Laboratory for Polio Eradication Initiative, Department of Virology, National Institute of Health, Chak Shahzad, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Syed Sohail Zahoor Zaidi
- WHO Regional Reference Laboratory for Polio Eradication Initiative, Department of Virology, National Institute of Health, Chak Shahzad, Islamabad, Pakistan
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Ndiaye AK, Diop PAM, Diop OM. Environmental surveillance of poliovirus and non-polio enterovirus in urban sewage in Dakar, Senegal (2007-2013). Pan Afr Med J 2014; 19:243. [PMID: 25848458 PMCID: PMC4377292 DOI: 10.11604/pamj.2014.19.243.3538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2013] [Accepted: 07/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Global poliomyelitis eradication initiative relies on (i) laboratory based surveillance of acute flaccid surveillance (AFP) to monitor the circulation of wild poliovirus in a population, and (ii) vaccination to prevent its diffusion. However, as poliovirus can survive in the environment namely in sewage, environmental surveillance (ES) is of growing importance as the eradication target is close. This study aimed to assess polioviruses and non polio enteroviruses circulation in sewage drains covering a significant population of Dakar. Methods From April 2007 to May 2013, 271 specimens of raw sewage were collected using the grab method in 6 neighborhoods of Dakar. Samples were processed to extract and concentrate viruses using polyethylene glycol and Dextran (two-phase separation method). Isolation of enteroviruses was attempted in RD, L20B and Hep2 cell lines. Polioviruses were identified by RT-PCR and Elisa. Non Polio Enteroviruses (NPEVs) were identified by RT-PCR and microneutralisation tests. Results Polioviruses and NPEVs were respectively detected in 34,3% and 42,8% sewage samples. No wild poliovirus neither circulating vaccine-derived Poliovirus (cVDPV) was detected. Neutralization assays have identified 49 non polio enteroviruses that were subsequently classified in 13 serotypes belonging to HEV-A (22, 4%), HEV-B (12, 24%), HEV-C (26, 53%) and HEV-D (6, 12%) species. Conclusion This study is the first documentation of enteroviruses environmental detection in Senegal. It shows the usefulness of environmental surveillance for indirect monitoring of the circulation and distribution of enteroviruses in the community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdou Kader Ndiaye
- National Reference Center for Enteric Viruses, Medical Virology Unit, Institut Pasteur de Dakar, Senegal
| | - Pape Amadou Mbathio Diop
- National Reference Center for Enteric Viruses, Medical Virology Unit, Institut Pasteur de Dakar, Senegal
| | - Ousmane Madiagne Diop
- National Reference Center for Enteric Viruses, Medical Virology Unit, Institut Pasteur de Dakar, Senegal
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Robustness against serum neutralization of a poliovirus type 1 from a lethal epidemic of poliomyelitis in the Republic of Congo in 2010. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2014; 111:12889-94. [PMID: 25136105 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1323502111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
In 2010, a large outbreak of poliomyelitis with unusual 47% lethality occurred in Pointe Noire, Republic of Congo. Vaccine-mediated immunity against the outbreak virus was never investigated. A wild poliovirus 1 (WPV1) isolated from a fatal case (termed PV1-RC2010) showed a previously unknown combination of amino acid exchanges in critical antigenic site 2 (AgS2, VP1 capsid protein positions 221SAAL → 221PADL). These exchanges were also detected in an additional 11 WPV1 strains from fatal cases. PV1-RC2010 escaped neutralization by three different mAbs relevant for AgS2. Virus neutralization was tested in sera from fatal cases, who died before supplementary immunization (n = 24), Gabonese recipients of recent oral polio vaccination (n = 12), routinely vaccinated German medical students (n = 34), and German outpatients tested for antipoliovirus immunity (n = 17) on Vero, human rhabdomyosarcoma, and human epidermoid carcinoma 2 cells. Fatal poliomyelitis cases gave laboratory evidence of previous trivalent vaccination. Neutralizing antibody titers against PV1-RC2010 were significantly lower than those against the vaccine strain Sabin-1, two genetically distinct WPV1s isolated in 1965 and 2010 and two genetically distinct vaccine-derived PV strains. Of German vaccinees tested according to World Health Organization protocols, 15-29% were unprotected according to their neutralization titers (<1:8 serum dilution), even though all were protected against Sabin-1. Phylogenetic analysis of the WPV1 outbreak strains suggested a recent introduction of virus progenitors from Asia with formation of separate Angolan and Congolese lineages. Only the latter carried both critical AgS2 mutations. Antigenetically variant PVs may become relevant during the final phase of poliomyelitis eradication in populations with predominantly vaccine-derived immunity. Sustained vaccination coverage and clinical and environmental surveillance will be necessary.
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Anis E, Kopel E, Singer SR, Kaliner E, Moerman L, Moran-Gilad J, Sofer D, Manor Y, Shulman LM, Mendelson E, Gdalevich M, Lev B, Gamzu R, Grotto I. Insidious reintroduction of wild poliovirus into Israel, 2013. Euro Surveill 2013; 18. [DOI: 10.2807/1560-7917.es2013.18.38.20586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Israel was certified as polio-free country in June 2002, along with the rest of the World Health Organization European Region. Some 11 years later, wild-type polio virus 1 (WPV1) was isolated initially from routine sewage samples collected between 7 and 13 April 2013 in two cities in the Southern district. WPV1-specific analysis of samples indicated WPV1 introduction into that area in early February 2013. National supplementary immunisation with oral polio vaccine has been ongoing since August 2013.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Anis
- These authors contributed equally to this study
- Braun School of Public Health and Community Medicine, Hebrew University Hadassah Faculty of Medicine, Jerusalem, Israel
- Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel
- The Division of Epidemiology, Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - E Kopel
- These authors contributed equally to this study
- The Division of Epidemiology, Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel
- Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - S R Singer
- These authors contributed equally to this study
- Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel
- The Division of Epidemiology, Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - E Kaliner
- Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - L Moerman
- Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel
- The Division of Epidemiology, Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - J Moran-Gilad
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel
- Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - D Sofer
- Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- Central Virology Laboratory, Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, The Chaim Sheba Medical Centre, Tel Hashomer, Israel
| | - Y Manor
- Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- Central Virology Laboratory, Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, The Chaim Sheba Medical Centre, Tel Hashomer, Israel
| | - L M Shulman
- Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- Central Virology Laboratory, Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, The Chaim Sheba Medical Centre, Tel Hashomer, Israel
| | - E Mendelson
- Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- Central Virology Laboratory, Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, The Chaim Sheba Medical Centre, Tel Hashomer, Israel
| | - M Gdalevich
- South District Health Office, Ministry of Health, Beer Sheva, Israel
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel
| | - B Lev
- Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - R Gamzu
- Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel
- Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - I Grotto
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel
- Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel
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Rosenberg AS, Roivainen M, Hovi T, Liu Q, Murphy PM. CCR5 deficiency and severe polio infection in the 1984 outbreak in Finland. J Med Virol 2013; 85:2139-40. [PMID: 24037958 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.23739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
CCR5, a leukocyte chemoattractant receptor for chemokines CCL3, CCL4, and CCL5, promotes innate and adaptive immune responses by mediating leukocyte trafficking within lymph nodes and to peripheral tissues and is also known as a co-receptor for HIV cell entry. Homozygous inheritance of a complete loss-of-function mutation in CCR5 (CCR5Δ32/CCR5Δ32) is associated with symptomatic neuroinflammatory disease in humans with West Nile and Tickborne Encephalitis flavivirus infections. This study sought to establish whether CCR5 deficiency could also be a determinant of clinical outcome after infection by poliovirus which results in central nervous system damage in only a small proportion of cases. We analyzed serum samples from seven patients and 79 controls, collected during the 1984-1985 polio outbreak in Finland, where CCR5Δ32 is relatively common in the general population. The results excluded CCR5 deficiency as the sole determinant of severe neurologic disease after poliovirus infection in this population.
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Affiliation(s)
- A S Rosenberg
- Division of Therapeutic Proteins, Office of Biotechnology Products, CDER, FDA, Silver Spring, Maryland
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24
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Abstract
The global incidence of poliomyelitis has dropped by more than 99 per cent since the governments of the world committed to eradication in 1988. One of the three serotypes of wild poliovirus has been eradicated and the remaining two serotypes are limited to just a small number of endemic regions. However, the Global Polio Eradication Initiative (GPEI) has faced a number of challenges in eradicating the last 1 per cent of wild-virus transmission. The polio endgame has also been complicated by the recognition that vaccination with the oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV) must eventually cease because of the risk of outbreaks of vaccine-derived polioviruses. I describe the major challenges to wild poliovirus eradication, focusing on the poor immunogenicity of OPV in lower-income countries, the inherent limitations to the sensitivity and specificity of surveillance, the international spread of poliovirus and resulting outbreaks, and the potential significance of waning intestinal immunity induced by OPV. I then focus on the challenges to eradicating all polioviruses, the problem of vaccine-derived polioviruses and the risk of wild-type or vaccine-derived poliovirus re-emergence after the cessation of oral vaccination. I document the role of research in the GPEI's response to these challenges and ultimately the feasibility of achieving a world without poliomyelitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas C Grassly
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK.
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25
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Lowther SA, Roesel S, O'Connor P, Landaverde M, Oblapenko G, Deshevoi S, Ajay G, Buff A, Safwat H, Salla M, Tangermann R, Khetsuriani N, Martin R, Wassilak S. World Health Organization regional assessments of the risks of poliovirus outbreaks. RISK ANALYSIS : AN OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE SOCIETY FOR RISK ANALYSIS 2013; 33:664-79. [PMID: 23520991 DOI: 10.1111/risa.12032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
While global polio eradication requires tremendous efforts in countries where wild polioviruses (WPVs) circulate, numerous outbreaks have occurred following WPV importation into previously polio-free countries. Countries that have interrupted endemic WPV transmission should continue to conduct routine risk assessments and implement mitigation activities to maintain their polio-free status as long as wild poliovirus circulates anywhere in the world. This article reviews the methods used by World Health Organization (WHO) regional offices to qualitatively assess risk of WPV outbreaks following an importation. We describe the strengths and weaknesses of various risk assessment approaches, and opportunities to harmonize approaches. These qualitative assessments broadly categorize risk as high, medium, or low using available national information related to susceptibility, the ability to rapidly detect WPV, and other population or program factors that influence transmission, which the regions characterize using polio vaccination coverage, surveillance data, and other indicators (e.g., sanitation), respectively. Data quality and adequacy represent a challenge in all regions. WHO regions differ with respect to the methods, processes, cut-off values, and weighting used, which limits comparisons of risk assessment results among regions. Ongoing evaluation of indicators within regions and further harmonization of methods between regions are needed to effectively plan risk mitigation activities in a setting of finite resources for funding and continued WPV circulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara A Lowther
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Center for Global Health, Global Immunization Division, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.
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27
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Hird TR, Grassly NC. Systematic review of mucosal immunity induced by oral and inactivated poliovirus vaccines against virus shedding following oral poliovirus challenge. PLoS Pathog 2012; 8:e1002599. [PMID: 22532797 PMCID: PMC3330118 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1002599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) may be used in mass vaccination campaigns during the final stages of polio eradication. It is also likely to be adopted by many countries following the coordinated global cessation of vaccination with oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV) after eradication. The success of IPV in the control of poliomyelitis outbreaks will depend on the degree of nasopharyngeal and intestinal mucosal immunity induced against poliovirus infection. We performed a systematic review of studies published through May 2011 that recorded the prevalence of poliovirus shedding in stool samples or nasopharyngeal secretions collected 5-30 days after a "challenge" dose of OPV. Studies were combined in a meta-analysis of the odds of shedding among children vaccinated according to IPV, OPV, and combination schedules. We identified 31 studies of shedding in stool and four in nasopharyngeal samples that met the inclusion criteria. Individuals vaccinated with OPV were protected against infection and shedding of poliovirus in stool samples collected after challenge compared with unvaccinated individuals (summary odds ratio [OR] for shedding 0.13 (95% confidence interval [CI] 0.08-0.24)). In contrast, IPV provided no protection against shedding compared with unvaccinated individuals (summary OR 0.81 [95% CI 0.59-1.11]) or when given in addition to OPV, compared with individuals given OPV alone (summary OR 1.14 [95% CI 0.82-1.58]). There were insufficient studies of nasopharyngeal shedding to draw a conclusion. IPV does not induce sufficient intestinal mucosal immunity to reduce the prevalence of fecal poliovirus shedding after challenge, although there was some evidence that it can reduce the quantity of virus shed. The impact of IPV on poliovirus transmission in countries where fecal-oral spread is common is unknown but is likely to be limited compared with OPV.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nicholas C. Grassly
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, Norfolk Place, London, United Kingdom
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28
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Feasibility of quantitative environmental surveillance in poliovirus eradication strategies. Appl Environ Microbiol 2012; 78:3800-5. [PMID: 22447593 DOI: 10.1128/aem.07972-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The progress of the Global Polio Eradication Initiative is monitored by acute flaccid paralysis (AFP) surveillance supplemented with environmental surveillance in selected areas. To assess the sensitivity of environmental surveillance, stools from (re)vaccinated elderly persons with a low seroprevalence and from wastewater were concurrently collected and analyzed in the Netherlands over a prolonged period of time. A total number of 228 healthy individuals with different levels of immunity were challenged with monovalent oral polio vaccine serotype 1 or 3. Poliovirus concentrations were determined by the titration of fecal suspensions on poliovirus-sensitive L20B cells and of sewage concentrates by L20B monolayer plaque assay. Almost half of the individuals (45%) shed poliovirus on day 3 after challenge, which peaked (57%) on day 8 with an average poliovirus excretion of 1.3 × 10(5) TCID(50) per g of feces and gradually decreased to less than 5% on day 42. The virus concentrations in sewage peaked on days 6 to 8 at approximately 100 PFU per liter, remained high until day 14, and subsequently decreased to less than 10 PFU per liter on day 29. The estimated poliovirus concentration in sewage approximated the measured initial virus excretion in feces, within 1 log(10) variation, resulting in a sensitivity of detection of 100 infected but mostly asymptomatic individuals in tens of thousands of individuals. An additional second peak observed in sewage may indicate secondary transmission missed by enterovirus or AFP surveillance in patients. This enables the detection of circulating poliovirus by environmental surveillance, supporting its feasibility as an early warning system.
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29
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Role of environmental poliovirus surveillance in global polio eradication and beyond. Epidemiol Infect 2011; 140:1-13. [DOI: 10.1017/s095026881000316x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 168] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
SUMMARYEnvironmental poliovirus surveillance (ENV) means monitoring of poliovirus (PV) transmission in human populations by examining environmental specimens supposedly contaminated by human faeces. The rationale is based on the fact that PV-infected individuals, whether presenting with disease symptoms or not, shed large amounts of PV in the faeces for several weeks. As the morbidity:infection ratio of PV infection is very low, this fact contributes to the sensitivity of ENV which under optimal conditions can be better than that of the standard acute flaccid paralysis (AFP) surveillance. The World Health Organization has included ENV in the new Strategic Plan of the Global Polio Eradication Initiative for years 2010–2012 to be increasingly used in PV surveillance, supplementing AFP surveillance. In this paper we review the feasibility of using ENV to monitor wild PV and vaccine-derived PV circulation in human populations, based on global experiences in defined epidemiological situations.
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Westbrook MT, McDowell L. Coping with a Second Disability: Implications of the Late Effects of Poliomyelitis for Occupational Therapists. Aust Occup Ther J 2010. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-1630.1991.tb01685.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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31
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Simonen ML, Roivainen M, Iber J, Burns C, Hovi T. Outbreak of poliomyelitis in Finland in 1984-85 - Re-analysis of viral sequences using the current standard approach. Virus Res 2009; 147:91-7. [PMID: 19883702 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2009.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2009] [Revised: 10/16/2009] [Accepted: 10/22/2009] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In 1984, a wild type 3 poliovirus (PV3/FIN84) spread all over Finland causing nine cases of paralytic poliomyelitis and one case of aseptic meningitis. The outbreak was ended in 1985 with an intensive vaccination campaign. By limited sequence comparison with previously isolated PV3 strains, closest relatives of PV3/FIN84 were found among strains circulating in the Mediterranean region. Now we wanted to reanalyse the relationships using approaches currently exploited in poliovirus surveillance. Cell lysates of 22 strains isolated during the outbreak and stored frozen were subjected to RT-PCR amplification in three genomic regions without prior subculture. Sequences of the entire VP1 coding region, 150 nucleotides in the VP1-2A junction, most of the 5' non-coding region, partial sequences of the 3D RNA polymerase coding region and partial 3' non-coding region were compared within the outbreak and with sequences available in data banks. In addition, complete nucleotide sequences were obtained for 2 strains isolated from two different cases of disease during the outbreak. The results confirmed the previously described wide intraepidemic variation of the strains, including amino acid substitutions in antigenic sites, as well as the likely Mediterranean region origin of the strains. Simplot and bootscanning analyses of the complete genomes indicated complicated evolutionary history of the non-capsid coding regions of the genome suggesting several recombinations with different HEV-C viruses in the past.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marja-Leena Simonen
- Gastrointestinal Infections Unit, Department of Infectious Disease Surveillance and Control, Division of Health Protection, National Institute for Health and Welfare (THL), P.O. Box 30, FI-00271 Helsinki, Finland
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34
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Fine PE, Mulholland K. Community immunity. Vaccines (Basel) 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-1-4160-3611-1.50075-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
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35
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36
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Gidding HF, Backhouse JL, Gilbert GL, Burgess MA. National serosurvey of poliovirus immunity in Australia, 1996-99. Aust N Z J Public Health 2007; 29:48-52. [PMID: 15782872 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-842x.2005.tb00748.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To measure immunity to poliovirus types 1, 2 and 3 in the Australian population. METHODS Sera were collected opportunistically from laboratories around Australia between 1996 and 1999. A representative sample by age and gender was tested for neutralising antibodies to poliovirus types 1, 2 and 3. A titre of > or = 8 was considered antibody positive and indicative of immunity. RESULTS Of the 1,813 sera tested, 82% were antibody positive for poliovirus type 1 and 88% were positive for type 2. Immunity to type 3 poliovirus was lower overall (74%) and especially in school-aged children and young adults. For all three poliovirus types, there were more females immune than males and immunity peaked in the 2-4 years age group. The proportion of the population immune to all three types was 59%, and 3% were negative for all three types. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS This is the first national serosurvey for immunity to poliovirus in Australia. Herd immunity is probably sufficient to prevent generalised outbreaks due to type 1 and 2 poliovirus, but this may not be the case for type 3. However, localised outbreaks of any poliovirus type could still occur following reintroduction unless uniformly high levels of vaccination coverage are maintained. Ongoing serosurveillance is required following the recent change back to inactivated polio vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather F Gidding
- National Centre for Immunisation Research and Surveillance of Vaccine Preventable Diseases, Royal Alexandra Hospital for Children, University of Sydney, New South Wales.
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37
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Abstract
Clinical case-driven surveillance for poliovirus remains the cornerstone of monitoring the progress of the poliomyelitis eradication initiative (PEI). It includes notification and careful investigation of cases of acute flaccid paralysis (AFP), timely collection of stool specimens from the patient, and virological examination of the specimens in an accredited laboratory. Successful high quality APF surveillance requires painstaking perseverance and smooth interplay of several different groups of health care workers in a country. Environmental surveillance (ES) may in certain situations be more sensitive than AFP surveillance in detecting wild type poliovirus or vaccine derived poliovirus circulation. However, apart from being highly labour intensive, it cannot be optimally applied in large parts of the world because of the lack of converging sewage systems. Under these conditions, the very rationale of ES, examining of individual samples representing large groups (hundreds of thousands) of people cannot be readily exploited. Whatever approach of poliovirus surveillance is used, we will always be monitoring subgroups of potential poliovirus excreting people only. Therefore, several years long poliovirus-free monitoring period is needed to confirm that poliovirus transmission has stopped in a given population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tapani Hovi
- National Public Health Institute (KTL), Department of Viral Diseases and Immunology, Mannerheimintie 166, 00300 Helsinki, Finland.
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38
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Hovi T, Blomqvist S, Nasr E, Burns CC, Sarjakoski T, Ahmed N, Savolainen C, Roivainen M, Stenvik M, Laine P, Barakat I, Wahdan MH, Kamel FA, Asghar H, Pallansch MA, Kew OM, Gary HE, deGourville EM, El Bassioni L. Environmental surveillance of wild poliovirus circulation in Egypt--balancing between detection sensitivity and workload. J Virol Methods 2005; 126:127-34. [PMID: 15847928 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2005.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2004] [Revised: 01/17/2005] [Accepted: 02/03/2005] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Examination of sewage specimens for poliovirus (environmental surveillance) was adopted as a supplementary tool in the surveillance of poliomyelitis in Egypt. Sewage samples were concentrated about 50-fold using a simple two-phase separation technique, and inoculated in cell cultures in two collaborating laboratories in parallel. All but 9 of the 293 (97%) samples collected from January 2001 to December 2002 contained poliovirus and/or other enteroviruses, with polioviruses being detected in 84% of the samples. The proportion of specimens containing type 1 wild poliovirus (PV1W, the North-East African (NEAF) genotype) was less in 2002 (16%) than in 2001 (57%), and further decreased in 2003. While the overall sensitivity to detect PV1W was similar in the two collaborating laboratories, the specimens scored positive were not identical. Parallel cultures inoculated with aliquots of a given specimen very frequently resulted in isolation of different viruses. Moreover, partial sequence analysis occasionally revealed representatives of different genetic lineages of PV1W in a given specimen. These results emphasize the need to use intensive laboratory analysis to optimise sample sensitivity in environmental poliovirus surveillance, and the difficulties in reproducing the isolation results by simple re-inoculation of samples containing a mixture of different viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tapani Hovi
- Department of Viral Diseases and Immunology, National Public Health Institute (KTL), Mannerheimintie 166, 00300 Helsinki, Finland.
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Maes P, Van Doren E, Denys B, Thoelen I, Rahman M, Vijgen L, Van Ranst M. Poliovirus sampling by using sodium dodecyl sulfate/EDTA-pretreated chromatography paper strips. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004; 325:711-5. [PMID: 15541347 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2004.10.084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2004] [Indexed: 05/01/2023]
Abstract
To achieve the goal of poliovirus eradication, surveillance of endemic areas is a crucial step in the poliovirus eradication program. Currently, six countries still have endemic poliovirus. We have tested a novel method which uses SDS/EDTA-treated chromatography paper strips to collect and transport poliovirus-containing stool samples. The SDS/EDTA-treated paper strips were soaked with different dilutions of poliovirus-containing feces and stored at different temperatures. After storing the SDS/EDTA paper strips for 5 months at 37 degrees C, poliovirus RNA could be successfully amplified using RT-PCR. Infectivity of wild-type poliovirus type 1, 2, and 3 was lost upon contact with the SDS/EDTA-treated strips. This easy, inexpensive, and biosafe chromatography paper strip method for the collection and transportation of poliovirus samples can be of use in poliovirus surveillance and polio vaccination programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piet Maes
- Laboratory of Clinical and Epidemiological Virology, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rega Institute for Medical Research, University of Leuven, Belgium
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Blomqvist S, Savolainen C, Råman L, Roivainen M, Hovi T. Human rhinovirus 87 and enterovirus 68 represent a unique serotype with rhinovirus and enterovirus features. J Clin Microbiol 2002; 40:4218-23. [PMID: 12409401 PMCID: PMC139630 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.40.11.4218-4223.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2002] [Revised: 08/04/2002] [Accepted: 09/01/2002] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
It has recently been reported that all but one of the 102 known serotypes of the genus Rhinovirus segregate into two genetic clusters (C. Savolainen, S. Blomqvist, M. N. Mulders, and T. Hovi, J. Gen. Virol. 83:333-340, 2002). The only exception is human rhinovirus 87 (HRV87). Here we demonstrate that HRV87 is genetically and antigenically highly similar to enterovirus 68 (EV68) and is related to EV70, the other member of human enterovirus group D. The partial nucleotide sequences of the 5' untranslated region, capsid regions VP4/VP2 and VP1, and the 3D RNA polymerase gene of the HRV87 prototype strain F02-3607 Corn showed 97.3, 97.8, 95.2, and 95.9% identity to the corresponding regions of EV68 prototype strain Fermon. The amino acid identities were 100 and 98.1% for the products of the two capsid regions and 97.9% for 3D RNA polymerase. Antigenic cross-reaction between HRV87 and EV68 was indicated by microneutralization with monotypic antisera. Phylogenetic analysis showed definite clustering of HRV87 and EV68 with EV70 for all sequences examined. Both HRV87 and EV68 were shown to be acid sensitive by two different assays, while EV70 was acid resistant, which is typical of enteroviruses. The cytopathic effect induced by HRV87 or EV68 was inhibited by monoclonal antibodies to the decay-accelerating factor known to be the receptor of EV70. We conclude that HRV87 and EV68 are strains of the same picornavirus serotype presenting features of both rhinoviruses and enteroviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soile Blomqvist
- Enterovirus Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, National Public Health Institute (KTL), 00300 Helsinki, Finland.
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41
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Martín J, Samoilovich E, Dunn G, Lackenby A, Feldman E, Heath A, Svirchevskaya E, Cooper G, Yermalovich M, Minor PD. Isolation of an intertypic poliovirus capsid recombinant from a child with vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis. J Virol 2002; 76:10921-8. [PMID: 12368335 PMCID: PMC136614 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.76.21.10921-10928.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2002] [Accepted: 07/22/2002] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The isolation of a capsid intertypic poliovirus recombinant from a child with vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis is described. Virus 31043 had a Sabin-derived type 3-type 2-type 1 recombinant genome with a 5'-end crossover point within the capsid coding region. The result was a poliovirus chimera containing the entire coding sequence for antigenic site 3a derived from the Sabin type 2 strain. The recombinant virus showed altered antigenic properties but did not acquire type 2 antigenic characteristics. The significance of the presence in nature of such poliovirus chimeras and the consequences for the current efforts to detect potentially dangerous vaccine-derived poliovirus strains are discussed in the context of the global polio eradication initiative.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antibodies, Viral/blood
- Antibodies, Viral/immunology
- Antigens, Viral/genetics
- Antigens, Viral/immunology
- Capsid/immunology
- Child, Preschool
- Crossing Over, Genetic
- Humans
- Male
- Mice
- Mice, Transgenic
- Neutralization Tests
- Paralysis/immunology
- Paralysis/virology
- Poliomyelitis/immunology
- Poliomyelitis/virology
- Poliovirus/genetics
- Poliovirus/immunology
- Poliovirus Vaccine, Oral/adverse effects
- Poliovirus Vaccine, Oral/genetics
- Poliovirus Vaccine, Oral/immunology
- Sequence Analysis, DNA
- Temperature
- Tumor Cells, Cultured
- Virulence
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Affiliation(s)
- Javier Martín
- Division of Virology, National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, Potters Bar, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom.
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42
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Al-Dhahry SH, Koul RL, Al-Busaidy SM, Al-Awaidy ST, Al-Khusaiby SM, Suleman AJ. Poliomyelitis in Oman. I. The last outbreak? Acta Trop 2001; 80:125-30. [PMID: 11600090 DOI: 10.1016/s0001-706x(01)00166-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Since 1988, the Sultanate of Oman has experienced three outbreaks of paralytic poliomyelitis. The last outbreak occurred in December 1993 and involved two children aged 10 months and 4 1/2 years. The children had received five and four doses, respectively, of trivalent oral polio vaccine (OPV) and lived in the same village. Serum neutralizing antibody tests suggested that paralytic polio in these children was due to poor antibody response to OPV. Wild poliovirus type 1 was isolated from both patients, as well as from seven of ten close contacts of the older child, and one of eight contacts of the younger child. All contacts had received three to six doses of OPV. Genomic sequence studies indicated that the virus isolates belonged to a genotypic group prevalent in southern and western Asia, but differed markedly from virus isolated during the 1988/89 outbreak, suggesting another importation of poliovirus. In response to the outbreak, supplementary immunization with OPV was given to children <6 years of age, initially in the affected district, and subsequently to children in the whole country. This study demonstrates that immunization with three to six doses of OPV did not prevent infection with wild poliovirus. In those children with sub-optimal response to OPV, infection resulted in paralytic poliomyelitis. The outbreak remained localized in one village, indicating that the outbreak control measures were effective.
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Affiliation(s)
- S H Al-Dhahry
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, College of Medicine, Sultan Qaboos University, PO Box 35, Al-Khodh, Muscat 123, Oman.
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43
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Buttinelli G, Ruggeri FM, Marturano J, Novello F, Donati V, Fiore L. Antigenic sites of poliovirus type 3 eliciting IgA monoclonal antibodies in orally immunized mice. Virology 2001; 281:265-71. [PMID: 11277698 DOI: 10.1006/viro.2000.0786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
A panel of neutralizing IgA monoclonal antibodies was produced from mice orally inoculated with poliovirus type 3 Sabin and cholera toxin as adjuvant. Low levels of neutralizing antibodies were elicited in mice after several boosts, but only in the presence of cholera toxin. Characterization of IgA MAbs by neutralization-escape virus mutants showed that all but one neutralizing MAbs against type 3 poliovirus were directed to antigenic site N-AgIII, which was previously found by us to be the major target of mucosal immune response to Sabin 1 in the mouse. Our data indicate that residue 236 of VP3, not previously reported, is also involved in forming site N-AgIII in addition to formerly described VP3 (aa 58-59) and VP1 (aa 286-290) residues. Unlike poliovirus type 1 IgA MAbs, all IgA MAbs herein described neutralized the wild-type parental poliovirus.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Buttinelli
- Laboratory of Virology, Laboratory of Ultrastructure, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161 Rome, Italy
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44
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Zinkernagel RM, LaMarre A, Ciurea A, Hunziker L, Ochsenbein AF, McCoy KD, Fehr T, Bachmann MF, Kalinke U, Hengartner H. Neutralizing antiviral antibody responses. Adv Immunol 2001; 79:1-53. [PMID: 11680006 PMCID: PMC7130890 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2776(01)79001-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Neutralizing antibodies are evolutionarily important effectors of immunity against viruses. Their evaluation has revealed a number of basic insights into specificity, rules of reactivity (tolerance), and memory—namely, (1) Specificity of neutralizing antibodies is defined by their capacity to distinguish between virus serotypes; (2) B cell reactivity is determined by antigen structure, concentration, and time of availability in secondary lymphoid organs; and (3) B cell memory is provided by elevated protective antibody titers in serum that are depending on antigen stimulation. These perhaps slightly overstated rules are simple, correlate with in vivo evidence as well as clinical observations, and appear to largely demystify many speculations about antibodies and B cell physiology. The chapter also considers successful vaccines and compares them with those infectious diseases where efficient protective vaccines are lacking, it is striking to note that all successful vaccines induce high levels of neutralizing antibodies (nAbs) that are both necessary and sufficient to protect the host from disease. Successful vaccination against infectious diseases such as tuberculosis, leprosy, or HIV would require induction of additional long-lasting T cell responses to control infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- R M Zinkernagel
- Institute of Experimental Immunology, Department of Pathology, University Hospital, CH-8091 Zürich, Switzerland
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45
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Martín J, Ferguson GL, Wood DJ, Minor PD. The vaccine origin of the 1968 epidemic of type 3 poliomyelitis in Poland. Virology 2000; 278:42-9. [PMID: 11112479 DOI: 10.1006/viro.2000.0614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
A clear association was demonstrated between the use of USOL-D-bac type 3 poliovirus live-attenuated vaccine and the 1968 poliomyelitis epidemic in Poland. The epidemic followed small-scale trials with Sabin and USOL-D-bac type 3 vaccine strains carried out in seven countries including Poland. Factors that might have contributed to the genesis and development of the epidemic were the pattern of virus excretion from vaccinees, mutations found in viruses from the epidemic, and the particular vaccination policies in Poland during the previous years. These findings may provide essential insights into the strategies for stopping polio immunisation once wild poliovirus has been eradicated.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Martín
- Division of Virology, National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, Potters Bar, Hertfordshire EN6 3QG, United Kingdom.
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46
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Herremans T, Reimerink JH, Kimman TG, van Der Avoort HG, Koopmans MP. Antibody responses to antigenic sites 1 and 3 of serotype 3 poliovirus after vaccination with oral live attenuated or inactivated poliovirus vaccine and after natural exposure. CLINICAL AND DIAGNOSTIC LABORATORY IMMUNOLOGY 2000; 7:40-4. [PMID: 10618274 PMCID: PMC95819 DOI: 10.1128/cdli.7.1.40-44.2000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Three important antigenic sites involved in virus neutralization on polioviruses in mouse experiments have been identified. These sites are located at the surface of the virion and have been designated antigenic sites 1, 2, and 3. In mice, the antibody response to antigenic site 1 of serotype 3 poliovirus is considered to be immunodominant, but little is known about the immunogenicity of these sites in humans. In the present study, we developed inhibition enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays specific for antigenic sites 1 and 3 to measure antibody responses to these sites in fully vaccinated inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) (n = 63) and oral live attenuated poliovirus vaccine (OPV) (n = 63) recipients and in naturally infected persons (n = 25). Similar levels of antibodies to site 1 in IPV and OPV vaccinees were detected. However, significantly more OPV recipients (88.7%) had detectable antibodies to antigenic site 3 (P < 0.01) than did IPV-vaccinated persons (63. 1%). After an IPV booster vaccination, both previously IPV- and OPV-vaccinated persons responded with a significant increase in antibodies to sites 1 and 3 (P < 0.01). We conclude that the immune response to serotype 3 poliovirus in humans consists of both site 1- and site 3-specific antibodies and that these responses can be induced by either OPV or recent IPV vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Herremans
- Research Laboratory for Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
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47
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Fiore L, Novello F, Simeoni P, Amato C, Vellucci L, De Stefano D, Grandolfo ME, Luzzi I. Surveillance of acute flaccid paralysis in Italy: 1996-1997. AFP Study Group. Acute flaccid paralysis. Eur J Epidemiol 1999; 15:757-63. [PMID: 10555620 DOI: 10.1023/a:1007697421114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
The last case of poliomyelitis due to transmission of indigenous wild poliovirus occurred in Italy in 1982. To achieve the certification of the eradication of poliomyelitis in Italy, an active surveillance of acute flaccid paralysis (AFP) in the population aged less than 15 years was set up following the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines. The survey started in 1996 with a pilot study involving 4 out of 21 regions, and was gradually extended to a national level in 1997. The two-year survey identified five patients with diagnosis of vaccine associated paralytic poliomyelitis (VAPP). Polioviruses type 2 and 3 Sabin-like were isolated and characterized in three of them. In the remaining two cases, samples were collected late after the onset of symptoms, and poliovirus could not be isolated. No wild polioviruses were detected during the survey. The rate of non-polio AFP found in Italy in 1997 was 0.61 cases per 100,000, which is lower than the level of 1.0 case per 100,000 considered as acceptable by the WHO. This was mainly due to the delay in organizing the hospital network and starting the active search of AFP cases in the largest and most densely populated regions. Therefore, the overall rate of AFP found in Italy underestimates the global effectiveness of the program, which however will be better evaluated in the next few years. This study is the first systematic attempt to determine the rate of AFP in Italy.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Fiore
- Laboratory of Virology, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy.
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48
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Divizia M, Palombi L, Buonomo E, Donia D, Ruscio V, Equestre M, Leno L, Panà A, Degener AM. Genomic characterization of human and environmental polioviruses isolated in Albania. Appl Environ Microbiol 1999; 65:3534-9. [PMID: 10427045 PMCID: PMC91530 DOI: 10.1128/aem.65.8.3534-3539.1999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Between April and December 1996, a serious outbreak of poliomyelitis occurred in Albania; almost 140 subjects were involved, and the episode presented an unusually high mortality rate (12%). During the outbreak, water samples from the Lana River in Tirana, Albania, and stool samples from two cases of paralytic poliomyelitis were collected and analyzed for the presence of polioviruses. Six polioviruses were isolated from the environmental and human samples, according to standard methods. All the samples were characterized by partial genomic sequencing of 330 bases across the 5' untranslated region (5'-UTR) (nucleotide positions 200 to 530) and of 300 bases across the VP1 region (nucleotide positions 2474 to 2774). Comparison of these sequences with those present in data banks permitted the identification of environmental isolates Lana A and Lana B as, respectively, a Sabin-like type 2 poliovirus and an intertypic recombinant poliovirus (Sabin-like type 2/wild type 1), both bearing a G instead of an A at nucleotide position 481. The two other environmental polioviruses were similar to the isolates from the paralytic cases. They were characterized by a peculiar 5'-UTR and by a VP1 region showing 98% homology with the Albanian epidemic type 1 isolates reported by other authors. This study confirms the environmental circulation in Albania of recombinant poliovirus strains, likely sustained by a massive vaccination effort and by the presence in the environment of a type 1 poliovirus, as isolated from the Lana River in Tirana about 2 months before the first case of symptomatic acute flaccid paralysis was reported in this town.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Divizia
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Public Health, University of Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy.
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49
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Manor Y, Handsher R, Halmut T, Neuman M, Bobrov A, Rudich H, Vonsover A, Shulman L, Kew O, Mendelson E. Detection of poliovirus circulation by environmental surveillance in the absence of clinical cases in Israel and the Palestinian authority. J Clin Microbiol 1999; 37:1670-5. [PMID: 10325305 PMCID: PMC84919 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.37.6.1670-1675.1999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The global eradication of poliomyelitis, believed to be achievable around the year 2000, relies on strategies which include high routine immunization coverage and mass vaccination campaigns, along with continuous monitoring of wild-type virus circulation by using the laboratory-based acute flaccid paralysis (AFP) surveillance. Israel and the Palestinian Authority are located in a geographical region in which poliovirus is still endemic but have been free of poliomyelitis since 1988 as a result of intensive immunization programs and mass vaccination campaigns. To monitor the wild-type virus circulation, environmental surveillance of sewage samples collected monthly from 25 to 30 sites across the country was implemented in 1989 and AFP surveillance began in 1994. The sewage samples were processed in the laboratory with a double-selective tissue culture system, which enabled economical processing of large number of samples. Between 1989 and 1997, 2,294 samples were processed, and wild-type poliovirus was isolated from 17 of them in four clusters, termed "silent outbreaks," in September 1990 (type 3), between May and September 1991 (type 1), between October 1994 and June 1995 (type 1), and in December 1996 (type 1). Fifteen of the 17 positive samples were collected in the Gaza Strip, 1 was collected in the West Bank, and 1 was collected in the Israeli city of Ashdod, located close to the Gaza Strip. The AFP surveillance system failed to detect the circulating wild-type viruses. These findings further emphasize the important role that environmental surveillance can play in monitoring the eradication of polioviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Manor
- Central Virology Laboratory, Public Health Laboratories, Ministry of Health, The Chaim Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Hashomer, Israel
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50
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Abstract
Although poliovirus vaccination is nto new, the recent changes in ACIP recommendations involving polio vaccinations are. Currently, wild type poliovirus has been eliminated in the Western hemisphere, but vaccine-associated cases (VAPP) still occur. The new recommendations are intended to continue providing protection and to eliminate VAPP cases from occurring in vaccinees or close contacts.
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Affiliation(s)
- N E Soto
- Laboratory of Clinical Investigation, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
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