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Ono M, Matsumura T, Sung EJ, Koyama T, Ochiai M, Shears SB, Hayakawa Y. Drosophila cytokine GBP2 exerts immune responses and regulates GBP1 expression through GPCR receptor Mthl10. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2024; 167:104086. [PMID: 38295885 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2024.104086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2023] [Revised: 12/10/2023] [Accepted: 01/25/2024] [Indexed: 03/03/2024]
Abstract
Growth-blocking peptide (GBP), an insect cytokine, was first found in armyworm Mythimna separata. A functional analogue of GBP, stress-responsive peptide (SRP), was also identified in the same species. SRP gene expression has been demonstrated to be enhanced by GBP, indicating that both cytokines are organized within a hierarchical regulatory network. Although GBP1 (CG15917) and GBP2 (CG11395) have been identified in Drosophila melanogaster, immunological functions have only been characterized for GBP1. It is expected that the biological responses of two structurally similar peptides should be coordinated, but there is little information on this topic. Here, we demonstrate that GBP2 replicates the GBP1-mediated cellular immune response from Drosophila S2 cells. Moreover, the GBP2-induced response was silenced by pre-treatment with dsRNA targeting the GBP receptor gene, Mthl10. Furthermore, treatment of S2 cells with GBP2 enhanced GBP1 expression levels, but GBP1 did not affect GBP2 expression. GBP2 derived enhancement of GBP1 expression was not observed in the presence of GBP1, indicating that GBP2 is an upstream expressional regulator of a GBP1/GBP2 cytokine network. GBP2-induced enhancement of GBP1 expression was not observed in Mthl10 knockdown cells. Enhancement of GBP2 expression was observed in both Drosophila larvae and S2 cells under heat stress conditions; expressional enhancement of both GBP1 and GBP2 was eliminated in Mthl10 knockdown cells and larvae. Finally, Ca2+ mobilization assay in GCaMP3-expressing S2 cells demonstrated that GBP2 mobilizes Ca2+ upstream of Mthl10. Our finding revealed that Drosophila GBP1 and GBP2 control immune responses as well as their own expression levels through a hierarchical cytokine network, indicating that Drosophila GBP1/GBP2 system can be a simple model that is useful to investigate the detailed regulatory mechanism of related cytokine complexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaya Ono
- Department of Applied Biological Sciences, Saga University, Saga, 840-8502, Japan
| | - Takashi Matsumura
- The United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, 890-0065, Japan
| | - Eui Jae Sung
- Inositol Signaling Group, Signal Transduction Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, 111 T.W. Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA
| | - Takashi Koyama
- Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, 2100, Denmark
| | - Masanori Ochiai
- Institute of Low Temperature Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 060-0819, Japan
| | - Stephen B Shears
- Inositol Signaling Group, Signal Transduction Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, 111 T.W. Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA
| | - Yoichi Hayakawa
- Department of Applied Biological Sciences, Saga University, Saga, 840-8502, Japan.
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2
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Uyanga VA, Liu L, Zhao J, Wang X, Jiao H, Lin H. Central and peripheral effects of L-citrulline on thermal physiology and nitric oxide regeneration in broilers. Poult Sci 2022; 101:101669. [PMID: 35101686 PMCID: PMC8804195 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2021.101669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Revised: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 12/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The mechanism that mediates L-citrulline (L-Cit) hypothermia is poorly understood, and the involvement of nitric oxide signaling has not been fully elucidated. Therefore, this study aimed to determine L-Cit's influence on body temperature and to ascertain the central and peripheral mechanisms associated with this response. Chicks responded to intracerebroventricular (ICV) injection of L-Cit with high and low body temperatures (P < 0.05) depending on the dose tested, for both the surface and rectal temperatures. Peripheral (i.p.) L-Cit injection did not affect body temperature responses. Nitric oxide (NO) concentration and NO synthase (NOS) were influenced with varying doses of L-Cit. Hypothalamic NO was increased at 4 µg L-Cit whereas, plasma iNOS was elevated at 2µg L-Cit treatment. However, i.p. L-Cit did not change the NO content, rather it induced higher (P < 0.05) plasma tNOS and iNOS activity, and further upregulated iNOS and nNOS gene expression in the hypothalamus. In addition, ICV L-Cit potentiated a pro- versus anti-inflammatory milieu with the induction of IL-8, IL-10, and TGFβ (P < 0.05), which may be related to the changes in body temperature. Following ICV L-Cit administration, it was observed that L-Cit caused dose variable changes in the ultrastructure of hypothalamic neurons. The lowest dose was associated with a higher number of dead or degenerating neurons, whereas the highest L-Cit dose had fewer neuronal numbers with larger sizes. Therefore, this study shows that central and peripheral L-Cit administration imposes changes in body temperature, nitric oxide production, and inflammatory responses, in a dose-dependent manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Anthony Uyanga
- Department of Animal Science, College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an City, Shandong Province, 271018, China
| | - Lei Liu
- Department of Animal Science, College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an City, Shandong Province, 271018, China
| | - Jingpeng Zhao
- Department of Animal Science, College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an City, Shandong Province, 271018, China
| | - Xiaojuan Wang
- Department of Animal Science, College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an City, Shandong Province, 271018, China
| | - Hongchao Jiao
- Department of Animal Science, College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an City, Shandong Province, 271018, China
| | - Hai Lin
- Department of Animal Science, College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an City, Shandong Province, 271018, China.
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3
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Perez-Malagon CD, Barrera-Rodriguez R, Lopez-Gonzalez MA, Alva-Lopez LF. Diagnostic and Neurological Overview of Brain Tuberculomas: A Review of Literature. Cureus 2021; 13:e20133. [PMID: 34900500 PMCID: PMC8648135 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.20133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis is a disease caused by a bacteria named Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tb). It is estimated by World Health Organization (WHO) that nearly a quarter of the world's population is infected. Tuberculoma of the brain is one of the most severe extrapulmonary forms that affects patients younger than 40 years of age. Brain parenchymal tuberculoma develops in nearly one of 300 non-treated cases of pulmonary tuberculosis cases. In endemic regions, tuberculomas account for as many as 50% of all intracranial masses. Tuberculoma results in a hematogenous spread of M. tb from an extracranial source. Tuberculomas can mimic a variety of diseases and can present themselves in a subacute or chronic course, from asymptomatic to severe intracranial hypertension. Diagnosis is based on computed tomography (CT) scan and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies with a similar ring-enhancing lesion. Treatment is primarily medical, and the duration for brain tuberculoma can vary from six to 36 months. In certain cases, surgery is recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Raul Barrera-Rodriguez
- Immunopharmacology, Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias (INER), Mexico City, MEX
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4
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Shen X, Yan H, Jiang J, Li W, Xiong Y, Liu Q, Liu Y. Profile of gene expression changes during estrodiol-17β-induced feminization in the Takifugu rubripes brain. BMC Genomics 2021; 22:851. [PMID: 34819041 PMCID: PMC8614003 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-021-08158-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background As the critical tissue of the central nervous system, the brain has been found to be involved in gonad development. Previous studies have suggested that gonadal fate may be affected by the brain. Identifying brain-specific molecular changes that occur during estrodiol-17β (E2) -induced feminization is crucial to our understanding of the molecular control of sex differentiation by the brains of fish. Results In this study, the differential transcriptomic responses of the Takifugu rubripes larvae brain were compared after E2 treatment for 55 days. Our results showed that 514 genes were differentially expressed between E2-treated-XX (E-XX) and Control-XX (C-XX) T. rubripes, while 362 genes were differentially expressed between E2-treated-XY (E-XY) and Control-XY (C-XY). For example, the expression of cyp19a1b, gnrh1 and pgr was significantly up-regulated, while st, sl, tshβ, prl and pit-1, which belong to the growth hormone/prolactin family, were significantly down-regulated after E2 treatment, in both sexes. The arntl1, bhlbe, nr1d2, per1b, per3, cry1, cipc and ciart genes, which are involved in the circadian rhythm, were also found to be altered. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs), which were identified between E-XX and C-XX, were significantly enriched in neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction, arachidonic acid metabolism, cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction and the calcium signaling pathway. The DEGs that were identified between E-XY and C-XY were significantly enriched in tyrosine metabolism, phenylalanine metabolism, arachidonic acid metabolism and linoleic acid metabolism. Conclusion A number of genes and pathways were identified in the brain of E2-treated T. rubripes larvae by RNA-seq. It provided the opportunity for further study on the possible involvement of networks in the brain-pituitary-gonadal axis in sex differentiation in T. rubripes. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12864-021-08158-0.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xufang Shen
- College of Life Sciences, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, 116029, Liaoning, China.,Key Laboratory of Environment Controlled Aquaculture (Dalian Ocean University) Ministry of Education, Dalian, 116023, China
| | - Hongwei Yan
- College of Fisheries and Life Science, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, 116023, Liaoning, China.
| | - Jieming Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Environment Controlled Aquaculture (Dalian Ocean University) Ministry of Education, Dalian, 116023, China.,College of Fisheries and Life Science, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, 116023, Liaoning, China
| | - Weiyuan Li
- College of Fisheries and Life Science, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, 116023, Liaoning, China
| | - Yuyu Xiong
- Key Laboratory of Environment Controlled Aquaculture (Dalian Ocean University) Ministry of Education, Dalian, 116023, China.,College of Marine Science and Environment Engineering, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, 116023, Liaoning, China
| | - Qi Liu
- College of Marine Science and Environment Engineering, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, 116023, Liaoning, China.
| | - Ying Liu
- Key Laboratory of Environment Controlled Aquaculture (Dalian Ocean University) Ministry of Education, Dalian, 116023, China.,College of Marine Science and Environment Engineering, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, 116023, Liaoning, China
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5
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Shankar A, Saini D, Roy S, Bharati SJ, Mishra S, Singh P. Role of Complementary and Alternative Medicine in the Management of Cancer Cachexia. Asia Pac J Oncol Nurs 2021; 8:539-546. [PMID: 34527783 PMCID: PMC8420927 DOI: 10.4103/apjon.apjon-2149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2021] [Accepted: 08/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer cachexia is an important concern in cancer patients in view of advanced stage at presentation. The treatment goal for cachexia is the reversal of the loss of body weight and muscle mass with a variety of pharmacological agents. Various treatment guidelines focus on patients with advanced cancer who are likely to suffer from refractory cachexia. There is a paucity of data on research directed to cancer cachexia on cancer patients. Complementary and alternative medicines (CAMs) are widely use at some or other point of time by the majority of cancer patients in spite of little or no evidence to support that. There are many CAM which have been tried in different set up for cancer cachexia. These medicines are well accepted in view of lesser side effects and easy to use. There is a need for more randomized controlled trials with larger sample size with longer follow-up to generate more evidence in support to the use of CAM in cancer and cancer cachexia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhishek Shankar
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Lady Hardinge Medical College and Associated Hospitals, Delhi, India.,Faculty of Management Studies, Delhi, India
| | - Deepak Saini
- Division of Cancer Control and Prevention, Indian Society of Clinical Oncology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Delhi, India
| | - Shubham Roy
- Ummeed Child Development Centre, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
| | - Sachidanand Jee Bharati
- Department of Oncoanaesthesia and Palliative Medicine, Dr BR Ambedkar Institute Rotary Cancer Hospital, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Delhi, India
| | - Seema Mishra
- Department of Oncoanaesthesia and Palliative Medicine, Dr BR Ambedkar Institute Rotary Cancer Hospital, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Delhi, India
| | - Pritanjali Singh
- Department of Radiation Oncology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Patna, Bihar, India
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6
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Brown WE, Bradford BJ. Invited review: Mechanisms of hypophagia during disease. J Dairy Sci 2021; 104:9418-9436. [PMID: 34099296 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2021-20217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Suppression of appetite, or hypophagia, is among the most recognizable effects of disease in livestock, with the potential to impair growth, reproduction, and lactation. The continued evolution of the field of immunology has led to a greater understanding of the immune and endocrine signaling networks underlying this conserved response to disease. Inflammatory mediators, especially including the cytokines tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-1β, are likely pivotal to disease-induced hypophagia, based on findings in both rodents and cattle. However, the specific mechanisms linking a cytokine surge to decreased feeding behavior are more difficult to pin down and likely include direct effects on appetite centers in the brain, alteration of gastric motility, and modulation of other endocrine factors that influence appetite and satiety. These insights into the mechanisms for disease-induced hypophagia have great relevance for management of neonatal calves, mature cows transitioning to lactation, and cows experiencing mastitis; however, it is not necessarily the case that increasing feed intake by any means possible will improve health outcomes for diseased cattle. We explore conflicting effects of hypophagia on immune responses, which may be impaired by the lack of specific substrates, versus apparent benefits for controlling the growth of some pathogens. Anti-inflammatory strategies have shown promise for promoting recovery of feed intake following some conditions but not others. Finally, we explore the potential for early disease detection through automated monitoring of feeding behavior and consider which strategies may be implemented to respond to early hypophagia.
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Affiliation(s)
- W E Brown
- Department of Animal Sciences & Industry, Kansas State University, Manhattan 66506
| | - B J Bradford
- Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing 48824.
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7
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Tilbrook AJ, Fisher AD. Stress, health and the welfare of laying hens. ANIMAL PRODUCTION SCIENCE 2021. [DOI: 10.1071/an19666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
It is essential to understand responses to stress and the impact of stress on physiological and behavioural functioning of hens, so as to assess their welfare. The current understanding of stress in laying hens is comprehensively reviewed here. Most research on stress in hens has focussed on the activity of the adrenal glands, with the most common approach being to measure corticosterone, which is the predominant glucocorticoid produced by birds in response to stress. While these measures are useful, there is a need to understand how the brain regulates stress responses in hens. A greater understanding of the sympathoadrenal system and its interaction with the hypothalamo–pituitary–adrenal axis is required. There is also a lack of knowledge about the many other peptides and regulatory systems involved in stress responses in hens. The usefulness of understanding stress in hens in terms of assessing welfare depends on appreciating that different stressors elicit different responses and that there are often differences in responses to, and impacts of, acute and chronic stress. It is also important to establish the actions and fate of stress hormones within target tissues. It is the consequences of these actions that are important to welfare. A range of other measures has been used to assess stress in hens, including a ratio of heterophils to lymphocytes and haematocrit:packed cell-volume ratio and measures of corticosterone or its metabolites in eggs, excreta, feathers and the secretions of the uropygial gland. Measures in eggs have proffered varying results while measures in feathers may be useful to assess chronic stress. There are various studies in laying hens to indicate impacts of stress on the immune system, health, metabolism, appetite, and the quality of egg production, but, generally, these are limited, variable and are influenced by the management system, environment, genetic selection, type of stressor and whether or not the birds are subjected to acute or chronic stress. Further research to understand the regulation of stress responses and the impact of stress on normal functioning of hens will provide important advances in the assessment of stress and, in turn, the assessment of welfare of laying hens.
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8
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Soluble IL-6 receptors in the serum and cerebrospinal fluid of paranoid schizophrenic patients. Eur Psychiatry 2020; 12:294-9. [DOI: 10.1016/s0924-9338(97)84789-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/1996] [Revised: 04/07/1997] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
SummarySoluble Interleukin-6 receptor (sIL-6R) levels are strongly related to the levels of Interleukin-6 (IL-6), and sIL-6Rs increase the immune activating properties of IL-6. We estimated sIL-6R serum levels in 25 schizophrenic patients and 25 healthy controls. In the patients, SIL-6R-CSF levels were also measured. The psychopathology was rated according to the AMDP system. We found a significant correlation between serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) levels of sIL-6R, suggesting that serum levels may be a meaningful marker for the central action of sIL-6R. Moreover, significant correlations between the paranoid-hallucinatory syndrome and sIL-6R levels both in serum and CSF were observed. This finding suggests that IL-6 plays a role in the paranoid-hallucinatory symptomatology in schizophrenia. This can be understood regarding the influence of IL-6 to the catecholaminergic neurotransmission. The downregulating effects of neuroleptic treatment to sIL-6R demonstrate that the sIL-6R levels are decreased in the whole group of schizophrenic patients compared to controls.
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9
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Maes M, Bosmans E, Scharpé S, D'Hondt P, Desnyder R. Plasma soluble interleukin-2-receptor in depression: relationships to plasma neopterin and serum IL-2 concentrations and HPA-axis activity. Eur Psychiatry 2020; 10:397-403. [DOI: 10.1016/0924-9338(96)80345-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/1995] [Accepted: 06/06/1995] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
SummaryThe present study examined the plasma concentration of the soluble interleukin-2-receptor (sIL-2R) in depressed subjects in relation to hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis function and plasma neopterin and serum IL-2 concentrations. Plasma sIL-2R concentration was significantly higher in depressed patients (n = 47) than in controls (n = 19). There were no significant correlations between plasma sIL-2R and severity of illness. In the depressed subjects, there was a highly significant relationship between plasma sIL-2R and neopterin concentrations. Depressed patients with pathologically increased plasma neopterin levels had significantly higher plasma sIL-2R values than those with normal serum neopterin. There were no significant relationships between plasma sIL-2R and indices of HPA-axis function in depression. There was no significant effect of dexamethasone administration on sIL-2R levels. Significantly more depressed subjects had measurable serum IL-2 levels than normal controls. Our data support the notion that a moderate activation of cell-mediated immunity may play a role in the pathophysiology of depression.
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10
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Hunschede S, Schwartz A, Kubant R, Thomas SG, Anderson GH. The role of IL-6 in exercise-induced anorexia in normal-weight boys. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2018; 43:979-987. [DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2018-0019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Our previous study showed that interleukin-6 (IL-6) is associated with suppression of appetite after high-intensity exercise (HIEX), but an independent role in food intake (FI) was not defined. We hypothesized that IL-6 suppresses appetite and FI, independently of appetite hormones, after HIEX in normal-weight (NW) boys. We investigated the effect of HIEX, with and without the inflammation inhibitor ibuprofen (IBU), on IL-6, other biomarkers of inflammation and appetite, FI, and ratings of appetite in NW boys. Fifteen NW boys (aged 13–18 years) were randomly assigned in a crossover design to 4 sessions: (i) water and rest, (ii) IBU and rest, (iii) water and HIEX, and (iv) IBU and HIEX. HIEX consisted of three 10-min bouts of exercise at 75% of maximal oxygen uptake with 90 s of active rest between bouts. IBU (300 mg) was given as a liquid suspension. FI, ratings of appetite, and plasma biomarkers of appetite, inflammation, stress, and glucose control were measured. FI was not affected by HIEX or IBU. Appetite increased over time (p = 0.002) but was lower after HIEX (p < 0.001) and not affected by IBU. HIEX, but not IBU, resulted in higher levels of IL-6 (p < 0.001) and cortisol (p < 0.001) and lower active ghrelin (p < 0.001). IL-6 correlated with active ghrelin (r = 0.37; p = 0.036) and cortisol (r = 0.26; p = 0.049). An independent role for IL-6 in appetite suppression was not supported. However, IL-6 was correlated with active ghrelin and cortisol, thus potentially mediating appetite via these interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sascha Hunschede
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3E2, Canada
| | - Alexander Schwartz
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3E2, Canada
| | - Ruslan Kubant
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3E2, Canada
| | - Scott G. Thomas
- Faculty of Kinesiology & Physical Education, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 2C9, Canada
| | - G. Harvey Anderson
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3E2, Canada
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 2J7, Canada
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11
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Hill JH, Solt C, Foster MT. Obesity associated disease risk: the role of inherent differences and location of adipose depots. Horm Mol Biol Clin Investig 2018; 33:/j/hmbci.ahead-of-print/hmbci-2018-0012/hmbci-2018-0012.xml. [PMID: 29547393 DOI: 10.1515/hmbci-2018-0012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2018] [Accepted: 02/09/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Obesity and associated metabolic co-morbidities are a worldwide public health problem. Negative health outcomes associated with obesity, however, do not arise from excessive adiposity alone. Rather, deleterious outcomes of adipose tissue accumulation are a result of how adipocytes are distributed to individual regions in the body. Due to our increased understanding of the dynamic relationship that exists between specific adipose depots and disease risk, an accurate characterization of total body adiposity as well as location is required to properly evaluate a population's disease risk. Specifically, distinctive tissue depots within the body include the lower body, upper body and abdominal (deep and superficial) subcutaneous regions, as well as visceral (mesenteric and omental) regions. Upper body and visceral adipose tissues are highly associated with metabolic dysfunction and chronic disease development, whereas lower body gluteofemoral subcutaneous adipose tissue imparts protection against diet-induced metabolic derangement. Each adipose depot functions distinctly as an endocrine organ hence it has a different level of impact on health outcomes. Effluent from adipose tissue can modulate the functions of other tissues, whilst receiving differential communication from the rest of the body via central nervous system innervation, metabolites and other signaling molecules. More so, adipose depots contain a diverse reservoir of tissue-resident immune cells that play an integral part in both maintaining tissue homeostasis, as well as propagating metabolically-induced inflammation. Overall, the conceptualization of obesity and associated risks needs updating to reflect the complexities of obesity. We review adipose tissue characteristics that are linked to deleterious or beneficial adipose tissue distributions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica H Hill
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Claudia Solt
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Michelle T Foster
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Colorado State University, 1571 Campus Delivery, 500 West Lake Street, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA, Phone: +(970) 491-6189, Fax: +(970) 491-3875
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12
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Csetényi B, Hormay E, Szabó I, Takács G, Nagy B, László K, Karádi Z. Food and water intake, body temperature and metabolic consequences of interleukin-1β microinjection into the cingulate cortex of the rat. Behav Brain Res 2017; 331:115-122. [PMID: 28527691 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2017.05.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2017] [Revised: 05/04/2017] [Accepted: 05/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
In order to elucidate whether cytokine mechanisms of the cingulate cortex (cctx) are important in the central regulation of homeostasis, in the present study, feeding-metabolic effects of direct bilateral microinjection of interleukin-1β (IL-1β) into the cctx of the rat have been investigated. Short- (2h), medium (12h) and long-term (24h) food and water intakes and body temperature were measured after the intracerebral administration of this primary cytokine or vehicle solution, with or without paracetamol pretreatment. The effect of IL-1β on the blood glucose level of animals was examined in glucose tolerance test (GTT), and concentrations of relevant plasma metabolites (total cholesterol, HDL, LDH, triglycerides, uric acid) were additionally also determined following the above microinjections. In contrast to causing no major alteration in the food and water intakes, the cytokine treatment evoked significant increase in the body temperature of the rats. Prostaglandin-mediated mechanisms were shown to have important role in the mode of this action of IL-1β, since paracetamol pretreatment partially prevented the development of the above mentioned hyperthermia. In the GTT, no considerable difference was observed between the blood glucose levels of the cytokine treated and control animals. Following IL-1β microinjection, however, significant decrease of HDL and total cholesterol was found. Our present findings indicate that elucidating the IL-1β mediated homeostatic control mechanisms in the cingulate cortex may lead to the better understanding not only the regulatory entities of the healthy organism but also those found in obesity, diabetes mellitus and other worldwide rapidly spreading feeding-metabolic disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Csetényi
- Institute of Physiology, University of Pécs, Medical School, Pécs, Hungary; Centre for Neuroscience, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary.
| | - E Hormay
- Institute of Physiology, University of Pécs, Medical School, Pécs, Hungary; Centre for Neuroscience, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - I Szabó
- Institute of Physiology, University of Pécs, Medical School, Pécs, Hungary; Centre for Neuroscience, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - G Takács
- Institute of Physiology, University of Pécs, Medical School, Pécs, Hungary; Centre for Neuroscience, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - B Nagy
- Institute of Physiology, University of Pécs, Medical School, Pécs, Hungary; Centre for Neuroscience, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - K László
- Institute of Physiology, University of Pécs, Medical School, Pécs, Hungary; Centre for Neuroscience, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Z Karádi
- Institute of Physiology, University of Pécs, Medical School, Pécs, Hungary; Centre for Neuroscience, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary; Molecular Neuroendocrinology and Neurophysiology Research Group, Szentágothai Research Center, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
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13
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Liehr M, Mereu A, Pastor JJ, Quintela JC, Staats S, Rimbach G, Ipharraguerre IR. Olive oil bioactives protect pigs against experimentally-induced chronic inflammation independently of alterations in gut microbiota. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0174239. [PMID: 28346507 PMCID: PMC5367713 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0174239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2016] [Accepted: 03/06/2017] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Subclinical chronic inflammation (SCI) is associated with impaired animal growth. Previous work has demonstrated that olive-derived plant bioactives exhibit anti-inflammatory properties that could possibly counteract the growth-depressing effects of SCI. To test this hypothesis and define the underlying mechanism, we conducted a 30-day study in which piglets fed an olive-oil bioactive extract (OBE) and their control counterparts (C+) were injected repeatedly during the last 10 days of the study with increasing doses of Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharides (LPS) to induce SCI. A third group of piglets remained untreated throughout the study and served as a negative control (C-). In C+ pigs, SCI increased the circulating concentration of interleukin 1 beta (p < 0.001) and decreased feed ingestion (p < 0.05) and weight gain (p < 0.05). These responses were not observed in OBE animals. Although intestinal inflammation and colonic microbial ecology was not altered by treatments, OBE enhanced ileal mRNA abundance of tight and adherens junctional proteins (p < 0.05) and plasma recovery of mannitol (p < 0.05) compared with C+ and C-. In line with these findings, OBE improved transepithelial electrical resistance (p < 0.01) in TNF-α-challenged Caco-2/TC-7 cells, and repressed the production of inflammatory cytokines (p < 0.05) in LPS-stimulated macrophages. In summary, this work demonstrates that OBE attenuates the suppressing effect of SCI on animal growth through a mechanism that appears to involve improvements in intestinal integrity unrelated to alterations in gut microbial ecology and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Liehr
- Institute of Human Nutrition and Food Science, University of Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | | | | | | | - Stefanie Staats
- Institute of Human Nutrition and Food Science, University of Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Gerald Rimbach
- Institute of Human Nutrition and Food Science, University of Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Ignacio Rodolfo Ipharraguerre
- Institute of Human Nutrition and Food Science, University of Kiel, Kiel, Germany
- Lucta S.A., Montornés del Vallés, Barcelona, Spain
- * E-mail:
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14
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Rivolta I, Binda A, Molteni L, Rizzi L, Bresciani E, Possenti R, Fehrentz JA, Verdié P, Martinez J, Omeljaniuk RJ, Locatelli V, Torsello A. JMV5656, A Novel Derivative of TLQP-21, Triggers the Activation of a Calcium-Dependent Potassium Outward Current in Microglial Cells. Front Cell Neurosci 2017; 11:41. [PMID: 28280458 PMCID: PMC5322282 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2017.00041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2016] [Accepted: 02/08/2017] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
TLQP-21 (TLQPPASSRRRHFHHALPPAR) is a multifunctional peptide that is involved in the control of physiological functions, including feeding, reproduction, stress responsiveness, and general homeostasis. Despite the huge interest in TLQP-21 biological activity, very little is known about its intracellular mechanisms of action. In microglial cells, TLQP-21 stimulates increases of intracellular Ca2+ that may activate functions, including proliferation, migration, phagocytosis and production of inflammatory molecules. Our aim was to investigate whether JMV5656 (RRRHFHHALPPAR), a novel short analogue of TLQP-21, stimulates intracellular Ca2+ in the N9 microglia cells, and whether this Ca2+ elevation is coupled with the activation Ca2+-sensitive K+ channels. TLQP-21 and JMV5656 induced a sharp, dose-dependent increment in intracellular calcium. In 77% of cells, JMV5656 also caused an increase in the total outward currents, which was blunted by TEA (tetraethyl ammonium chloride), a non-selective blocker of voltage-dependent and Ca2+-activated potassium (K+) channels. Moreover, the effects of ion channel blockers charybdotoxin and iberiotoxin, suggested that multiple calcium-activated K+ channel types drove the outward current stimulated by JMV5656. Additionally, inhibition of JMV5656-stimulated outward currents by NS6180 (4-[[3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]methyl]-2H-1,4 benzothiazin-3(4H)-one) and TRAM-34 (triarylmethane-34), indicated that KCa3.1 channels are involved in this JMV5656 mechanisms of action. In summary, we demonstrate that, in N9 microglia cells, the interaction of JMV5656 with the TLQP-21 receptors induced an increase in intracellular Ca2+, and, following extracellular Ca2+ entry, the opening of KCa3.1 channels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilaria Rivolta
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca Monza, Italy
| | - Anna Binda
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca Monza, Italy
| | - Laura Molteni
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca Monza, Italy
| | - Laura Rizzi
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca Monza, Italy
| | - Elena Bresciani
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca Monza, Italy
| | - Roberta Possenti
- Department of Medicine of Systems, University of Rome "Tor Vergata" Rome, Italy
| | - Jean-Alain Fehrentz
- CNRS, Institut des Biomolécules Max Mousseron UMR5247, École Nationale Supérieure de Chimie de Montpellier - University of Montpellier Montpellier, France
| | - Pascal Verdié
- CNRS, Institut des Biomolécules Max Mousseron UMR5247, École Nationale Supérieure de Chimie de Montpellier - University of Montpellier Montpellier, France
| | - Jean Martinez
- CNRS, Institut des Biomolécules Max Mousseron UMR5247, École Nationale Supérieure de Chimie de Montpellier - University of Montpellier Montpellier, France
| | | | - Vittorio Locatelli
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca Monza, Italy
| | - Antonio Torsello
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca Monza, Italy
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15
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Di Benedetto S, Müller L, Wenger E, Düzel S, Pawelec G. Contribution of neuroinflammation and immunity to brain aging and the mitigating effects of physical and cognitive interventions. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2017; 75:114-128. [PMID: 28161508 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.01.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2016] [Revised: 01/24/2017] [Accepted: 01/30/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
It is widely accepted that the brain and the immune system continuously interact during normal as well as pathological functioning. Human aging is commonly accompanied by low-grade inflammation in both the immune and central nervous systems, thought to contribute to many age-related diseases. This review of the current literature focuses first on the normal neuroimmune interactions occurring in the brain, which promote learning, memory and neuroplasticity. Further, we discuss the protective and dynamic role of barriers to neuroimmune interactions, which have become clearer with the recent discovery of the meningeal lymphatic system. Next, we consider age-related changes of the immune system and possible deleterious influences of immunosenescence and low-grade inflammation (inflammaging) on neurodegenerative processes in the normally aging brain. We survey the major immunomodulators and neuroregulators in the aging brain and their highly tuned dynamic and reciprocal interactions. Finally, we consider our current understanding of how physical activity, as well as a combination of physical and cognitive interventions, may mediate anti-inflammatory effects and thus positively impact brain aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Svetlana Di Benedetto
- Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Center for Lifespan Psychology, Lentzeallee 94, 14195, Berlin, Germany; Center for Medical Research, Department of Internal Medicine II, University of Tübingen, Waldhörnlestr. 22, 72072 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Ludmila Müller
- Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Center for Lifespan Psychology, Lentzeallee 94, 14195, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Elisabeth Wenger
- Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Center for Lifespan Psychology, Lentzeallee 94, 14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Sandra Düzel
- Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Center for Lifespan Psychology, Lentzeallee 94, 14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Graham Pawelec
- Center for Medical Research, Department of Internal Medicine II, University of Tübingen, Waldhörnlestr. 22, 72072 Tübingen, Germany
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16
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Interferon alpha inhibits spinal cord synaptic and nociceptive transmission via neuronal-glial interactions. Sci Rep 2016; 6:34356. [PMID: 27670299 PMCID: PMC5037469 DOI: 10.1038/srep34356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2016] [Accepted: 09/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
It is well known that interferons (IFNs), such as type-I IFN (IFN-α) and type-II IFN (IFN-γ) are produced by immune cells to elicit antiviral effects. IFNs are also produced by glial cells in the CNS to regulate brain functions. As a proinflammatory cytokine, IFN-γ drives neuropathic pain by inducing microglial activation in the spinal cord. However, little is known about the role of IFN-α in regulating pain sensitivity and synaptic transmission. Strikingly, we found that IFN-α/β receptor (type-I IFN receptor) was expressed by primary afferent terminals in the superficial dorsal horn that co-expressed the neuropeptide CGRP. In the spinal cord IFN-α was primarily expressed by astrocytes. Perfusion of spinal cord slices with IFN-α suppressed excitatory synaptic transmission by reducing the frequency of spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic current (sEPSCs). IFN-α also inhibited nociceptive transmission by reducing capsaicin-induced internalization of NK-1 and phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) in superficial dorsal horn neurons. Finally, spinal (intrathecal) administration of IFN-α reduced inflammatory pain and increased pain threshold in naïve rats, whereas removal of endogenous IFN-α by a neutralizing antibody induced hyperalgesia. Our findings suggest a new form of neuronal-glial interaction by which IFN-α, produced by astrocytes, inhibits nociceptive transmission in the spinal cord.
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Hoffmann A, Ettle B, Bruno A, Kulinich A, Hoffmann AC, von Wittgenstein J, Winkler J, Xiang W, Schlachetzki JCM. Alpha-synuclein activates BV2 microglia dependent on its aggregation state. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2016; 479:881-886. [PMID: 27666480 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2016.09.109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2016] [Accepted: 09/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Synucleinopathies such as Parkinson's disease (PD), dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB), and multiple system atrophy (MSA) are defined by the presence of intracellular alpha-synuclein aggregates in neurons and/or oligodendrocytes. In addition, post mortem tissue analysis revealed profound changes in microglial morphology, indicating microglial activation and neuroinflammation. Thus, alpha-synuclein may directly activate microglia, leading to increased production of key pro-inflammatory cytokines like tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin-1beta (IL-1β), which in turn modulates the disease progression. The distinct alpha-synuclein species, which mediates the activation of microglia, is not well defined. We hypothesized that microglial activation depends on a specific aggregation state of alpha-synuclein. Here, we show that primarily human fibrillar alpha-synuclein increased the production and secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines by microglial BV2 cells compared to monomeric and oligomeric alpha-synuclein. BV2 cells also preferentially phagocytosed fibrillar alpha-synuclein compared to alpha-synuclein monomers and oligomers. Microglial uptake of alpha-synuclein fibrils and the consequent activation were time- and concentration-dependent. Moreover, the degree of fibrillization determined the efficiency of microglial internalization. Taken together, our study highlights the specific crosstalk of distinct alpha-synuclein species with microglial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alana Hoffmann
- Department of Molecular Neurology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Benjamin Ettle
- Department of Molecular Neurology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Ariane Bruno
- Department of Molecular Neurology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Anna Kulinich
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Anna-Carin Hoffmann
- Institute of Biochemistry, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Julia von Wittgenstein
- Department of Molecular Neurology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany; Institute of Biochemistry, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Jürgen Winkler
- Department of Molecular Neurology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Wei Xiang
- Institute of Biochemistry, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Johannes C M Schlachetzki
- Department of Molecular Neurology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany.
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18
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Hernandez J, Carrasco J, Arbonés M, Hidalgo J. IFN-γR -/- mice show an enhanced liver and brain metallothionein I+II response to endotoxin but not to immobilization stress. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.1177/096805199700400508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Interferon-γ (IFN-γ) is known for its important antiviral activity and other immunomodulatory actions. In in vitro studies, this cytokine has also been involved in the control of metallothionein (MT) synthesis. MT is a low molecular weight protein comprised of several isoforms called MT-I to MT-IV; of these, MT-1+11 are widely expressed, whereas MT-III and MT-IV are rather tissue specific. In the present report, we have studied in vivo the role of IFN-γ for a normal liver and brain MT-I+II response to immobilization stress and to an inflammatory process caused by bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS, endotoxin), using mice carrying a null mutation in the IFN-γ receptor gene (IFN-γR-/-). Liver MT-I mRNA and MT-(I+II) protein levels during stress of IFN-γR-/- mice were similar to those of the two parental mouse strains used to generate them, namely C57BU6 and 129/Sv mice, and that of the F1 C57BU6 x 129/Sv offspring mice. In contrast, liver MT response to LPS was significantly higher in the IFN-γR-/- mice than in the other strains. MT-I+II response to LPS was also higher in IFN-γR-/- mice in medulla plus pons and tended to in hypothalamus, hippocampus, and cerebellum, but not in the remaining brain. These results suggest that a role of IFN-γ on liver and brain MT-I+II response to stress is unlikely, but that this cytokine exerts an inhibitory effect on the signaling pathways activated by LPS involved in MT-I+II regulation. In situ hybridization analysis for MT-I and MT-III mRNAs of control mice revealed significant effects of the functional IFN-γ deficiency on MT-I but not MT-III mRNA levels in the dentate gyrus and the habenula, while no effects were observed in the remaining brain areas studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. Hernandez
- Departamento de Biología Celular y Fisiologfa, Unidad de Fisiologfa Animal, Facultad de Ciencias
| | - J. Carrasco
- Departamento de Biología Celular y Fisiologfa, Unidad de Fisiologfa Animal, Facultad de Ciencias
| | - M.L. Arbonés
- Departamento de Bioqufmica y Biologia Molecular y Instituto de Biologia Fundamental, Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - J. Hidalgo
- Departamento de Biología Celular y Fisiologfa, Unidad de Fisiologfa Animal, Facultad de Ciencias,
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Turrin NP, Plata-Salamán CR. Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Disease-associated and Cytokine-induced Neurological Manifestations. Nutr Neurosci 2016; 1:395-404. [DOI: 10.1080/1028415x.1998.11747250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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20
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Böhm MRR, Schallenberg M, Brockhaus K, Melkonyan H, Thanos S. The pro-inflammatory role of high-mobility group box 1 protein (HMGB-1) in photoreceptors and retinal explants exposed to elevated pressure. J Transl Med 2016; 96:409-27. [PMID: 26779828 DOI: 10.1038/labinvest.2015.156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2015] [Revised: 10/26/2015] [Accepted: 10/28/2015] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
To determine the role of high-mobility group box 1 protein (HMGB-1) in cellular and tissue models of elevated pressure-induced neurodegeneration, regeneration, and inflammation. Mouse retinal photoreceptor-derived cells (661W) and retinal explants were incubated either under elevated pressure or in the presence of recombinant HMGB-1 (rHMGB-1) to investigate the mechanisms of response of photoreceptors. Immunohistochemistry, western blotting, and the quantitative real-time PCR were used to examine the expression levels of immunological factors (eg, HMGB-1, receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE)), Toll-like receptors 2 and 4 (TLR-2, TLR-4), apoptosis-related factors (eg, B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2), Bcl-2-associated death promoter (Bad)) as well as cytokine expression (eg, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-4, IL-6, and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)). The data revealed increased the expression of HMGB-1 and its receptors RAGE, TLR-2, and TLR-4, and TNF-α as well as pro-apoptotic factors (eg, Bad) as well as apoptosis in 661W cells exposed to elevated pressure. Co-cultivation of 661W cells with rHMGB-1 increased the expression levels of pro-apoptotic Bad and cleaved Caspase-3 resulting in apoptosis. Cytokine array studies revealed an increased release of TNF-α, IL-4, IL-6, and VEGF after incubation of 661W cells with rHMGB-1. Upregulation of HMGB-1, TLR-2, and RAGE as well as anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 expression levels was found in the retinal explants exposed to rHMGB-1 or elevated pressure. The results suggest that HMGB-1 promotes an inflammatory response and mediates apoptosis in the pathology of photoreceptors and retinal homeostasis. HMGB-1 may have a key role in ongoing damage of retinal cells under conditions of elevated intraocular pressure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael R R Böhm
- Institute of Experimental Ophthalmology, School of Medicine, Westfalian-Wilhelms-University of Münster, Münster, Germany.,Department of Ophthalmology, St Franziskus Hospital Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Maurice Schallenberg
- Institute of Experimental Ophthalmology, School of Medicine, Westfalian-Wilhelms-University of Münster, Münster, Germany.,Department of Ophthalmology, University Hospital Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Katrin Brockhaus
- Institute of Experimental Ophthalmology, School of Medicine, Westfalian-Wilhelms-University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Harutyun Melkonyan
- Institute of Experimental Ophthalmology, School of Medicine, Westfalian-Wilhelms-University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Solon Thanos
- Institute of Experimental Ophthalmology, School of Medicine, Westfalian-Wilhelms-University of Münster, Münster, Germany.,Cluster of Excellence 'Cells in Motion, CiM', Münster, Germany
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Abstract
Influenza is a major health problem worldwide. Both seasonal influenza and pandemics take a major toll on the health and economy of our country. The present review focuses on the virology and complex immunology of this RNA virus in general and in relation to pregnancy. The goal is to attempt to explain the increased morbidity and mortality seen in infection during pregnancy. We discuss elements of innate and adaptive immunity as well as placental cellular responses to infection. In addition, we delineate findings in animal models as well as human disease. Increased knowledge of maternal and fetal immunologic responses to influenza is needed. However, enhanced understanding of nonimmune, pregnancy-specific factors influencing direct interaction of the virus with host cells is also important for the development of more effective prevention and treatment options in the future.
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MESH Headings
- Adaptive Immunity
- Animals
- Disease Models, Animal
- Female
- Host-Pathogen Interactions
- Humans
- Immune System/immunology
- Immune System/virology
- Immunity, Innate
- Immunization
- Influenza Vaccines/therapeutic use
- Influenza, Human/immunology
- Influenza, Human/mortality
- Influenza, Human/prevention & control
- Influenza, Human/virology
- Orthomyxoviridae/immunology
- Orthomyxoviridae/pathogenicity
- Pregnancy
- Pregnancy Complications, Infectious/immunology
- Pregnancy Complications, Infectious/mortality
- Pregnancy Complications, Infectious/prevention & control
- Pregnancy Complications, Infectious/virology
- Prognosis
- Risk Factors
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Affiliation(s)
- Renju S Raj
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, University of Vermont College of Medicine, Burlington, VT, USA
| | - Elizabeth A Bonney
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, University of Vermont College of Medicine, Burlington, VT, USA
| | - Mark Phillippe
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Vincent Center for Reproductive Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
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24
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Suzuki H, Asakawa A, Amitani H, Fujitsuka N, Nakamura N, Inui A. Cancer cachexia pathophysiology and translational aspect of herbal medicine. Jpn J Clin Oncol 2013; 43:695-705. [PMID: 23737606 DOI: 10.1093/jjco/hyt075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
About half of all cancer patients show a syndrome of cachexia, characterized by anorexia and loss of adipose tissue and skeletal muscle mass. Numerous cytokines have been postulated to play a role in the etiology of cancer cachexia. Cytokines can elicit effects that mimic leptin signaling and suppress orexigenic ghrelin and neuropeptide Y signaling, inducing sustained anorexia and cachexia not accompanied by the usual compensatory response. Furthermore, cytokines have been implicated in the induction of cancer-related muscle wasting. In particular, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-1, interleukin-6 and interferon-gamma have been implicated in the induction of cancer-related muscle wasting. Cytokine-induced skeletal muscle wasting is probably a multifactorial process, which involves a depression in protein synthesis, an increase in protein degradation or a combination of both. Cancer patients suffer from the reduction in physical function, tolerance to anti-cancer therapy and survival, while many effective chemotherapeutic agents for cancer are burdened by toxicities that can reduce patient's quality of life or hinder their effective use. Herbal medicines have been widely used to help improve such conditions. Recent studies have shown that herbal medicines such as rikkunshito enhance ghrelin signaling and consequently improve nausea, appetite loss and cachexia associated with cancer or cancer chemotherapy, which worsens the quality of life and life expectancy of the patients. The multicomponent herbal medicines capable of targeting multiple sites could be useful for future drug discovery. Mechanistic studies and identification of active compounds could lead to new discoveries in biological and biomedical sciences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hajime Suzuki
- Department of Psychosomatic Internal Medicine, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, 8-35-1 Sakuragaoka, Kagoshima, 890-8520, Japan
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25
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Suzuki H, Asakawa A, Amitani H, Nakamura N, Inui A. Cancer cachexia--pathophysiology and management. J Gastroenterol 2013; 48:574-94. [PMID: 23512346 PMCID: PMC3698426 DOI: 10.1007/s00535-013-0787-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 176] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2013] [Accepted: 02/20/2013] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
About half of all cancer patients show a syndrome of cachexia, characterized by anorexia and loss of adipose tissue and skeletal muscle mass. Cachexia can have a profound impact on quality of life, symptom burden, and a patient's sense of dignity. It is a very serious complication, as weight loss during cancer treatment is associated with more chemotherapy-related side effects, fewer completed cycles of chemotherapy, and decreased survival rates. Numerous cytokines have been postulated to play a role in the etiology of cancer cachexia. Cytokines can elicit effects that mimic leptin signaling and suppress orexigenic ghrelin and neuropeptide Y (NPY) signaling, inducing sustained anorexia and cachexia not accompanied by the usual compensatory response. Furthermore, cytokines have been implicated in the induction of cancer-related muscle wasting. Cytokine-induced skeletal muscle wasting is probably a multifactorial process, which involves a protein synthesis inhibition, an increase in protein degradation, or a combination of both. The best treatment of the cachectic syndrome is a multifactorial approach. Many drugs including appetite stimulants, thalidomide, cytokine inhibitors, steroids, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, branched-chain amino acids, eicosapentaenoic acid, and antiserotoninergic drugs have been proposed and used in clinical trials, while others are still under investigation using experimental animals. There is a growing awareness of the positive impact of supportive care measures and development of promising novel pharmaceutical agents for cachexia. While there has been great progress in understanding the underlying biological mechanisms of cachexia, health care providers must also recognize the psychosocial and biomedical impact cachexia can have.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hajime Suzuki
- />Department of Psychosomatic Internal Medicine, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, 8-35-1 Sakuragaoka, Kagoshima, 890-8520 Japan
- />Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima, 890-8520 Japan
| | - Akihiro Asakawa
- />Department of Psychosomatic Internal Medicine, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, 8-35-1 Sakuragaoka, Kagoshima, 890-8520 Japan
| | - Haruka Amitani
- />Department of Psychosomatic Internal Medicine, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, 8-35-1 Sakuragaoka, Kagoshima, 890-8520 Japan
| | - Norifumi Nakamura
- />Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima, 890-8520 Japan
| | - Akio Inui
- />Department of Psychosomatic Internal Medicine, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, 8-35-1 Sakuragaoka, Kagoshima, 890-8520 Japan
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26
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Abstract
Chronic and acute renal diseases, irrespective of the initiating cause, have inflammation and immune system activation as a common underlying mechanism. The purpose of this review is to provide a broad overview of immune cells and inflammatory proteins that contribute to the pathogenesis of renal disease, and to discuss some of the physiological changes that occur in the kidney as a result of immune system activation. An overview of common forms of acute and chronic renal disease is provided, followed by a discussion of common therapies that have anti-inflammatory or immunosuppressive effects in the treatment of renal disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- John D Imig
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA.
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27
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Takács G, Szalay C, Nagy B, Szabó I, Simon D, Berki T, Karádi Z. Insulin and leptin plasma levels after the microinjection of interleukin-1β into the nucleus accumbens of the rat. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 99:472-8. [PMID: 23238549 DOI: 10.1556/aphysiol.99.2012.4.11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The nucleus accumbens (NAcc), an important basal forebrain structure, has a central integratory function in the control of feeding and metabolism. The primary cytokine interleukin-1β (IL-1β) exerts its neuromodulatory effects on the endocrine functions both centrally and peripherally. The present study was designed to elucidate the possible consequences of direct administration of IL-1β into the NAcc on the endocrine regulation of metabolism. Plasma concentrations of insulin and leptin, two key hormones in the homeostatic control were determined 15 minutes after a single bilateral microinjection of IL-1β into the NAcc of adult male Wistar rats, and the effects were compared with those found in vehicle treated control animals. Insulin plasma levels of the cytokine treated animals were significantly higher than those parameters of the control rats. No differences were found in leptin plasma concentrations between the two groups. Our findings show that IL-1β mediated processes in the NAcc have important roles in the central neuroendocrine control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gábor Takács
- Institute of Physiology and Neurophysiology Research Group, Hungarian Academy of Sciences Pécs, Hungary.
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Gottschall PE, Tatsuno I, Arimura A. Increased sensitivity of glioblastoma cells to interleukin 1 after long-term incubation with dexamethasone. Mol Cell Neurosci 2012; 3:49-55. [PMID: 19912845 DOI: 10.1016/1044-7431(92)90008-p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/1991] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytokines may act as chemical messengers in the central nervous system and affect trophic, immune, and neuroendocrine functions. However, little is known about the regulation of cytokine production in nervous system tissue, although it has been demonstrated recently that glucocorticoids augment interleukin 1 (IL 1) receptor expression in the glioblastoma cell line, U87MG. Here, the effects of glucocorticoids on IL 1-induced interleukin 6 (IL 6) production are determined in the same cell line. During short-term incubations of U87MG cells (6 h) in the presence of IL 1beta and dexamethasone (DEX), DEX inhibited IL 1beta-stimulated IL 6 production over the entire range of the dose-response curve. However, when cells were preincubated in the presence of DEX for 15 h and then challenged with IL 1beta or IL 1beta and DEX, there was a left-shift in the IL 1,B dose-response curve, suggesting an increased sensitivity of the cells to respond to IL 1 and produce IL 6. In fact, the ED(50) for IL 1beta-stimulated IL 6 production was about 1.3 pM in cells not preincubated with DEX, but was reduced to 0.25 pM in cells that were preincubated with DEX. However, maximum IL 6 production at high doses of IL 1beta was inhibited in cells cultured in the presence of DEX during the IL 1 challenge. Thus, the results suggest the possibility that when glucocorticoids are elevated for extended periods, and concentrations of IL 1 are low because of steroid suppression of IL 1 production, actions of IL 1 may be maintained or even augmented due to up-regulated IL 1 receptor expression in particular cell types. This would allow for glucocorticoid-targeted actions of IL-1 to be maintained in particular cell types that up-regulate IL 1 receptors in response to glucocorticoid, whereas in those cell types that do not up-regulate IL 1 receptor number, IL 1 actions are suppressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- P E Gottschall
- U.S.-Japan Biomedical Research Laboratories, Tulane University Hebert Center, Belle Chasse, Louisiana 70037, USA; Departments of Medicine, Anatomy and hysiology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA
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Abstract
Recent research has overcome the old paradigms of the brain as an immunologically privileged organ, and of the exclusive role of neurotransmitters and neuropeptides as signal transducers in the central nervous system. Growing evidence suggests that the signal proteins of the immune system - the cytokines - are also involved in modulation of behavior and induction of psychiatric symptoms. This article gives an overview on the nature of cytokines and the proposed mechanisms of immune-to-brain interaction. The role of cytokines in psychiatric symptoms, syndromes, and disorders like sickness behavior, major depression, and schizophrenia are discussed together with recent immunogenetic findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus J Schwarz
- Psychiatric Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany
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Yoshida T, Semprun-Prieto L, Wainford RD, Sukhanov S, Kapusta DR, Delafontaine P. Angiotensin II reduces food intake by altering orexigenic neuropeptide expression in the mouse hypothalamus. Endocrinology 2012; 153:1411-20. [PMID: 22234465 PMCID: PMC3281527 DOI: 10.1210/en.2011-1764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Angiotensin II (Ang II), which is elevated in many chronic disease states such as end-stage renal disease and congestive heart failure, induces cachexia and skeletal muscle wasting by increasing muscle protein breakdown and reducing food intake. Neurohormonal mechanisms that mediate Ang II-induced appetite suppression are unknown. Consequently, we examined the effect of Ang II on expression of genes regulating appetite. Systemic Ang II (1 μg/kg · min) infusion in FVB mice rapidly reduced hypothalamic expression of neuropeptide Y (Npy) and orexin and decreased food intake at 6 h compared with sham-infused controls but did not change peripheral leptin, ghrelin, adiponectin, glucagon-like peptide, peptide YY, or cholecystokinin levels. These effects were completely blocked by the Ang II type I receptor antagonist candesartan or deletion of Ang II type 1a receptor. Ang II markedly reduced phosphorylation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), an enzyme that is known to regulate Npy expression. Intracerebroventricular Ang II infusion (50 ng/kg · min) caused a reduction of food intake, and Ang II dose dependently reduced Npy and orexin expression in the hypothalamus cultured ex vivo. The reduction of Npy and orexin in hypothalamic cultures was completely prevented by candesartan or the AMPK activator 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide ribonucleoside. Thus, Ang II type 1a receptor-dependent Ang II signaling reduces food intake by suppressing the hypothalamic expression of Npy and orexin, likely via AMPK dephosphorylation. These findings have major implications for understanding mechanisms of cachexia in chronic disease states such as congestive heart failure and end-stage renal disease, in which the renin-angiotensin system is activated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tadashi Yoshida
- Heart and Vascular Institute, Tulane University School of Medicine, 1430 Tulane Avenue SL-48, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA
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31
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Emotional stress and heart rate variability measures associated with cardiovascular risk in relocated Katrina survivors. Psychosom Med 2012; 74:160-8. [PMID: 22286851 DOI: 10.1097/psy.0b013e318240a801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To explore the effects of hurricane exposure and forced relocation on the mind and body, we compared psychiatric diagnoses and symptoms with heart rate variability (HRV) for 34 relocated Katrina survivors and 34 demographically matched controls. METHODS All participants were healthy and free of psychiatric and cardiovascular medications. We measured symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale 1) and depression (Beck Depression Inventory), Axis I psychiatric diagnoses (Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV), psychosocial disability (Sheehan Disability Scale), and power spectral analysis HRV reactivity to trauma reminders. RESULTS Katrina-related PTSD occurred in 38% of survivors and 12% of controls. Survivors reported higher levels of PTSD and depression symptoms, within diagnostic ranges, and greater psychosocial disability than controls. Survivors had higher resting heart rate (80.82 [standard deviation = 13.60] versus 74.85 [10.67], p = .05), lower parasympathetic (high-frequency [HF] normalized unit) baseline HRV activity (40.14 [23.81] versus 50.67 [19.93], p = .04) and less reactivity with trauma cues (-2.63 [20.70] versus -11.96 [15.84], p = .04), and higher baseline sympathovagal activity (low frequency/HF ratio) (2.84 [3.08] versus 1.35 [1.08], p = .04) than controls. Survivors with depression (n = 12) and with depression and PTSD combined (n = 7), but not those with PTSD (n = 13), had flattened parasympathetic responsiveness to trauma cues. HRV indices correlated with depressive (low frequency/HF, p = .01; HF normalized unit, p = .046) but not PTSD symptoms (p values > .05). CONCLUSIONS Results showed this multilayer trauma's impact on emotional health and HRV-based measures of autonomic nervous system dysregulation. Specifically, dysregulation of depressed survivors' HRV in response to trauma reminders supports more autonomic involvement in traumatic loss/depression than in PTSD. Diagnostic criteria for PTSD include physiologic reactivity, and the present findings suggest that, in this setting, altered physiologic reactivity observed when PTSD coexists with depression.
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32
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Patra SK, Arora S. Integrative role of neuropeptides and cytokines in cancer anorexia-cachexia syndrome. Clin Chim Acta 2012; 413:1025-34. [PMID: 22251421 DOI: 10.1016/j.cca.2011.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2011] [Revised: 12/02/2011] [Accepted: 12/08/2011] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The cachexia anorexia syndrome is a complex metabolic syndrome associated with cancer and some other palliative conditions characterized by involuntary weight loss involving fat and muscle, weight loss, anorexia, early satiety, fatigue, weakness due to shifts in metabolism caused by tumour by-products and cytokines. Various neuropeptides like Leptin, neuropeptide Y, melanocortin, agouti-related peptides have been known to regulate appetite and body weight. METHOD A comprehensive literature search was carried out on the websites of Pubmed Central (http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/), National Library of Medicine (http://www.ncbl.nlm.nih.gov) and various other net resources. RESULT Data from observational studies shows that various cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1) are associated with metabolic changes resulting in cachexia in cancer patients. These cytokines may mimic the action of various neuropeptides resulting in anorexia, various metabolic effects resulting from enhanced catabolic state and weight loss. CONCLUSION There is a need to understand and explore the role of various neuropeptides and cytokines in the pathophysiology of cancer-anorexia syndrome so that therapeutic measures may be designed for effective palliative care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Surajeet K Patra
- Department of Biochemistry, Lady Hardinge Medical College, New Delhi-110001, India
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Reyes-Vázquez C, Prieto-Gómez B, Dafny N. Interferon modulates central nervous system function. Brain Res 2011; 1442:76-89. [PMID: 22322149 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2011.09.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2011] [Revised: 09/26/2011] [Accepted: 09/27/2011] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The interferons (IFNs) are an endogenous pleiotropic family of cytokines that perform fundamental physiological functions as well as protecting host organisms from disease and in maintaining homeostasis. This review covers the effects of endogenous IFN on the nervous system. It starts with the description of its receptors, followed how it modulate neuronal activity, mood, sleep, temperature, the endocrine system, the opioid system and how it regulate food consumption and the immune system. Similar to other multifunctional cytokines, an excessive or inappropriate activity of IFNs can cause toxicity and even death. Furthermore, IFNs are currently the major treatment modality for several malignant and non-malignant diseases such as chronic hepatitis C and B, multiple sclerosis, hematological malignancies, malignant melanoma, renal cell carcinoma, etc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cruz Reyes-Vázquez
- Departamento de Fisiología, División de Investigación, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Apdo. Postal 70250, México, 20, DF México
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Döll S, Dänicke S. The Fusarium toxins deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZON) in animal feeding. Prev Vet Med 2011; 102:132-45. [PMID: 21571381 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2011.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The contamination of cereal grains with toxic secondary metabolites of fungi, mycotoxins, is a permanent challenge in animal nutrition as health and performance of the animals may be compromised as well as the quality of animal derived food. Therefore the present article reviews the issue of mycotoxins in animal nutrition. As the Fusarium toxins deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZON) are of particular importance under the production conditions in central Europe and Germany, with respect to their frequent occurrence in toxicologically relevant concentrations, special emphasis is layed on those mycotoxins. The effects of DON and ZON on susceptible animals as well as management strategies to cope with the contamination of grain with those toxins are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne Döll
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Bundesallee 50, D-38116 Braunschweig, Germany.
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Müller N, Myint AM, Schwarz MJ. Inflammatory biomarkers and depression. Neurotox Res 2010; 19:308-18. [PMID: 20658274 DOI: 10.1007/s12640-010-9210-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2009] [Revised: 06/28/2010] [Accepted: 07/01/2010] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Antidepressants, predominantly serotonin- and/or noradrenaline reuptake inhibiting drugs have several shortcomings. The exact pathophysiological mechanisms leading to serotonergic-, noradrenergic- or dopaminergic dysfunction are still unclear. An inflammatory mechanism has been postulated and will be discussed here including possible therapeutic advantages of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors. Differences in the activation of the enzyme indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) and in the tryptophan-kynurenine metabolism resulting in an increased tryptophan and serotonin degradation and probably in an increased production of quinolinic acid might play a key role in major depression (MD). These differences are associated with an imbalance in the glutamatergic neurotransmission, which may contribute to an overweight of N-methyl-D: -aspartate agonism in MD. The immunological imbalance results in an increased prostaglandin E₂ production and probably also in an increased COX-2 expression. Although there is strong evidence for the view that the interactions of the immune system, IDO, the serotonergic system and the glutamatergic neurotransmission play a key role in MD, several gaps, e.g. the roles of genetics, disease course, sex, different psychopathological states, etc., have to be bridged by intense further research. There were already hints that anti-inflammatory therapy might have beneficial effects in MD. COX-2 inhibitors, however, have been tested in animal models and in preliminary clinical studies showing favourable effects compared to placebo in MD. The effects of COX-2 inhibition in the CNS as well as the different components of the inflammatory system, the kynurenine-metabolism and the glutamatergic neurotransmission, however, still need careful further scientific evaluation including clinical studies in bigger samples of patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Norbert Müller
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Nußbaumstr. 7, 80336 München, Germany.
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36
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Grossberg AJ, Scarlett JM, Marks DL. Hypothalamic mechanisms in cachexia. Physiol Behav 2010; 100:478-89. [PMID: 20346963 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2010.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2010] [Revised: 03/10/2010] [Accepted: 03/12/2010] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The role of nutrition and balanced metabolism in normal growth, development, and health maintenance is well known. Patients affected with either acute or chronic diseases often show disorders of nutrient balance. In some cases, a devastating state of malnutrition known as cachexia arises, brought about by a synergistic combination of a dramatic decrease in appetite and an increase in metabolism of fat and lean body mass. Other common features that are not required for the diagnosis include decreases in voluntary movement, insulin resistance, and anhedonia. This combination is found in a number of disorders including cancer, cystic fibrosis, AIDS, rheumatoid arthritis, renal failure, and Alzheimer's disease. The severity of cachexia in these illnesses is often the primary determining factor in both quality of life, and in eventual mortality. Indeed, body mass retention in AIDS patients has a stronger association with survival than any other current measure of the disease. This has led to intense investigation of cachexia and the proposal of numerous hypotheses regarding its etiology. Most authors suggest that cytokines released during inflammation and malignancy act on the central nervous system to alter the release and function of a number of neurotransmitters, thereby altering both appetite and metabolic rate. This review will discuss the salient features of cachexia in human diseases, and review the mechanisms whereby inflammation alters the function of key brain regions to produce stereotypical illness behavior. The paper represents an invited review by a symposium, award winner or keynote speaker at the Society for the Study of Ingestive Behavior [SSIB] Annual Meeting in Portland, July 2009.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron J Grossberg
- Department of Pediatrics, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
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Takács G, Papp S, Lukáts B, Szalay C, Nagy B, Fotakos D, Karádi Z. Homeostatic alterations after IL-1beta microinjection into the nucleus accumbens of the rat. Appetite 2010; 54:354-62. [PMID: 20060862 DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2010.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2009] [Revised: 12/29/2009] [Accepted: 01/05/2010] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The present study investigates the effects of direct administration of interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta) into the nucleus accumbens (NAcc) on homeostatic regulation. Short- and long-term food intakes (FI), water intakes (WI) and body temperature (BT) were measured before and after bilateral microinjection of IL-1beta (with or without paracetamol pretreatment) into the NAcc of Wistar rats, and the effects were compared with those found in vehicle treated control animals. In addition, blood glucose levels, along with a glucose tolerance test (GTT), and plasma concentrations of metabolic parameters, such as total cholesterol, triglycerides, HDL, LDL and uric acid were determined in cytokine treated and control rats. Short-term FI and WI were suppressed after intraaccumbens application of IL-1beta. A significant increase of BT was also observed after the cytokine microinjection. Pretreatment with paracetamol failed to influence the anorexigenic, adipsogenic, and pyrogenic effects of IL-1beta. A definite glucose intolerance of the cytokine treated animals and their pathologically elevated blood glucose levels became obvious in the acute GTT. Following IL-1beta microinjection, plasma levels of triglycerides, total cholesterol and LDL were found increased. Our present findings show that the NAcc is an important site of action of IL-1beta mediated processes in central homeostatic regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gábor Takács
- Institute of Physiology and Neurophysiology Research Group of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Pécs University, Medical School, Szigeti str. 12, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary.
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Jornada LK, Valvassori SS, Arent CO, Leffa D, Damiani AA, Hainzenreder G, Ferreira CL, Moretti M, Andrade VM, Quevedo J. DNA damage after intracerebroventricular injection of ouabain in rats. Neurosci Lett 2010; 471:6-9. [PMID: 20056132 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2009.12.072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2009] [Revised: 12/01/2009] [Accepted: 12/29/2009] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
There is an emerging body of data suggesting that bipolar disorder is associated with DNA damage. Intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) administration of ouabain in rats results in manic-like alterations. We evaluated DNA damage of peripheral blood, cerebrospinal fluid and hippocampus of rats after i.c.v. ouabain injection. Ouabain-induced hyperlocomotion was examined in an open field. Additionally, we used single cell gel electrophoresis (comet assay) to measure early transient damage in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), hippocampus and blood; and the micronucleus test to measure persistent damage in total blood samples of rats after ouabain administration. Our findings demonstrated that ouabain induced hyperlocomotion in rats, and this response remained up to 7 days following a single i.c.v. injection. In addition, we observed that the persistent increase in the rat spontaneous locomotion is associated with increased hippocampal and peripheral index of early DNA damage in rats. No significant alterations were observed in the micronucleus frequency in total blood samples of the rats after the ouabain i.c.v. injection. These results suggest that ouabain may induce peripheral and central early DNA damage, but this early damage may be repaired.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luciano K Jornada
- Laboratory of Neurosciences and National Institute for Translational Medicine, University of Southern Santa Catarina, Criciúma, SC, Brazil
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Thaler JP, Choi SJ, Schwartz MW, Wisse BE. Hypothalamic inflammation and energy homeostasis: resolving the paradox. Front Neuroendocrinol 2010; 31:79-84. [PMID: 19822168 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2009.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2009] [Revised: 09/04/2009] [Accepted: 10/05/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Determining the effect of hypothalamic inflammatory signals on energy balance presents a paradox. On the one hand, a large body of work has identified inflammatory signaling in the hypothalamus as an essential mediator of the sickness response--the anorexia, cachexia, fever, inactivity, lethargy, anhedonia and adipsia that are triggered by systemic inflammatory stimuli and promote negative energy balance. On the other hand, numerous recent studies implicate inflammatory activation within the hypothalamus as a key factor whereby high-fat diets--and saturated fats in particular--cause central leptin and insulin resistance and thereby promote the defense of elevated body weight. This paradox will likely remain unresolved until several issues have been addressed. Firstly, the hypothalamus--unlike many peripheral inflamed tissues--is an extremely heterogeneous tissue comprised of astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, endothelial cells, ependymal cells as well as numerous neuronal subgroups. Determining exactly which cells activate defined inflammatory signals in response to a particular stimulus--i.e. sepsis vs. nutrient excess--may yield critical clues. Secondly, for the sake of simplicity many studies evaluate inflammation as an on/off phenomenon. More realistically, inflammatory signaling occurs as a cascade or cycle that changes and progresses over time. Accordingly, even within the same cell type, the low-grade, chronic signal induced by nutrient excess may invoke a different cascade of signals than a strong, acute signal such as sepsis. In addition, because tolerance can develop to certain inflammatory mediators, physiological outcomes may not correlate with early biochemical markers. Lastly, the neuroanatomical location, magnitude, and duration of the inflammatory stimulus can undoubtedly influence the net CNS response. Rigorously evaluating the progression of the inflammatory signaling cascade within specific hypothalamic cell types is a key next step towards resolving the paradox surrounding the effect of inflammatory signaling on energy homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua P Thaler
- Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology and Nutrition, Department of Medicine, Diabetes and Obesity Center of Excellence, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98108, USA
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Kwon MS, Seo YJ, Choi SM, Won MH, Lee JK, Park SH, Jung JS, Sim YB, Suh HW. The time-dependent effect of lipopolysaccharide on kainic acid-induced neuronal death in hippocampal CA3 region: possible involvement of cytokines via glucocorticoid. Neuroscience 2009; 165:1333-44. [PMID: 19961903 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.11.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2009] [Revised: 11/21/2009] [Accepted: 11/23/2009] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
It has been reported that glucocorticoid (Gc) can induce neuronal cell toxicity in the hippocampus. In addition, we examined that serum Gc increased by restraint stress aggravated kainic acid (KA)-induced neuronal death in hippocampal CA3 region. However, the effect of other stressful stimulus like lipopolysaccharide (LPS) increasing serum Gc on KA-induced neuronal death was not elucidated until now. Thus, we examined the time course effect of LPS on KA-induced neuronal death in the hippocampal CA3 region of mice, especially to address the role of Gc and inflammatory mediators. In the present study, we found that an aggravating effect of LPS on KA-induced neuronal death was correlated with an alteration of hippocampal IL-1beta mRNA level at all time points, and the serum Gc and hippocampal IL-1beta mRNA level was peak at 90 min after LPS treatment (LPS 90 min) when the aggravating effect of LPS on KA-induced neuronal death was maximum. In addition, RU38486 (glucocorticoid receptor antagonist) decreased the hippocampal IL-1beta mRNA level and abolished the aggravating effect of LPS on KA-induced neuronal death at LPS 90 min and 24 h. In the immunohistochemical study, we found activated and ramified microglia (OX-42) and astrocyte (GFAP) at 24 h after LPS treatment (LPS 24 h) in the hippocampus. These results suggest that Gc itself, cytokines triggered by Gc, or both appears to be involved in the LPS effect depending on LPS pretreatment time.
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Affiliation(s)
- M-S Kwon
- Department of Aerospace Medical Research, Aerospace Medical Center, Republic of Korea Air Force (ROKAF), Chungcheongbuk-Do, South Korea
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Lang JY, Wang JS, Zhai HF, Fang Q, Wu P, Lu L. Interferon-alpha reinstates morphine-conditioned place preference through opioid receptors in rats. Behav Pharmacol 2009; 20:166-73. [DOI: 10.1097/fbp.0b013e32832a805e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Döll S, Schrickx JA, Dänicke S, Fink-Gremmels J. Deoxynivalenol-induced cytotoxicity, cytokines and related genes in unstimulated or lipopolysaccharide stimulated primary porcine macrophages. Toxicol Lett 2009; 184:97-106. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2008.10.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2008] [Revised: 10/22/2008] [Accepted: 10/26/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Takács G, Lukáts B, Papp S, Szalay C, Karádi Z. Taste reactivity alterations after IL-1β microinjection into the ventromedial hypothalamic nucleus of the rat. Neurosci Res 2008; 62:118-22. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2008.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2008] [Revised: 06/24/2008] [Accepted: 06/25/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Otmishi P, Gordon J, El-Oshar S, Li H, Guardiola J, Saad M, Proctor M, Yu J. Neuroimmune interaction in inflammatory diseases. CLINICAL MEDICINE. CIRCULATORY, RESPIRATORY AND PULMONARY MEDICINE 2008; 2:35-44. [PMID: 21157520 PMCID: PMC2990232 DOI: 10.4137/ccrpm.s547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The inflammatory response is modulated through interactions among the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems. Intercommunication between immune cells and the autonomic nervous system is a growing area of interest. Spatial and temporal information about inflammatory processes is relayed to the central nervous system (CNS) where neuroimmune modulation serves to control the extent and intensity of the inflammation. Over the past few decades, research has revealed various routes by which the nervous system and the immune system communicate. The CNS regulates the immune system via hormonal and neuronal pathways, including the sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves. The immune system signals the CNS through cytokines that act both centrally and peripherally. This review aims to introduce the concept of neuroimmune interaction and discuss its potential clinical application, in an attempt to broaden the awareness of this rapidly evolving area and open up new avenues that may aid in the treatment of inflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peyman Otmishi
- Pulmonary and Critical Care, Department of Medicine, Ambulatory Care Building, 3rd floor University of Louisville, Louisville, KY 40292, U.S.A
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Cytokines in Synaptic Function. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/s1567-7443(07)10007-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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Müller N, Schwarz MJ. The immune-mediated alteration of serotonin and glutamate: towards an integrated view of depression. Mol Psychiatry 2007; 12:988-1000. [PMID: 17457312 DOI: 10.1038/sj.mp.4002006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 454] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Beside the well-known deficiency in serotonergic neurotransmission as pathophysiological correlate of major depression (MD), recent evidence points to a pivotal role of increased glutamate receptor activation as well. However, cause and interaction of these neurotransmitter alterations are not understood. In this review, we present a hypothesis integrating current concepts of neurotransmission and hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysregulation with findings on immunological alterations and alterations in brain morphology in MD. An immune activation including increased production of proinflammatory cytokines has repeatedly been described in MD. Proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-2, interferon-gamma, or tumor necrosis factor-alpha activate the tryptophan- and serotonin-degrading enzyme indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO). Depressive states during inflammatory somatic disorders are also associated with increased proinflammatory cytokines and increased consumption of tryptophan via activation of IDO. An enhanced consumption of serotonin and its precursor tryptophan through IDO activation could well explain the reduced availability of serotonergic neurotransmission in MD. An increased activation of IDO and its subsequent enzyme kynurenine monooxygenase by proinflammatory cytokines, moreover, leads to an enhanced production of quinolinic acid, a strong agonist of the glutamatergic N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor. In inflammatory states of the central nervous system, IDO is mainly activated in microglial cells, which preferentially metabolize tryptophan to the NMDA receptor agonist quinolinic acid, whereas astrocytes - counteracting this metabolism due to the lack of an enzyme of this metabolism - have been observed to be reduced in MD. Therefore the type 1/type 2 immune response imbalance, associated with an astrocyte/microglia imbalance, leads to serotonergic deficiency and glutamatergic overproduction. Astrocytes are further strongly involved in re-uptake and metabolic conversion of glutamate. The reduced number of astrocytes could contribute to both, a diminished counterregulation of IDO activity in microglia and an altered glutamatergic neurotransmission. Further search for antidepressant agents should take into account anti-inflammatory drugs, for example, cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors, might exert antidepressant effects by acting on serotonergic deficiency, glutamatergic hyperfunction and antagonizing neurotoxic effects of quinolinic acid.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Müller
- Department for Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, München, Germany.
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Ropelle ER, Pauli JR, Zecchin KG, Ueno M, de Souza CT, Morari J, Faria MC, Velloso LA, Saad MJA, Carvalheira JBC. A central role for neuronal adenosine 5'-monophosphate-activated protein kinase in cancer-induced anorexia. Endocrinology 2007; 148:5220-9. [PMID: 17717055 DOI: 10.1210/en.2007-0381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The pathogenesis of cancer anorexia is multifactorial and associated with disturbances of the central physiological mechanisms controlling food intake. However, the neurochemical mechanisms responsible for cancer-induced anorexia are unclear. Here we show that chronic infusion of 5-amino-4imidazolecarboxamide-riboside into the third cerebral ventricle and a chronic peripheral injection of 2 deoxy-d-glucose promotes hypothalamic AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activation, increases food intake, and prolongs the survival of anorexic tumor-bearing (TB) rats. In parallel, the pharmacological activation of hypothalamic AMPK in TB animals markedly reduced the hypothalamic production of inducible nitric oxide synthase, IL-1beta, and TNF-alpha and modulated the expression of proopiomelanocortin, a hypothalamic neuropeptide that is involved in the control of energy homeostasis. Furthermore, the daily oral and intracerebroventricular treatment with biguanide antidiabetic drug metformin also induced AMPK phosphorylation in the central nervous system and increased food intake and life span in anorexic TB rats. Collectively, the findings of this study suggest that hypothalamic AMPK activation reverses cancer anorexia by inhibiting the production of proinflammatory molecules and controlling the neuropeptide expression in the hypothalamus, reflecting in a prolonged life span in TB rats. Thus, our data indicate that hypothalamic AMPK activation presents an attractive opportunity for the treatment of cancer-induced anorexia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo R Ropelle
- Department of Internal Medicine, FCM, State University of Campinas-UNICAMP, 13083-970 Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
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Mössner R, Mikova O, Koutsilieri E, Saoud M, Ehlis AC, Müller N, Fallgatter AJ, Riederer P. Consensus paper of the WFSBP Task Force on Biological Markers: biological markers in depression. World J Biol Psychiatry 2007; 8:141-74. [PMID: 17654407 DOI: 10.1080/15622970701263303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 171] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Biological markers for depression are of great interest to aid in elucidating the causes of major depression. We assess currently available biological markers to query their validity for aiding in the diagnosis of major depression. We specifically focus on neurotrophic factors, serotonergic markers, biochemical markers, immunological markers, neuroimaging, neurophysiological findings, and neuropsychological markers. We delineate the most robust biological markers of major depression. These include decreased platelet imipramine binding, decreased 5-HT1A receptor expression, increase of soluble interleukin-2 receptor and interleukin-6 in serum, decreased brain-derived neurotrophic factor in serum, hypocholesterolemia, low blood folate levels, and impaired suppression of the dexamethasone suppression test. To date, however, none of these markers are sufficiently specific to contribute to the diagnosis of major depression. Thus, with regard to new diagnostic manuals such as DSM-V and ICD-11 which are currently assessing whether biological markers may be included in diagnostic criteria, no biological markers for major depression are currently available for inclusion in the diagnostic criteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rainald Mössner
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
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Müller N, Schwarz M. Immunologische Aspekte bei depressiven Störungen. DER NERVENARZT 2007; 78:1261-73. [DOI: 10.1007/s00115-007-2311-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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Ponzio NM, Servatius R, Beck K, Marzouk A, Kreider T. Cytokine levels during pregnancy influence immunological profiles and neurobehavioral patterns of the offspring. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2007; 1107:118-28. [PMID: 17804539 DOI: 10.1196/annals.1381.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
The underlying causes of autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are unknown, but clinical and experimental studies indicate immune mechanisms, in general, and cytokine dysregulation, in particular, as contributing factors in their etiology. We developed a prenatal mouse model of autism to demonstrate that circulating levels of defined cytokines in pregnant dams could influence fetal development and behavioral characteristics in their offspring. We administered daily injections of murine IL-2 (0.4 mug in phosphate-buffered saline [PBS]) to pregnant mice during mid-gestation, and analyzed their offspring (IL-2 pups) in comparison to offspring of pregnant mice injected with vehicle only (PBS pups). Significant levels of IL-2 were present in amniotic fluid and tissues from embryos of dams given radiolabeled IL-2, indicating that the injected IL-2 crossed the placenta and entered the fetuses. Lymphocytes from IL-2 pups demonstrated accelerated T cell development, with a skewing toward TH1 cell differentiation. IL-2 pups also showed in vitro proliferative and cytotoxicity responses that were significantly higher than control PBS pups when stimulated with syngeneic B lymphoma cells or allogeneic spleen cells. In addition to their previously shown increases in open-field activity, grooming and rearing behavior, offspring of IL-2-injected (vs. PBS-injected) dams also displayed abnormal new motor learning as assessed through acquisition of the classically conditioned eyeblink response. These results suggest that increases in maternal levels of IL-2 during pregnancy induce in their offspring long-lasting increased vulnerability to neurobehavioral abnormalities associated with autism, and provide a valid animal model to determine the underlying immunological mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas M Ponzio
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, UMDNJ, New Jersey Medical School, 185 South Orange Avenue, Newark, NJ 07103, USA.
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