The real life of voltage-gated K+ channels: more than model behaviour

Dopamine D2 autoreceptor interactome: Targeting the receptor complex as a strategy for treatment of substance use disorder

Dopamine D2 autoreceptors (D2ARs), located in somatodendritic and axon terminal compartments of dopamine (DA) neurons, function to provide a negative feedback regulatory control on DA neuron firing, DA synthesis, reuptake and release. Dysregulation of D2AR-mediated DA signaling is implicated in vulnerability to substance use disorder (SUD). Due to the extreme low abundance of D2ARs compared to postsynaptic D2 receptors (D2PRs) and the lack of experimental tools to differentiate the signaling of D2ARs from D2PRs, the regulation of D2ARs by drugs of abuse is poorly understood. The recent availability of conditional D2AR knockout mice and newly developed virus-mediated gene delivery approaches have provided means to specifically study the function of D2ARs at the molecular, cellular and behavioral levels. There is a growing revelation of novel mechanisms and new proteins that mediate D2AR activity, suggesting that D2ARs act cooperatively with an array of membrane and intracellular proteins to tightly control DA transmission. This review highlights D2AR-interacting partners including transporters, G-protein-coupled receptors, ion channels, intracellular signaling modulators, and protein kinases. The complexity of the D2AR interaction network illustrates the functional divergence of D2ARs. Pharmacological targeting of multiple D2AR-interacting partners may be more effective to restore disrupted DA homeostasis by drugs of abuse.

The serotonin 5-HT2C receptor and the non-addictive nature of classic hallucinogens

Classic hallucinogens share pharmacology as serotonin 5-HT_2A, 5-HT_2B, and 5-HT_2C receptor agonists. Unique among most other Schedule 1 drugs, they are generally non-addictive and can be effective tools in the treatment of addiction. Mechanisms underlying these attributes are largely unknown. However, many preclinical studies show that 5-HT_2C agonists counteract the addictive effects of drugs from several classes, suggesting this pharmacological property of classic hallucinogens may be significant. Drawing from a comprehensive analysis of preclinical behavior, neuroanatomy, and neurochemistry studies, this review builds rationale for this hypothesis, and also proposes a testable, neurobiological framework. 5-HT_2C agonists work, in part, by modulating dopamine neuron activity in the ventral tegmental area-nucleus accumbens (NAc) reward pathway. We argue that activation of 5-HT_2C receptors on NAc shell, GABAergic, medium spiny neurons inhibits potassium Kv1.x channels, thereby enhancing inhibitory activity via intrinsic mechanisms. Together with experiments that show that addictive drugs, such as cocaine, potentiate Kv1.x channels, thereby suppressing NAc shell GABAergic activity, this hypothesis provides a mechanism by which classic hallucinogen-mediated stimulation of 5-HT_2C receptors could thwart addiction. It also provides a potential reason for the non-addictive nature of classic hallucinogens.

Increased Kv1 channel expression may contribute to decreased sIPSC frequency following chronic inhibition of NR2B-containing NMDAR

Numerous studies have documented the effects of chronic N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) blockade on excitatory circuits, but the effects on inhibitory circuitry are not well studied. NR2A- and NR2B-containing NMDARs play differential roles in physiological processes, but the consequences of chronic NR2A- or NR2B-containing NMDAR inhibition on glutamatergic and GABAergic neurotransmission are unknown. We investigated altered GABAergic neurotransmission in dentate granule cells and interneurons following chronic treatment with the NR2B-selective antagonist, Ro25,6981, the NR2A-prefering antagonist, NVP-AAM077, or the non-subunit-selective NMDAR antagonist, D-APV, in organotypic hippocampal slice cultures. Electrophysiological recordings revealed large reductions in spontaneous inhibitory postsynaptic current (sIPSC) frequency in both granule cells and interneurons following chronic Ro25,6981 treatment, which was associated with minimally altered sIPSC amplitude, miniature inhibitory postsynaptic current (mIPSC) frequency, and mIPSC amplitude, suggesting diminished action potential-dependent GABA release. Chronic NVP-AAM077 or D-APV treatment had little effect on these measures. Reduced sIPSC frequency did not arise from downregulated GABA(A)R, altered excitatory or inhibitory drive to interneurons, altered interneuron membrane properties, increased failure rate, decreased action potential-dependent release probability, or mGluR/GABA(B) receptor modulation of GABA release. However, chronic Ro25,6981-mediated reductions in sIPSC frequency were occluded by the K+ channel blockers, dendrotoxin, margatoxin, and agitoxin, but not dendrotoxin-K or XE991. Immunohistochemistry also showed increased Kv1.2, Kv1.3, and Kv1.6 in the dentate molecular layer following chronic Ro25,6981 treatment. Our findings suggest that increased Kv1 channel expression/function contributed to diminished action potential-dependent GABA release following chronic NR2B-containing NMDAR inhibition and that these Kv1 channels may be heteromeric complexes containing Kv1.2, Kv1.3, and Kv1.6.

A-type K+ currents in intralaminar thalamocortical relay neurons

Transient A-type K+ currents (I(A)) are known to influence the firing pattern of a number of thalamic cell types, but have not been investigated in intralaminar thalamocortical (TC) relay neurons yet. We therefore combined whole-cell patch-clamp techniques, PCR analysis, and immunohistochemistry to investigate the voltage-dependent and pharmacological properties of I(A) and to determine its molecular basis in TC neurons from the centrolateral, paracentral, and centromedial thalamic nuclei. I(A) revealed half-maximal (V (h)) activation and inactivation at about -17 and -67 mV, respectively. At a concentration of 5-10 mM 4-aminopyridine (4-AP) completely blocked I(A). Furthermore, I(A) was nearly unaffected by two sea anemone toxins (blood depressing substances 1 and 2, BDS1 and BDS2; 6-8% block at a concentration of 1 μM) but strongly sensitive to the K(V)4 channel blocker Heteropoda venatoria toxin 2 (HpTx2; about 45% block at a concentration of 5 μM). PCR screening revealed the expression of K(V)4.1-4.3, with strongest expression for K(V)4.2 and weak expression for K(V)4.1. Accordingly K(V)4.1 was not detected in immunohistochemical staining. Furthermore, K(V)4.2 and K(V)4.3 revealed mainly dendritic and somatic staining, respectively. Together with current clamp recordings, these findings point to a scenario where the fast transient I(A) in intralaminar TC neurons has a depolarized threshold at potentials negative to -50 mV, is substantially generated by K(V)4.2 and K(V)4.3 channels, allows prominent burst firing at hyperpolarized potentials, prevents the generation of high-threshold potentials, generates a delayed onset of firing at more depolarized potentials, and allows fast tonic firing.

Going native: voltage-gated potassium channels controlling neuronal excitability

In this review we take a physiological perspective on the role of voltage-gated potassium channels in an identified neuron in the auditory brainstem. The large number of KCN genes for potassium channel subunits and the heterogeneity of the subunit combination into K(+) channels make identification of native conductances especially difficult. We provide a general pharmacological and biophysical profile to help identify the common voltage-gated K(+) channel families in a neuron. Then we consider the physiological role of each of these conductances from the perspective of the principal neuron in the medial nucleus of the trapezoid body (MNTB). The MNTB is an inverting relay, converting excitation generated by sound from one cochlea into inhibition of brainstem nuclei on the opposite side of the brain; this information is crucial for binaural comparisons and sound localization. The important features of MNTB action potential (AP) firing are inferred from its inhibitory projections to four key target nuclei involved in sound localization (which is the foundation of auditory scene analysis in higher brain centres). These are: the medial superior olive (MSO), the lateral superior olive (LSO), the superior paraolivary nucleus (SPN) and the nuclei of the lateral lemniscus (NLL). The Kv families represented in the MNTB each have a distinct role: Kv1 raises AP firing threshold; Kv2 influences AP repolarization and hyperpolarizes the inter-AP membrane potential during high frequency firing; and Kv3 accelerates AP repolarization. These actions are considered in terms of fidelity of transmission, AP duration, firing rates and temporal jitter. An emerging theme is activity-dependent phosphorylation of Kv channel activity and suggests that intracellular signalling has a dynamic role in refining neuronal excitability and homeostasis.

Characterization of voltage-gated potassium channels in human neural progenitor cells

Background

Voltage-gated potassium (K_v) channels are among the earliest ion channels to appear during brain development, suggesting a functional requirement for progenitor cell proliferation and/or differentiation. We tested this hypothesis, using human neural progenitor cells (hNPCs) as a model system.

Methodology/Principal Findings

In proliferating hNPCs a broad spectrum of K_v channel subtypes was identified using quantitative real-time PCR with a predominant expression of the A-type channel K_v4.2. In whole-cell patch-clamp recordings K_v currents were separated into a large transient component characteristic for fast-inactivating A-type potassium channels (I_A) and a small, sustained component produced by delayed-rectifying channels (I_K). During differentiation the expression of I_A as well as A-type channel transcripts dramatically decreased, while I_K producing delayed-rectifiers were upregulated. Both K_v currents were differentially inhibited by selective neurotoxins like phrixotoxin-1 and α-dendrotoxin as well as by antagonists like 4-aminopyridine, ammoniumchloride, tetraethylammonium chloride and quinidine. In viability and proliferation assays chronic inhibition of the A-type currents severely disturbed the cell cycle and precluded proper hNPC proliferation, while the blockade of delayed-rectifiers by α-dendrotoxin increased proliferation.

Conclusions/Significance

These findings suggest that A-type potassium currents are essential for proper proliferation of immature multipotent hNPCs.

Water and ion channels: crucial in the initiation and progression of apoptosis in central nervous system?

Programmed cell death (PCD), is a highly regulated and sophisticated cellular mechanism that commits cell to isolated death fate. PCD has been implicated in the pathogenesis of numerous neurodegenerative disorders. Countless molecular events underlie this phenomenon, with each playing a crucial role in death commitment. A precedent event, apoptotic volume decrease (AVD), is ubiquitously observed in various forms of PCD induced by different cellular insults. Under physiological conditions, cells when subjected to osmotic fluctuations will undergo regulatory volume increase/decrease (RVI/RVD) to achieve homeostatic balance with neurons in the brain being additionally protected by the blood-brain-barrier. However, during AVD following apoptotic trigger, cell undergoes anistonic shrinkage that involves the loss of water and ions, particularly monovalent ions e.g. K(+), Na(+) and Cl(-). It is worthwhile to concentrate on the molecular implications underlying the loss of these cellular components which posed to be significant and crucial in the successful propagation of the apoptotic signals. Microarray and real-time PCR analyses demonstrated several ion and water channel genes are regulated upon the onset of lactacystin (a proteosomal inhibitor)-mediated apoptosis. A time course study revealed that gene expressions of water and ion channels are being modulated just prior to apoptosis, some of which are aquaporin 4 and 9, potassium channels and chloride channels. In this review, we shall looked into the molecular protein machineries involved in the execution of AVD in the central nervous system (CNS), and focus on the significance of movements of each cellular component in affecting PCD commitment, thus provide some pharmacological advantages in the global apoptotic cell death.

Initial segment Kv2.2 channels mediate a slow delayed rectifier and maintain high frequency action potential firing in medial nucleus of the trapezoid body neurons

The medial nucleus of the trapezoid body (MNTB) is specialized for high frequency firing by expression of Kv3 channels, which minimize action potential (AP) duration, and Kv1 channels, which suppress multiple AP firing, during each calyceal giant EPSC. However, the outward K(+) current in MNTB neurons is dominated by another unidentified delayed rectifier. It has slow kinetics and a peak conductance of approximately 37 nS; it is half-activated at -9.2 +/- 2.1 mV and half-inactivated at -35.9 +/- 1.5 mV. It is blocked by several non-specific potassium channel antagonists including quinine (100 microm) and high concentrations of extracellular tetraethylammonium (TEA; IC(50) = 11.8 mM), but no specific antagonists were found. These characteristics are similar to recombinant Kv2-mediated currents. Quantitative RT-PCR showed that Kv2.2 mRNA was much more prevalent than Kv2.1 in the MNTB. A Kv2.2 antibody showed specific staining and Western blots confirmed that it recognized a protein approximately 110 kDa which was absent in brainstem tissue from a Kv2.2 knockout mouse. Confocal imaging showed that Kv2.2 was highly expressed in axon initial segments of MNTB neurons. In the absence of a specific antagonist, Hodgkin-Huxley modelling of voltage-gated conductances showed that Kv2.2 has a minor role during single APs (due to its slow activation) but assists recovery of voltage-gated sodium channels (Nav) from inactivation by hyperpolarizing interspike potentials during repetitive AP firing. Current-clamp recordings during high frequency firing and characterization of Nav inactivation confirmed this hypothesis. We conclude that Kv2.2-containing channels have a distinctive initial segment location and crucial function in maintaining AP amplitude by regulating the interspike potential during high frequency firing.

Transient hippocampal down-regulation of Kv1.1 subunit mRNA during associative learning in rats

Voltage-gated potassium channels (Kv) are critically involved in learning and memory processes. It is not known, however, whether the expression of the Kv1.1 subunit, constituting Kv1 channels, can be specifically regulated in brain areas important for learning and memory processing. Radioactive in situ hybridization was used to evaluate the content of Kv1.1 alpha-subunit mRNA in the olfactory bulb, ventral, and dorsal hippocampus at different stages of an odor-discrimination associative task in rats. Naive, conditioned, and pseudoconditioned animals were sacrificed at different times either prior to a two-odor significance learning or after odor discrimination was established. Important decreases of Kv1.1 mRNA levels were transiently observed in the ventral hippocampus before successful learning when compared with the pseudoconditioned group. Moreover, temporal group analysis showed significant labeling alterations in the hippocampus of conditioned and pseudoconditioned groups throughout the training. Finally, Kv1.1 mRNA levels in the hippocampus were positively correlated with odor-reward association learning in rats that were beginning to discriminate between odors. These findings indicate that the Kv1.1 subunit is transiently down-regulated in the early stages of learning and suggest that Kv1 channel expression regulation is critical for the modification of neuronal substrates underlying new information acquisition.

Expression and biophysical properties of Kv1 channels in supragranular neocortical pyramidal neurones

Potassium channels are extremely diverse regulators of neuronal excitability. As part of an investigation into how this molecular diversity is utilized by neurones, we examined the expression and biophysical properties of native Kv1 channels in layer II/III pyramidal neurones from somatosensory and motor cortex. Single-cell RT-PCR, immunocytochemistry, and whole cell recordings with specific peptide toxins revealed that individual pyramidal cells express multiple Kv1 alpha-subunits. The most abundant subunit mRNAs were Kv1.1 > 1.2 > 1.4 > 1.3. All of these subunits were localized to somatodendritic as well as axonal cell compartments. These data suggest variability in the subunit complexion of Kv1 channels in these cells. The alpha-dendrotoxin (alpha-DTX)-sensitive current activated more rapidly and at more negative potentials than the alpha-DTX-insensitive current, was first observed at voltages near action potential threshold, and was relatively insensitive to holding potential. The alpha-DTX-sensitive current comprised about 10% of outward current at steady-state, in response to steps from -70 mV. From -50 mV, this percentage increased to approximately 20%. All cells expressed an alpha-DTX-sensitive current with slow inactivation kinetics. In some cells a transient component was also present. Deactivation kinetics were voltage dependent, such that deactivation was slow at potentials traversed by interspike intervals during repetitive firing. Because of its kinetics and voltage dependence, the alpha-DTX-sensitive current should be most important at physiological resting potentials and in response to brief stimuli. Kv1 channels should also be important at voltages near threshold and corresponding to interspike intervals.

Ion channels in smooth muscle: regulators of intracellular calcium and contractility

Smooth muscle (SM) is essential to all aspects of human physiology and, therefore, key to the maintenance of life. Ion channels expressed within SM cells regulate the membrane potential, intracellular Ca2+ concentration, and contractility of SM. Excitatory ion channels function to depolarize the membrane potential. These include nonselective cation channels that allow Na+ and Ca2+ to permeate into SM cells. The nonselective cation channel family includes tonically active channels (Icat), as well as channels activated by agonists, pressure-stretch, and intracellular Ca2+ store depletion. Cl--selective channels, activated by intracellular Ca2+ or stretch, also mediate SM depolarization. Plasma membrane depolarization in SM activates voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels that demonstrate a high Ca2+ selectivity and provide influx of contractile Ca2+. Ca2+ is also released from SM intracellular Ca2+ stores of the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) through ryanodine and inositol trisphosphate receptor Ca2+ channels. This is part of a negative feedback mechanism limiting contraction that occurs by the Ca2+-dependent activation of large-conductance K+ channels, which hyper polarize the plasma membrane. Unlike the well-defined contractile role of SR-released Ca2+ in skeletal and cardiac muscle, the literature suggests that in SM Ca2+ released from the SR functions to limit contractility. Depolarization-activated K+ chan nels, ATP-sensitive K+ channels, and inward rectifier K+ channels also hyperpolarize SM, favouring relaxation. The expression pattern, density, and biophysical properties of ion channels vary among SM types and are key determinants of electrical activity, contractility, and SM function.

Heteromultimeric Kv1 channels contribute to myogenic control of arterial diameter

Inhibition of vascular smooth muscle (VSM) delayed rectifier K+ channels (K(DR)) by 4-aminopyridine (4-AP; 200 micromol/L) or correolide (1 micromol/L), a selective inhibitor of Kv1 channels, enhanced myogenic contraction of rat mesenteric arteries (RMAs) in response to increases in intraluminal pressure. The molecular identity of K(DR) of RMA myocytes was characterized using RT-PCR, real-time PCR, and immunocytochemistry. Transcripts encoding the pore-forming Kvalpha subunits, Kv1.2, Kv1.4, Kv1.5, and Kv1.6, were identified and confirmed at the protein level with subunit-specific antibodies. Kvbeta transcript (beta1.1, beta1.2, beta1.3, and beta2.1) expression was also identified. Kv1.5 message was approximately 2-fold more abundant than that for Kv1.2 and Kv1.6. Transcripts encoding these three Kv1alpha subunits were approximately 2-fold more abundant in 1st/2nd order conduit compared with 4th order resistance RMAs, and Kvbeta1 was 8-fold higher than Kvbeta2 message. RMA K(DR) activated positive to -50 mV, exhibited incomplete inactivation, and were inhibited by 4-AP and correolide. However, neither alpha-dendrotoxin or kappa-dendrotoxin affected RMA K(DR), implicating the presence of Kv1.5 in all channels and the absence of Kv1.1, respectively. Currents mediated by channels because of coexpression of Kv1.2, Kv1.5, Kv1.6, and Kvbeta1.2 in human embryonic kidney 293 cells had biophysical and pharmacological properties similar to those of RMA K(DR). It is concluded that K(DR) channels composed of heteromultimers of Kv1 subunits play a critical role in myogenic control of arterial diameter.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor controls functional differentiation and microcircuit formation of selectively isolated fast-spiking GABAergic interneurons

GABAergic interneurons with high-frequency firing, fast-spiking (FS) cells, form synapses on perisomatic regions of principal cells in the neocortex and hippocampus to control the excitability of cortical networks. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is essential for the differentiation of multiple interneuron subtypes and the formation of their synaptic contacts. Here, we examined whether BDNF, alone or in conjunction with sustained KCl-induced depolarization, drives functional FS cell differentiation and the formation of inhibitory microcircuits. Homogeneous FS cell cultures were established by target-specific isolation using the voltage-gated potassium channel 3.1b subunit as the selection marker. Isolated FS cells expressed parvalbumin, were surrounded by perineuronal nets, formed immature inhibitory connections and generated slow action potentials at 12 days in vitro. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) promoted FS cell differentiation by increasing the somatic diameter, dendritic branching and the frequency of action potential firing. In addition, BDNF treatment led to a significant up-regulation of synaptophysin and vesicular GABA transporter expression, components of the synaptic machinery critical for GABA release, which was paralleled by an increase in synaptic strength. Long-term membrane depolarization alone was detrimental to dendritic branching. However, we observed that BDNF and KCl exerted additive effects, as reflected by the significantly accelerated maturation of synaptic contacts and high discharge frequencies, and was required for the formation of reciprocal connections between FS cells. Our results show that BDNF, along with membrane depolarization, is critical for FS cells to establish inhibitory circuitries during corticogenesis.

An ID-like current that is downregulated by Ca2+ modulates information coding at CA3-CA3 synapses in the rat hippocampus

Voltage-gated K+ channels localised on presynaptic nerve terminals control information coding by modulating presynaptic firing and synaptic efficacy in target neurones. We found that at CA3-CA3 connections in hippocampal slice cultures, a fast-activating, slowly inactivating K+ conductance similar to the so-called delay current (ID) is responsible for the delayed appearance of the first spike upon membrane depolarisation, for action potential repolarisation and for modulation of transmitter release. The ID-like current was downregulated by intracellular Ca2+, as indicated by the increased delay in the appearance of the first action potential following either the block of Ca2+ flux through voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels with Cd2+ or replacement of the bathing solution with one devoid of Ca2+. In both cases, this effect was reversed by blocking this conductance with a low concentration of 4-aminopyridine (4-AP, 10-50 muM). Application of 4-AP shortened the delay to the first spike generation, prevented the effect of Cd2+ and increased the spike duration. The earlier appearance of the first action potential was also observed in the presence of dendrotoxin-1 (100 nM). In voltage-clamp experiments larger currents were recorded in the absence of extracellular Ca2+, thus confirming the downregulation of the ID-like current by Ca2+ due to the positive shift of its inactivation. Spike broadening was associated with an enhancement of synaptic efficacy in target neurones, as assessed by the increase in EPSC amplitude and in the percentage of successes. Moreover, in the presence of 4-AP, EPSCs appeared with a longer latency and were more scattered. This conductance is therefore crucial for setting the timing and strength of synaptic transmission at CA3-CA3 connections. It is conceivable that switching off ID by increasing intracellular Ca2+ following activity-dependent processes may facilitate network synchronisation and crosstalk between CA3 pyramidal cells, leading to seizure activity.

Presynaptic K+ channels: electrifying regulators of synaptic terminal excitability

Potassium channels are crucial regulators of neuronal excitability, setting resting membrane potentials and firing thresholds, repolarizing action potentials and limiting excitability. Although most of our understanding of K+ channels is based on somatic recordings, there is good evidence that these channels are present in synaptic terminals. In recent years the improved access to presynaptic compartments afforded by direct recording techniques has indicated diverse roles for native K+ channels, from suppression of aberrant firing to action potential repolarization and activity-dependent modulation of synaptic activity. This article reviews the growing evidence for multiple roles and discrete localization of distinct K+ channels at presynaptic terminals.

Functional roles of cytoplasmic loops and pore lining transmembrane helices in the voltage-dependent inactivation of HVA calcium channels

Voltage-dependent inactivation of calcium channels is a key mechanism for regulating intracellular calcium levels and neuronal excitability. In sodium and potassium channels, the molecular determinants that govern fast inactivation involve pore block by a cytoplasmic gating particle. As we discuss here, there is an increasing body of evidence that is consistent with a qualitatively similar inactivation mechanism in high-voltage-activated calcium channels. Work from a number of laboratories has implicated both cytoplasmic regions and the pore-lining S6 transmembrane helices in the inactivation process. Together with our recent findings, this leads us to propose a model in which the intracellular domain I-II linker region acts as a 'hinged lid' that physically occludes the pore by docking to the cytoplasmic ends of the S6 segments. We further propose that the ancillary calcium channel Beta subunits differentially modulate inactivation kinetics by binding to and thereby regulating the mobility of the putative inactivation gate. Indeed, additional evidence suggests that the carboxy terminus, amino terminus and domain III-IV linker regions of the channel modulate inactivation rates through interactions with the I-II linker per se, or indirectly via the ancillary Beta subunits. Taken together, the fast voltage-dependent inactivation of calcium channels appears reminiscent of that of sodium channels, but appears to show a more complex regulation through intramolecular interactions between the putative inactivation gate and other cytoplasmic regions.

Voltage-gated K+ channels in rat small cerebral arteries: molecular identity of the functional channels

Voltage-gated potassium (KV) channels represent an important dilator influence in the cerebral circulation, but the composition of these tetrameric ion channels remains unclear. The goals of the present study were to evaluate the contribution of KV1 family channels to the resting membrane potential and diameter of small rat cerebral arteries, and to identify the alpha-subunit composition of these channels using patch-clamp, molecular and immunological techniques. Initial studies indicated that 1 micromol l(-1) correolide (COR), a specific antagonist of KV1 channels, depolarized vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) in pressurized (60 mmHg) cerebral arteries from -55 +/- 1 mV to -34 +/- 1 mV, and reduced the resting diameter from 152 +/- 15 microm to 103 +/- 20 microm. In patch clamped VSMCs from these arteries, COR-sensitive KV1 current accounted for 65 % of total outward KV current and was observed at physiological membrane potentials. RT-PCR identified mRNA encoding each of the six classical KV1 alpha-subunits, KV1.1-1.6, in rat cerebral arteries. However, only the KV1.2 and 1.5 proteins were detected by Western blot. The expression of these proteins in VSMCs was confirmed by immunocytochemistry and co-immunoprecipitation of KV1.2 and 1.5 from VSMC membranes suggested KV1.2/1.5 channel assembly. Subsequently, the pharmacological and voltage-sensitive properties of KV1 current in VSMCs were found to be consistent with a predominant expression of KV1.2/1.5 heterotetrameric channels. The findings of this study suggest that KV1.2/1.5 heterotetramers are preferentially expressed in rat cerebral VSMCs, and that these channels contribute to the resting membrane potential and diameter of rat small cerebral arteries.

Syntheses of Immobilized G Protein-Coupled Receptor Chromatographic Stationary Phases: Characterization of Immobilized μ and κ Opioid Receptors

Opioid receptors are members of the superfamily of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Liquid chromatographic stationary phases containing either the human mu or kappa opioid receptor subtypes have been developed to study the binding between the opioid receptors and their ligands. The receptors were obtained from Chinese hamster ovary cells stably transfected with human mu or kappa receptor subtypes. The receptors were isolated through partial solubilization with sodium cholate detergent, and the partially purified receptor complex was immobilized in the phospholipid analogue monolayer of an immobilized artificial membrane liquid chromatographic stationary phase. The resulting phase was packed into a glass column (1.8 x 0.5 (i.d.) cm) and used in the on-line chromatographic determination of drug/ligand binding affinities to the immobilized opioid receptors. Preliminary on-line binding studies employing frontal chromatographic techniques were conducted with the known mu antagonist (naloxone) and a kappa agonist (U69593). The calculated dissociation constants (Kd) were 110 nM for naloxone and 84 nM for U69593. The results indicate that the immobilized receptors retained their ability to specifically bind ligands and were active for 1200 column volumes applied over two weeks. Zonal chromatographic experiments were also conducted, and competitive displacements of the marker ligands were observed. The results suggest that the immobilized opioid receptor stationary phases can be used to qualitatively assess the binding affinities of compounds to the immobilized receptors and represent the first example of the use of immobilized GPCRs in a chromatographic system.

Involvement of mitochondrial K+ release and cellular efflux in ischemic and apoptotic neuronal death

We measured and manipulated intracellular potassium (K+) fluxes in cultured hippocampal neurons in an effort to understand the involvement of K+ in neuronal death under conditions of ischemia and exposure to apoptotic stimuli. Measurements of the intracellular K+ concentration using the fluorescent probe 1,3-benzenedicarboxylic acid, 4,4'-[1,4,10,13-tetraoxa-7,16-diazacyclooctadecane-7,16-diylbis(5-methoxy-6,2-benzofurandiyl)]bis-, tetrakis [(acetyloxy) methyl] ester (PBFI) revealed that exposure of neurons to cyanide (chemical hypoxia), glutamate (excitotoxic insult) or staurosporine (apoptotic stimulus) results in efflux of K+ and cell death. Treatment of neurons with 5-hydroxydecanoate (5HD), an inhibitor of mitochondrial K+ channels, reduced K+ fluxes in neurons exposed to each insult and increased the resistance of the cells to death. K+ efflux was attenuated, levels of oxyradicals were decreased, mitochondrial membrane potential was stabilized and release of cytochrome c from mitochondria was attenuated in neurons treated with 5HD. K+ was rapidly released into the cytosol from mitochondria when neurons were exposed to the K+ channel opener, diazoxide, or to the mitochondrial uncoupler, carbonyl cyanide 4(trifluoromethoxy)phenylhydrazone (FCCP), demonstrating that the intramitochondrial K+ concentration is greater than the cytosolic K+ concentration. The release of K+ from mitochondria was followed by efflux through plasma membrane K+ channels. In vivo studies showed that 5HD reduces ischemic brain damage without affecting cerebral blood flow in a mouse model of focal ischemic stroke. These findings suggest that intracellular K+ fluxes play a key role in modulating neuronal oxyradical production and cell survival under ischemic conditions, and that agents that modify K+ fluxes may have therapeutic benefit in stroke and related neurodegenerative conditions.

Early embryonic expression of ion channels and pumps in chick and Xenopus development

An extensive body of literature implicates endogenous ion currents and standing voltage potential differences in the control of events during embryonic morphogenesis. Although the expression of ion channel and pump genes, which are responsible for ion flux, has been investigated in detail in nervous tissues, little data are available on the distribution and function of specific channels and pumps in early embryogenesis. To provide a necessary basis for the molecular understanding of the role of ion flux in development, we surveyed the expression of ion channel and pump mRNAs, as well as other genes that help to regulate membrane potential. Analysis in two species, chick and Xenopus, shows that several ion channel and pump mRNAs are present in specific and dynamic expression patterns in early embryos, well before the appearance of neurons. Examination of the distribution of maternal mRNAs reveals complex spatiotemporal subcellular localization patterns of transcripts in early blastomeres in Xenopus. Taken together, these data are consistent with an important role for ion flux in early embryonic morphogenesis; this survey characterizes candidate genes and provides information on likely embryonic contexts for their function, setting the stage for functional studies of the morphogenetic roles of ion transport.

KCNQ potassium channels: physiology, pathophysiology, and pharmacology

KCNQ genes encode a growing family of six transmembrane domains, single pore-loop, K(+) channel alpha-subunits that have a wide range of physiological correlates. KCNQ1 (KvLTQ1) is co-assembled with the product of the KCNE1 (minimal K(+)-channel protein) gene in the heart to form a cardiac-delayed rectifier-like K(+) current. Mutations in this channel can cause one form of inherited long QT syndrome (LQT1), as well as being associated with a form of deafness. KCNQ1 can also co-assemble with KCNE3, and may be the molecular correlate of the cyclic AMP-regulated K(+) current present in colonic crypt cells. KCNQ2 and KCNQ3 heteromultimers are thought to underlie the M-current; mutations in these genes may cause an inherited form of juvenile epilepsy. The KCNQ4 gene is thought to encode the molecular correlate of the I(K,n) in outer hair cells of the cochlea and I(K,L) in Type I hair cells of the vestibular apparatus, mutations in which lead to a form of inherited deafness. The recently identified KCNQ5 gene is expressed in brain and skeletal muscle, and can co-assemble with KCNQ3, suggesting it may also play a role in the M-current heterogeneity. This review will set this family of K(+) channels amongst the other known families. It will highlight the genes, physiology, pharmacology, and pathophysiology of this recently discovered, but important, family of K(+) channels.

Correolide, a nor-triterpenoid blocker of Shaker-type Kv1 channels elicits twitches in guinea-pig ileum by stimulating the enteric nervous system and enhancing neurotransmitter release

Correolide (1 - 10 microM), a nortriterpene purified from Spachea correae and a selective blocker of Kv1 potassium channels, elicits repetitive twitching in guinea-pig ileum. This effect is not seen in guinea-pig duodenum, portal vein, urinary bladder or uterine strips, nor in rat or mouse ileum. The time course and amplitude of the correolide-induced twitches in guinea-pig ileum are similar to those elicited by electrical stimulation of the enteric nervous system. The correolide-induced twitching is not affected by pre-treatment with capsaicin (1 microM), but is facilitated by the NO synthase inhibitor, N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methyl esther (L-NAME, 200 microM). The correolide-induced twitching is abolished by tetrodotoxin (1 microM) or hexamethonium (100 microM), and is markedly inhibited by nifedipine (0.3 microM) or atropine (0.2 microM). The atropine-resistant component is inhibited by selective antagonists of NK1 and NK2 tachykinin receptors, namely GR 82334 and GR 94800 (1 microM each). The former compound is more effective in inhibiting the correolide-induced, atropine-resistant activity. Correolide intensified the twitching of ileum segments exposed to saturating concentrations of margatoxin (MgTX), which suggests that Kv1 sub-types other than Kv1.1 (Kv1.4 or Kv1.5) are involved in the relatively greater degree of stimulation of the enteric nervous system by correolide, as compared to MgTX. We propose that blockade of Kv1 channels by correolide increases the excitability of intramural nerve plexuses promoting release of acetylcholine and tachykinins from excitatory motor neurons. This, in turn, leads to Ca(2+)-dependent action potentials and twitching of the muscle fibres.

A Kv3-like persistent, outwardly rectifying, Cs+-permeable, K+ current in rat subthalamic nucleus neurones

A persistent outward K+ current (IPO), activated by depolarization from resting potential, has been identified and characterized in rat subthalamic nucleus (SThN) neurones using whole-cell voltage-clamp recording in brain slices. IPO both rapidly activated (tau = 8 ms at +5 mV) and deactivated (tau = 2 ms at -68 mV), while showing little inactivation. Tail current reversal potentials varied with extracellular K+ concentration in a Nernstian manner. Intracellular Cs+ did not alter either IPO amplitude or the voltage dependence of activation, but blocked transient (A-like) outward currents activated by depolarization. When extracellular K+ was replaced with Cs+, IPO tail current reversal potentials were dependent upon the extracellular Cs+ concentration, indicating an ability to conduct Cs+, as well as K+. IPO was blocked by Ba2+ (1 mM), 4-aminopyridine (1 mM) and tetraethylammonium (TEA; 20 mM), with an IC50 for TEA of 0.39 mM. The IPO conductance appeared maximal (38 nS) at around +27 mV, half-maximal at -13 mV, with the threshold for activation at around -38 mV. TEA (1 mM) blocked the action potential after-hyperpolarization and permitted accommodation of action potential firing at frequencies greater than around 200 Hz. We conclude that IPO, which shares many characteristics of currents attributable to Kv3.1 K+ channels, enables high-frequency spike trains in SThN neurones.

A functional role for the two-pore domain potassium channel TASK-1 in cerebellar granule neurons

Cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs) are one of the most populous cells in the mammalian brain. They express an outwardly rectifying potassium current, termed a "standing-outward" K(+) current, or IK(SO), which does not inactivate. It is active at the resting potential of CGNs, and blocking IK(SO) leads to cell depolarization. IK(SO) is blocked by Ba(2+) ions and is regulated by activation of muscarinic M(3) receptors, but it is insensitive to the classical broad-spectrum potassium channel blocking drugs 4-aminopyridine and tetraethylammonium ions. The molecular nature of this important current has yet to be established, but in this study, we provide strong evidence to suggest that IK(SO) is the functional correlate of the recently identified two-pore domain potassium channel TASK-1. We show that IK(SO) has no threshold for activation by voltage and that it is blocked by small extracellular acidifications. Both of these are properties that are diagnostic of TASK-1 channels. In addition, we show that TASK-1 currents expressed in Xenopus oocytes are inhibited after activation of endogenous M(3) muscarinic receptors. Finally, we demonstrate that mRNA for TASK-1 is found in CGNs and that TASK-1 protein is expressed in CGN membranes. This description of a functional two-pore domain potassium channel in the mammalian central nervous system indicates its physiological importance in controlling cell excitability and how agents that modify its activity, such as agonists at G protein-coupled receptors and hydrogen ions, can profoundly alter both the neuron's resting potential and its excitability.

A functional role for the two-pore domain potassium channel TASK-1 in cerebellar granule neurons

Cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs) are one of the most populous cells in the mammalian brain. They express an outwardly rectifying potassium current, termed a "standing-outward" K(+) current, or IK(SO), which does not inactivate. It is active at the resting potential of CGNs, and blocking IK(SO) leads to cell depolarization. IK(SO) is blocked by Ba(2+) ions and is regulated by activation of muscarinic M(3) receptors, but it is insensitive to the classical broad-spectrum potassium channel blocking drugs 4-aminopyridine and tetraethylammonium ions. The molecular nature of this important current has yet to be established, but in this study, we provide strong evidence to suggest that IK(SO) is the functional correlate of the recently identified two-pore domain potassium channel TASK-1. We show that IK(SO) has no threshold for activation by voltage and that it is blocked by small extracellular acidifications. Both of these are properties that are diagnostic of TASK-1 channels. In addition, we show that TASK-1 currents expressed in Xenopus oocytes are inhibited after activation of endogenous M(3) muscarinic receptors. Finally, we demonstrate that mRNA for TASK-1 is found in CGNs and that TASK-1 protein is expressed in CGN membranes. This description of a functional two-pore domain potassium channel in the mammalian central nervous system indicates its physiological importance in controlling cell excitability and how agents that modify its activity, such as agonists at G protein-coupled receptors and hydrogen ions, can profoundly alter both the neuron's resting potential and its excitability.

Potential role for kv3.1b channels as oxygen sensors

Hypoxia inhibits voltage-gated K channels in pulmonary artery smooth muscle (PASM). This is thought to contribute to hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction by promoting membrane depolarization, Ca(2+) influx, and contraction. Several of the K-channel subtypes identified in pulmonary artery have been implicated in the response to hypoxia, but contradictory evidence clouds the identity of the oxygen-sensing channels. Using patch-clamp techniques, this study investigated the effect of hypoxia on recombinant Kv1 channels previously identified in pulmonary artery (Kv1.1, Kv1.2, and Kv1.5) and Kv3.1b, which has similar kinetic and pharmacological properties to native oxygen-sensitive currents. Hypoxia failed to inhibit any Kv1 channel, but it inhibited Kv3.1b channels expressed in L929 cells, as shown by a reduction of whole-cell current and single-channel activity, without affecting unitary conductance. Inhibition was retained in excised membrane patches, suggesting a membrane-delimited mechanism. Using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and immunocytochemistry, Kv3.1b expression was demonstrated in PASM cells. Moreover, hypoxia inhibited a K(+) current in rabbit PASM cells in the presence of charybdotoxin and capsaicin, which preserve Kv3.1b while blocking most other Kv channels, but not in the presence of millimolar tetraethylammonium ions, which abolish Kv3.1b current. Kv3.1b channels may therefore contribute to oxygen sensing in pulmonary artery.

Expression of Kv1 potassium channels in mouse hippocampal primary cultures: development and activity-dependent regulation

Excitability and discharge behavior of neurons depends on the highly variable expression pattern of voltage-dependent potassium (Kv) channels throughout the nervous system. To learn more about distribution, development, and activity-dependent regulation of Kv channel subunit expression in the rodent hippocampus, we studied the protein expression of members of the Kv1 subfamily in mouse hippocampus in situ and in primary cultures. In adult hippocampus, Kv1 (1-6) channel alpha-subunits were present, whereas at postnatal day 2, none of these proteins could be detected in CA1-CA3 and dentate gyrus. Kv1.1 was the first channel to be observed at postnatal day 6. The delayed postnatal expression and most of the subcellular distribution observed in hippocampal sections were mimicked by cultured hippocampal neurons in which Kv channels appeared only after 10 days in vitro. This developmental upregulation was paralleled by a dramatic increase in total K(+) current, as well as an elevated GABA release in the presence of 4-aminopyridine. Thus, the developmental profile, subcellular localization, and functionality of Kv1 channels in primary culture of hippocampus closely resembles the in situ situation. Impairing secretion by clostridial neurotoxins or blocking activity by tetrodotoxin inhibited the expression of Kv1.1, Kv1.2, and Kv1.4, whereas the other Kv1 channels still appeared. This activity-dependent depression was only observed before the initial appearance of the respective channels and lost after they had been expressed. Our data show that hippocampal neurons in culture are a convenient model to study the developmental expression and regulation of Kv1 channels. The ontogenetic regulation and the activity-dependent expression of Kv1.1, Kv1.2, and Kv1.4 indicate that neuronal activity plays a crucial role for the development of the mature Kv channel pattern in hippocampal neurons.

Electrophysiological characterization of voltage-gated K(+) currents in cerebellar basket and purkinje cells: Kv1 and Kv3 channel subfamilies are present in basket cell nerve terminals

To understand the processes underlying fast synaptic transmission in the mammalian CNS, we must have detailed knowledge of the identity, location, and physiology of the ion channels in the neuronal membrane. From labeling studies we can get clues regarding the distribution of ion channels, but electrophysiological methods are required to determine the importance of each ion channel in CNS transmission. Dendrotoxin-sensitive potassium channel subunits are highly concentrated in cerebellar basket cell nerve terminals, and we have previously shown that they are responsible for a significant fraction of the voltage-gated potassium current in this region. Here, we further investigate the characteristics and pharmacology of the voltage-dependent potassium currents in these inhibitory nerve terminals and compare these observations with those obtained from somatic recordings in basket and Purkinje cell soma regions. We find that alpha-DTX blocks basket cell nerve terminal currents and not somatic currents, and the IC(50) for alpha-DTX in basket cell terminals is 3.2 nM. There are at least two distinct types of potassium currents in the nerve terminal, a DTX-sensitive low-threshold component, and a second component that activates at much more positive voltages. Pharmacological experiments also reveal that nerve terminal potassium currents are also markedly reduced by 4-AP and TEA, with both high-sensitivity (micromolar) and low-sensitivity (millimolar) components present. We suggest that basket cell nerve terminals have potassium channels from both the Kv1 and Kv3 subfamilies, whereas somatic currents in basket cell and Purkinje cell bodies are more homogeneous.

Mapping the functional anatomy of BgK on Kv1.1, Kv1.2, and Kv1.3. Clues to design analogs with enhanced selectivity

BgK is a peptide from the sea anemone Bunodosoma granulifera, which blocks Kv1.1, Kv1.2, and Kv1.3 potassium channels. Using 25 analogs substituted at a single position by an alanine residue, we performed the complete mapping of the BgK binding sites for the three Kv1 channels. These binding sites included three common residues (Ser-23, Lys-25, and Tyr-26) and a variable set of additional residues depending on the particular channel. Shortening the side chain of Lys-25 by taking out the four methylene groups dramatically decreased the BgK affinity to all Kv1 channels tested. However, the analog K25Orn displayed increased potency on Kv1.2, which makes this peptide a selective blocker for Kv1.2 (K(D) 50- and 300-fold lower than for Kv1.1 and Kv1.3, respectively). BgK analogs with enhanced selectivity could also be made by substituting residues that are differentially involved in the binding to some of the three Kv1 channels. For example, the analog F6A was found to be >500-fold more potent for Kv1.1 than for Kv1.2 and Kv1.3. These results provide new information about the mechanisms by which a channel blocker distinguishes individual channels among closely related isoforms and give clues for designing analogs with enhanced selectivity.

Transient outward K+ currents across the plasma membrane of laticifer from Hevea brasiliensis

Non-inactivating outward rectifying K+ channel currents have been identified in a variety of plant cell types and species. The present study of laticifer protoplasts from Hevea brasiliensis, cells which are specialized for stress response, has revealed, through a switch-clamp method, an outward rectifying current displaying rapid inactivation. The inactivation depended on the external K+ concentration and on the voltage. This current inactivation appeared clearly different from all those previously described in plant cells and it shared homology with current kinetics of animal Shaker family channels. These results, given the recent cloning of plant K+ channel beta-subunits, shed new light on possible plant K+ channel regulation.

Delayed rectifier currents in rat globus pallidus neurons are attributable to Kv2.1 and Kv3.1/3.2 K(+) channels

The symptoms of Parkinson disease are thought to result in part from increased burst activity in globus pallidus neurons. To gain a better understanding of the factors governing this activity, we studied delayed rectifier K(+) conductances in acutely isolated rat globus pallidus (GP) neurons, using whole-cell voltage-clamp and single-cell RT-PCR techniques. From a holding potential of -40 mV, depolarizing voltage steps in identified GP neurons evoked slowly inactivating K(+) currents. Analysis of the tail currents revealed rapidly and slowly deactivating currents of similar amplitude. The fast component of the current deactivated with a time constant of 11. 1 +/- 0.8 msec at -40 mV and was blocked by micromolar concentrations of 4-AP and TEA (K(D) approximately 140 microM). The slow component of the current deactivated with a time constant of 89 +/- 10 microseconds at -40 mV and was less sensitive to TEA (K(D) = 0.8 mM) and 4-AP (K(D) approximately 6 mM). Organic antagonists of Kv1 family channels had little or no effect on somatic currents. These properties are consistent with the hypothesis that the rapidly deactivating current is attributable to Kv3.1/3.2 channels and the slowly deactivating current to Kv2.1-containing channels. Semiquantitative single-cell RT-PCR analysis of Kv3 and Kv2 family mRNAs supported this conclusion. An alteration in the balance of these two channel types could underlie the emergence of burst firing after dopamine-depleting lesions.

Human axons contain at least five types of voltage-dependent potassium channel

1. We investigated voltage-gated potassium channels in human peripheral myelinated axons; apart from the I, S and F channels already described in amphibian and rat axons, we identified at least two other channel types. 2. The I channel activated between -70 and -40 mV, and inactivated very slowly (time constant 13.1 s at -40 mV). It had two gating modes: the dominant ('noisy') mode had a conductance of 30 pS (inward current, symmetrical 155 mM K+) and a deactivation time constant (tau) of 25 ms (-80 mV); it accounted for most ( approximately 50-75 %) of the macroscopic K+ current in large patches. The secondary ('flickery') gating mode had a conductance of 22 pS, and showed bi-exponential deactivation (tau = 16 and 102 ms -80 11 mV); it contributed part of the slow macroscopic K+ current. 3. The I channel current was blocked by 1 microM alpha-dendrotoxin (DTX); we also observed two other DTX-sensitive K+ channel types (40 pS and 25 pS). The S and F channels were not blocked by 1 microM DTX. 4. The conductance of the S channel was 7-10 pS, and it activated at slightly more negative potentials than the I channel; its deactivation was slow (tau = 41.7 ms at -100 mV). It contributed a second component of the slow macroscopic K+ current. 5. The F channel had a conductance of 50 pS; it activated at potentials between -40 and +40 V, deactivated very rapidly (tau = 1.4 ms at -100 mV), and inactivated rapidly (tau = 62 ms at +80 mV). It accounted for the fast-deactivating macroscopic K+ current and partly for fast K+ current inactivation. 6. We conclude that human and rat axonal K+ channels are closely similar, but that the correspondence between K+ channel types and the macroscopic currents usually attributed to them is only partial. At least five channel types exist, and their characteristics overlap to a considerable extent.

Voltage-gated potassium channels: from hyperexcitability to excitement

The superfamily of voltage-activated potassium channels may express structurally and functionally diverse voltage-activated potassium channels in the nervous system. The roles of some voltage-activated potassium channel types, e.g. rapidly inactivating (transiently active type) channels and muscarine sensitive muscarine sensitive channels, are beginning to be understood. They may significantly influence dendritic action-potential back-propagation, signal to noise ratios in presynaptic excitability or the responsiveness of a neuron to synaptic input. Inherited disorders related to changes in excitability (episodic ataxia, epilepsy, heart arrhythmia) or to defects in sensory perception (hearing loss) have been associated with mutations in a few voltage-activated potassium channel genes. Most likely, more voltage-activated potassium channel genes will be linked to related disorders in the near future.

HIV-1 gp160 decreases the K+ voltage-gated current from Jurkat E6.1 T cells by up-phosphorylation

HIV-1 gp120/gp160 is known to disturb the activity of p56lck, protein kinase C (PKC) and Ca2+ homeostasis in T lymphocytes. We found that gp160 decreases the Kv1.3 current of Jurkat E6.1 cells probably by increasing the PKC-dependent phosphorylation of Kv channel protein after 5 days. This decrease is dose-dependent. In contrast, gp160 did not decrease the Kv1.3 current of the JCaM1.6 cell line, a p56(lck)-defective Jurkat cell line. This shows that p56lck was at the beginning of the events which induced the Kv1.3 current decrease. As a consequence of this decrease, Jurkat E6.1 cells were depolarized and exhibited a volume increase.

Functional expression of GFP-tagged Kv1.3 and Kv1.4 channels in HEK 293 cells

Various types of voltage gated potassium channels (Kv) are responsible for setting the resting potential and shaping the membrane potential waveform in the subcellular domains of neurons. In order to visualize the expression behaviour of recombinant Kv channels, we have fused green fluorescent protein (GFP) to the N-terminal of the alpha subunits Kv1.3 and Kv1.4. In transiently transfected HEK 293 cells the GFP-Kv chimeras localize to the plasma membrane. Whole-cell voltage clamp recordings demonstrate that they form functional potassium channels. Kinetic analysis reveals that the gating kinetics of GFP-Kv1.3 are virtually indistinguishable from those displayed by its wild-type correlate. For GFP-Kv1.4 channels we find that their gating is modified in an expected manner. In response to short depolarizing voltage pulses they do not inactivate, indicating that the attached GFP interferes with the fast N-type inactivation mechanism present in wild type Kv1.4 channels. We suggest that GFP tagging of Kv channels might be a useful tool to monitor the spatiotemporal distribution of recombinant potassium channels expressed in living neurons.

Modulation of inhibitory post-synaptic currents (IPSCs) in mouse cerebellar Purkinje and basket cells by snake and scorpion toxin K+ channel blockers

Using an in vitro mouse cerebellar slice preparation and whole-cell electrophysiological recording techniques we have characterized Purkinje and basket cell inhibitory post-synaptic currents (IPSCs), and examined the effects of a number of selective peptidergic K+ channel blockers. Spontaneous IPSC amplitude ranged from approximately 10 pA up to approximately 3 nA for both cell types [mean values: Purkinje cells -122.8+/-20.0 pA (n = 24 cells); basket cells -154.8+/-15.9 pA (n = 26 cells)]. Frequency varied from approximately 3 up to approximately 40 Hz, [mean values: basket cells 14.9+/-1.7 Hz (n=26 cells); Purkinje cells 17.9+/-2.2 Hz (n=24 cells)]. 5 microM bicuculline eliminated virtually all spontaneous currents. IPSC rise times were fast (approximately 0.6 ms) and the decay phase was best fit with the sum of two exponential functions (tau1 and tau2: approximately 4 ms and approximately 20 ms, n=40; for both cell types). The snake toxins alpha-dendrotoxin (alpha-DTX) and toxin K greatly enhanced IPSC frequency and amplitude in both cell types; the closely related homologues toxin I and gamma-dendrotoxin (gamma-DTX) produced only marginal enhancements (all at 200 nM). Two scorpion toxins, margatoxin (MgTX) and agitoxin-2 (AgTX-2) had only minor effects on IPSC frequency or amplitude (both at 10 nM). Low concentrations of tetraethylammonium (TEA; 200 microM) had no overall effect on cerebellar IPSCs, whilst higher concentrations (10 mM) increased both the frequency and amplitude. The results suggest that native K+ channels, containing Kv1.1 and Kv1.2 channel subunits, play an influential role in controlling GABAergic inhibitory transmission from cerebellar basket cells.

Density of transient K+ current influences excitability in acutely isolated vasopressin and oxytocin neurones of rat hypothalamus

1. The transient outward K+ current (ITO) was studied using whole-cell recording in immunocytochemically identified oxytocin (OT; n = 23) and vasopressin (VP; n = 67) magnocellular neurosecretory cells (MNCs) acutely isolated from the supraoptic nucleus of adult rats. 2. The peak density of ITO during steps to -10 mV was 26 % smaller in OT-MNCs (355 +/- 23 pA pF-1; mean +/- s.e. m.; n = 18) than in VP-MNCs (478 +/- 17 pA pF-1; n = 52). No differences were observed in the voltage dependence of activation or inactivation. 3. Kinetic analysis revealed two components of ITO inactivation in both OT-MNCs (tau1 = 9.2 +/- 0.4 ms and tau2 = 41.2 +/- 1.6 ms; n = 18) and VP-MNCs (tau1 = 12.4 +/- 0.4 ms and tau2 = 37.1 +/- 1.2 ms; n = 52). Although the density of the rapid component (tau1) was not different (275 +/- 13 versus 265 +/- 16 pA pF-1, respectively), the slow component (tau2) was markedly smaller in OT-MNCs (183 +/- 19 versus 331 +/- 16 pA pF-1 in VP-MNCs). 4. In unidentified MNCs, 0.5 mM 4-aminopyridine reduced ITO amplitude by 29% and decreased the latency to spike discharge by about 70% during depolarization from -70 mV. Latency to discharge from potentials less negative than -60 mV, where ITO is inactivated, was unaffected. 5. Comparison of latency to spike discharge in identified cells showed that OT-MNCs achieve spike threshold twice as fast as VP-MNCs when depolarized from -70 mV. The lower density of ITO in OT-MNCs, therefore, accelerates the rate at which excitation can occur in response to depolarizing stimuli and may facilitate the occurrence of higher frequency discharges in OT-MNCs during physiological activation.