Tolerance of NK and LAK activity for HLA class I-deficient targets in a TAP1-deficient patient (bare lymphocyte syndrome type I)

Evolution by innovation as a driving force to improve TCR-T therapies

Adoptive cell therapies continually evolve through science-based innovation. Specialized innovations for TCR-T therapies are described here that are embedded in an End-to-End Platform for TCR-T Therapy Development which aims to provide solutions for key unmet patient needs by addressing challenges of TCR-T therapy, including selection of target antigens and suitable T cell receptors, generation of TCR-T therapies that provide long term, durable efficacy and safety and development of efficient and scalable production of patient-specific (personalized) TCR-T therapy for solid tumors. Multiple, combinable, innovative technologies are used in a systematic and sequential manner in the development of TCR-T therapies. One group of technologies encompasses product enhancements that enable TCR-T therapies to be safer, more specific and more effective. The second group of technologies addresses development optimization that supports discovery and development processes for TCR-T therapies to be performed more quickly, with higher quality and greater efficiency. Each module incorporates innovations layered onto basic technologies common to the field of immunology. An active approach of "evolution by innovation" supports the overall goal to develop best-in-class TCR-T therapies for treatment of patients with solid cancer.

Donor selection based on NK alloreactivity for patients with hematological malignancies

Natural killer (NK) cells are an important defender against infections and tumors. Their function is regulated by the balance of inhibitory and activating receptors. Among all inhibitory NK receptors: killer immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIR) and CD94/NKG2A recognize human leukocyte antigen (HLA) Class I molecules, allowing NK cells to be 'licensed' to avoid autoreactivity, but be fully functional at the same time. Licensed NK cells can target malignant cells with altered or downregulated/missing 'self' antigens. NK cell attacking malignant cells is one of the mechanisms of graft-versus-leukemia (GVL) effect. Numerous studies have demonstrated that NK cells improve hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HCT) survival by reducing relapse mortality through GVL effect. Therapeutic strategies, such as adoptive alloreactive NK cell transfer, CAR-NK cells, antibodies against NKG2A and KIR2DL1-3, have been utilized to treat hematological malignancies in HCT. In this review, NK cell functions, NK cell receptors and ligands, as well as common alloreactive NK donor selection algorithms for patients with hematological malignancies in the setting of HCT are discussed. The goal of this review is to provide insights on the controversial results and provide better understanding and resources on how to perform alloreactive donor NK cell selection in HCT.

Harnessing natural killer cells for cancer immunotherapy: dispatching the first responders

Natural killer (NK) cells have crucial roles in the innate immunosurveillance of cancer and viral infections. They are 'first responders' that can spontaneously recognize abnormal cells in the body, rapidly eliminate them through focused cytotoxicity mechanisms and potently produce pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines that recruit and activate other immune cells to initiate an adaptive response. From the initial discovery of the diverse cell surface receptors on NK cells to the characterization of regulatory events that control their function, our understanding of the basic biology of NK cells has improved dramatically in the past three decades. This advanced knowledge has revealed increased mechanistic complexity, which has opened the doors to the development of a plethora of exciting new therapeutics that can effectively manipulate and target NK cell functional responses, particularly in cancer patients. Here, we summarize the basic mechanisms that regulate NK cell biology, review a wide variety of drugs, cytokines and antibodies currently being developed and used to stimulate NK cell responses, and outline evolving NK cell adoptive transfer approaches to treat cancer.

A Critical Review on the Standardization and Quality Assessment of Nonfunctional Laboratory Tests Frequently Used to Identify Inborn Errors of Immunity

Inborn errors of immunity (IEI), which were previously termed primary immunodeficiency diseases, represent a large and growing heterogeneous group of diseases that are mostly monogenic. In addition to increased susceptibility to infections, other clinical phenotypes have recently been associated with IEI, such as autoimmune disorders, severe allergies, autoinflammatory disorders, benign lymphoproliferative diseases, and malignant manifestations. The IUIS 2019 classification comprises 430 distinct defects that, although rare individually, represent a group affecting a significant number of patients, with an overall prevalence of 1:1,200-2,000 in the general population. Early IEI diagnosis is critical for appropriate therapy and genetic counseling, however, this process is deeply dependent on accurate laboratory tests. Despite the striking importance of laboratory data for clinical immunologists, several IEI-relevant immunoassays still lack standardization, including standardized protocols, reference materials, and external quality assessment programs. Moreover, well-established reference values mostly remain to be determined, especially for early ages, when the most severe conditions manifest and diagnosis is critical for patient survival. In this article, we intend to approach the issue of standardization and quality control of the nonfunctional diagnostic tests used for IEI, focusing on those frequently utilized in clinical practice. Herein, we will focus on discussing the issues of nonfunctional immunoassays (flow cytometry, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, and turbidimetry/nephelometry, among others), as defined by the pure quantification of proteins or cell subsets without cell activation or cell culture-based methods.

Regulation of MHC class I-independent NK cell education by SLAM family receptors

Seven members of signaling lymphocytic activation molecule (SLAM) family receptors (SFRs) are ubiquitously expressed on hematopoietic cells and they play critical roles in immune cell differentiation and activation. The engagement of these receptors transmits intracellular signaling mainly by recruiting SLAM-associated protein (SAP) and its related adaptors, EWS-FLI1-activated transcript-2 (EAT-2) and EAT-2-related transducer (ERT). The critical roles of SFRs and SAP-family adaptors are highlighted by the discovery that SAP is mutated in human X-linked lymphoproliferative (XLP1) disease in which the contact between T and B cells in germinal center and cytotoxic lymphocytes (NK cells and CD8⁺ T cells) function are severely compromised. These immune defects are closely associated with the defective antibody production and the high incidence of lymphoma in the patients with XLP1. In addition to these well-known functions, SLAM-SAP family is involved in NK cell education, a process describing NK cell functional competence. In this chapter, we will mainly discuss these unappreciated roles of SAP-dependent and SAP-independent SFR signaling in regulating MHC-I-independent NK cell education.

Synergized regulation of NK cell education by NKG2A and specific Ly49 family members

Mice lacking MHC class-I (MHC-I) display severe defects in natural killer (NK) cell functional maturation, a process designated as “education”. Whether self-MHC-I specific Ly49 family receptors and NKG2A, which are closely linked within the NK gene complex (NKC) locus, are essential for NK cell education is still unclear. Here we show, using CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene deletion, that mice lacking all members of the Ly49 family exhibit a moderate defect in NK cell activity, while mice lacking only two inhibitory Ly49 members, Ly49C and Ly49I, have comparable phenotypes. Furthermore, the deficiency of NKG2A, which recognizes non-classical MHC-Ib molecules, mildly impairs NK cell function. Notably, the combined deletion of NKG2A and the Ly49 family severely compromises the ability of NK cells to mediate “missing-self” and “induced-self” recognition. Therefore, our data provide genetic evidence supporting that NKG2A and the inhibitory members of Ly49 family receptors synergize to regulate NK cell education.

MHC-I-induced signalling of various natural killer (NK) inhibitory receptors is critical for regulation NK cell education, but clear genetic evidence is still lacking. Here the authors generate multiple lines of mice differentially deficient in Ly49 family and/or NKG2A NK receptors, and find that self-MHCI specific Ly49 members and NKG2A synergize to regulate NK education.

Diversity of Killer Cell Immunoglobulin-Like Receptors and Disease

Natural killer (NK) cells are bone marrow-derived large granular lymphocytes defined by CD3^negCD56^pos and represent 5% to 25% of peripheral blood mononuclear cell fraction of the healthy humans. NK cells have a highly specific and sophisticated target cell recognition receptor system arbitrated by the integration of signals triggered by a multitude of inhibitory and activating receptors. Human NK cells express distinct families of receptors, including (1) killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptors, (2) killer cell lectin-like receptors, (3) leukocyte immunoglobulin-like receptors, and (4) natural cytotoxicity receptors.

Emerging insights into human health and NK cell biology from the study of NK cell deficiencies

Human NK cells are innate immune effectors that play a critical roles in the control of viral infection and malignancy. The importance of their homeostasis and function can be demonstrated by the study of patients with primary immunodeficiencies (PIDs), which are part of the family of diseases known as inborn defects of immunity. While NK cells are affected in many PIDs in ways that may contribute to a patient's clinical phenotype, a small number of PIDs have an NK cell abnormality as their major immunological defect. These PIDs can be collectively referred to as NK cell deficiency (NKD) disorders and include effects upon NK cell numbers, subsets, and/or functions. The clinical impact of NKD can be severe including fatal viral infection, with particular susceptibility to herpesviral infections, such as cytomegalovirus, varicella zoster virus, and Epstein-Barr virus. While NKD is rare, studies of these diseases are important for defining specific requirements for human NK cell development and homeostasis. New themes in NK cell biology are emerging through the study of both known and novel NKD, particularly those affecting cell cycle and DNA damage repair, as well as broader PIDs having substantive impact upon NK cells. In addition, the discovery of NKD that affects other innate lymphoid cell (ILC) subsets opens new doors for better understanding the relationship between conventional NK cells and other ILC subsets. Here, we describe the biology underlying human NKD, particularly in the context of new insights into innate immune cell function, including a discussion of recently described NKD with accompanying effects on ILC subsets. Given the impact of these disorders upon human immunity with a common focus upon NK cells, the unifying message of a critical role for NK cells in human host defense singularly emerges.

Single nucleotide polymorphisms in the FcγR3A and TAP1 genes impact ADCC in cynomolgus monkey PBMCs

Phenotypic variability is often observed in cynomolgus monkeys on preclinical studies and may, in part, be driven by genetic variability. However, the role of monkey genetic variation remains largely unexplored in the context of drug response. This study evaluated genetic variation in cynomolgus monkey FcγR3A and TAP1 genes and the potential impact of identified polymorphisms on antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC) in vitro. Studies in humans have demonstrated that a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), F158V, in FcγR3A can influence response to rituximab through altered ADCC and that SNPs in TAP1/2 decrease natural killer (NK) cell activity against major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I deficient cells, potentially through altered ADCC. Monkeys were genotyped for FcγR3A and TAP1 SNPs, and ADCC was assessed in vitro using peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) treated with trastuzumab in the presence of NCI-N87 cells. FcγR3A g.1134A>C (exonic S42R), FcγR3A g.5027A>G (intronic), and TAP1 g.1A>G (start codon loss) SNPs were all significantly associated with decreased ADCC for at least one trastuzumab concentration ≥0.0001 μM when compared with wild type (WT). Regression analysis demonstrated significant association of the SNP-SNP pairs FcγR3A g.1134A>C/TAP1 g.1A>G and FcγR3A g.5027A>G/TAP1 g.1A>G with a combinatorial decrease on ADCC. Mechanisms underlying the decreased ADCC were investigated by measuring FcγR3A/IgG binding affinity and expression of FcγR3A and TAP1 in PBMCs; however, no functional associations were observed. These data demonstrate that genetic variation in cynomolgus monkeys is reflective of known human genetic variation and may potentially contribute to variable drug response in preclinical studies.

The role of NK cells in HIV-1 protection: autologous, allogeneic or both?

Natural killer (NK) cells specialize in killing virally infected- or tumor cells and are part of the innate immune system. The activational state of NK cells is determined by the balance of incoming activating and inhibitory signals mediated by receptor-ligand binding with the target cell. These receptor-ligand bonds mainly consist of the killer immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIR), which are expressed at the cell surface of NK cells, and their ligands: the highly variable human leukocyte antigen -class I molecules (HLA). Absence of an inhibitory receptor-ligand bond lowers the NK cell activation threshold, whereas an activating receptor-ligand bond stimulates the cell, potentially overcoming this threshold and triggering NK cell activation. NK cells influence the course of infection as well as the acquisition of HIV-1. Several lines of evidence relate the activating NK cell receptor KIR3DS1, in the presence or absence of its putative ligand HLA-Bw4, with slower disease progression as well as resistance to HIV-1 infection. Overall, resistance to HIV-1 infection predominantly correlates with activating KIR/HLA profiles, consisting of e.g. activating KIRs, group B haplotypes, or inhibitory KIRs in absence of their ligands. Such a conclusion is less evident for studies of HIV-1 disease progression, with studies reporting beneficial as well as detrimental effects of activating KIR/HLA genotypes. It is likely that KIR/HLA association studies are complicated by the complexity of the KIR and HLA loci and their mutual interactions, as well as by additional factors like route of HIV exposure, immune activation, presence of co-infections, and the effect of anti-HIV-1 antibodies. One newly discovered NK cell activation pathway associated with resistance to HIV-1 infection involves the presence of an iKIR/HLA mismatch between partners. The absence of such an iKIR/HLA bond renders donor-derived allogeneic HIV-1 infected cells vulnerable to NK cell responses during HIV-1 transmission. Therefore, theoretically, HIV-1 would be eliminated before it has the chance to infect the autologous cells in the recipient. While this “alloreactive” NK cell mechanism is especially relevant to HIV transmission in monogamous couples, it would be interesting to investigate how it could influence resistance to HIV in other settings. The objective of this review is to summarize the knowledge about these autologous and alloreactive NK cell responses with regard to HIV-1 outcome.

Clinical Role of Human Leukocyte Antigen in Health and Disease

Most of the genes in the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) region express high polymorphism that is fundamental for their function. The most important function of human leukocyte antigen (HLA) molecule is in the induction, regulation of immune responses and the selection of the T cell repertoire. A clinician's attention is normally drawn to a system only when it malfunctions. The HLA system is no exception in this regard, but in contrast to other systems, it also arouses interest when it functions well - too well, in fact. Population studies carried out over the last several decades have identified a long list of human diseases that are significantly more common among individuals that carry particular HLA alleles including inflammatory, autoimmune and malignant disorders. HLA-disease association is the name of this phenomenon, and the mechanism underlying is still a subject of hot debate. Social behaviours are affected by HLA genes and preference for HLA disparate mates may provide 'good genes' for an individual's offspring. Also, certain HLA genes may be associated with shorter life and others with longer lifespan, but the effects depend both on the genetic background and on the environmental conditions. The following is a general overview of the important functional aspects of HLA in health and diseases.

Natural killer cell biology illuminated by primary immunodeficiency syndromes in humans

Natural killer (NK) cells are innate immune cytotoxic effector cells well known for their role in antiviral immunity and tumor immunosurveillance. In parts, this knowledge stems from rare inherited immunodeficiency disorders in humans that abrogate NK cell function leading to immune impairments, most notably associated with a high susceptibility to viral infections. Phenotypically, these disorders range from deficiencies selectively affecting NK cells to complex general immune defects that affect NK cells but also other immune cell subsets. Moreover, deficiencies may be associated with reduced NK cell numbers or rather impair specific NK cell effector functions. In recent years, genetic defects underlying the various NK cell deficiencies have been uncovered and have triggered investigative efforts to decipher the molecular mechanisms underlying these disorders. Here we review the associations between inherited human diseases and NK cell development as well as function, with a particular focus on defects in NK cell exocytosis and cytotoxicity. Furthermore we outline how reports of diverse genetic defects have shaped our understanding of NK cell biology.

Behçet's Disease: Do Natural Killer Cells Play a Significant Role?

Behçet's disease (BD) is a complex inflammatory disease, of unknown etiology. While disease pathogenesis remains unclear, a strong relationship between BD and HLA-B*51 has been established over the last 30 years. A number of theories exist regarding the cause of BD; however, few are able to account for the increased rates of HLA-B*51 positive individuals, particularly around the Mediterranean basin and Middle-East where the prevalence is highest. This review outlines current immunogenetic data on BD and the immunoregulatory role natural killer cells may play. It also describes the interaction of the killer immunoglobulin-like receptor - KIR3DL1 with its ligand Bw4, which is found on HLA-B51. Finally, CD94/NKG2D, MICA, and ERAP are outlined with regard to their potential roles in BD.

NK cell killer Ig-like receptor repertoire acquisition and maturation are strongly modulated by HLA class I molecules

The interaction between clonally distributed inhibitory receptors and their activating counterparts on NK cells and HLA class I molecules defines NK cell functions, but the role of HLA class I ligands in the acquisition of their receptors during NK development is still unclear. Although some studies demonstrated that HLA-C affects the expression of killer Ig-like receptors (KIR), other studies showed that NK cells acquire their KIR repertoire in a stochastic manner. Only when infected with human CMV is an expansion of self-specific KIR(+) NKG2C(+) NK cells detected. To gain more insight into this question, we compared the coexpression of different KIR molecules, NKG2A, CD8, and CD57, on NK cells in healthy donors and seven patients with deficient HLA class I expression due to mutations in one of the TAP genes. Our results show a correlation between the presence/absence of HLA class I molecules and the coexpression of their receptors. In an HLA class I low-expression context, an increase in KIR molecules' coexpression is detected on the NKG2A(+) CD8(+) subset. In functional assays, hyporesponsiveness was observed for TAP-deficient NK cells derived from four patients. In contrast, NK cells from patient five were functional, whereas CD107a(+) and IFN-γ(+) CD56(dim) NK cells presented a different pattern of HLA class I receptors compared with healthy donors. Taken together, our results provide strong evidence for the role of HLA class I molecules in NK cell maturation and KIR repertoire acquisition.

Natural killer cell deficiency

Natural killer (NK) cells are part of the innate immune defense against infection and cancer and are especially useful in combating certain viral pathogens. The utility of NK cells in human health has been underscored by a growing number of persons who are deficient in NK cells and/or their functions. This can be in the context of a broader genetically defined congenital immunodeficiency, of which there are more than 40 presently known to impair NK cells. However, the abnormality of NK cells in certain cases represents the majority immunologic defect. In aggregate, these conditions are termed NK cell deficiency. Recent advances have added clarity to this diagnosis and identified defects in 3 genes that can cause NK cell deficiency, as well as some of the underlying biology. Appropriate consideration of these diagnoses and patients raises the potential for rational therapeutic options and further innovation.

Natural killer cell biology: an update and future directions

Natural killer (NK) cells constitute a minor subset of normal lymphocytes that initiate innate immune responses toward tumor and virus-infected cells. They can mediate spontaneous cytotoxicity toward these abnormal cells and rapidly secrete numerous cytokines and chemokines to promote subsequent adaptive immune responses. Significant progress has been made in the past 2 decades to improve our understanding of NK cell biology. Here we review recent discoveries, including a better comprehension of the "education" of NK cells to achieve functional competence during their maturation and the discovery of "memory" responses by NK cells, suggesting that they might also contribute to adaptive immunity. The improved understanding of NK cell biology has forged greater awareness that these cells play integral early roles in immune responses. In addition, several promising clinical therapies have been used to exploit NK cell functions in treating patients with cancer. As our molecular understanding improves, these and future immunotherapies should continue to provide promising strategies to exploit the unique functions of NK cells to treat cancer, infections, and other pathologic conditions.

Lethal NK-mediated inflammation induced by IL-12 in the absence of polymorphic and nonpolymorphic MHC class I molecules

Interleukin-12 is a potent activator and initiator of type-1 T cell development, and can be used as an adjuvant to bias for the development of vaccine-induced Th1 immune responses. During vaccination of MHC class I deficient beta-2 microglobulin knockout mice (β2M(-/-)) with an IL-12/αIL-4 Th1 biasing procedure, all of the mice died. None of the IL-12/αIL-4 treated wild type mice developed any noticeable complications. We hypothesized that NK cells may be activated by IL-12 treatment in these β2M(-/-) mice, leading to necrosis and eventual death. IL-12/αIL-4 treatment of β2M(-/-) mice resulted in increased NK cell numbers and activation status (IFN-γ(+), CD69(+)). Finally, in vivo depletion of NK cells reversed the pathology induced by IL-12/αIL-4 treatment in β2M deficient mice. These results indicate that IL-12 combined with αIL-4 irreversibly activates NK cells leading to a disseminated inflammatory pathology and death in β2M(-/-) mice.

Natural killer cell tolerance: control by self or self-control?

A major challenge for the immune system is to control pathogens and stressed cells, such as infected or tumors cells, while sparing healthy self-cells. To achieve this tolerance to self, immune cells must recognize and differentiate "self" versus "nonself" and "self" versus "altered self." In the absence of self-tolerance, cells of the adaptive immune system attack healthy cells and cause autoimmune diseases such as lupus, psoriasis, and type I diabetes. Mechanisms at work to ensure tolerance in the innate immune system are still poorly understood. Natural killer cells are innate immune lymphocytes, which have the capacity to kill cellular targets and produce cytokines without prior specific sensitization. Because of these intrinsic effector capacities, tolerance mechanisms must exist to prevent autoreactivity. Herein, we will review the present knowledge on NK cell tolerance.

Overview of the killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptor system

Natural killer (NK) cells are more than simple killers and have been implicated in control and clearance of malignant and virally infected cells, regulation of adaptive immune responses, rejection of bone marrow transplants, and autoimmunity and the maintenance of pregnancy. Human NK cells largely use a family of germ-line encoded killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIR) to respond to the perturbations from self-HLA class I molecules present on infected, malignant, or HLA-disparate fetal or allogenic transplants. Genes encoding KIR receptors and HLA class I ligands are located on different chromosomes, and both feature extraordinary diversity in the number and type of genes. The independent segregation of KIR and HLA gene families produce diversity in the number and type of KIR-HLA gene combinations inherited in individuals, which may determine their immunity and susceptibility to diseases. This chapter provides an overview of NK cells and their unprecedented phenotypic and functional diversity within and between individuals.

Unifying concepts of MHC-dependent natural killer cell education

Natural killer (NK) cells, like B and T lymphocytes, are potent effector cells that are crucial for immunity to tumors and infections. These effector responses must be controlled to avoid inadvertent attack against normal self. Yet, the mechanisms that guide NK cell tolerance differ from those guiding T and B cell tolerance. Here, we discuss how NK cells are licensed by self-MHC class I molecules through their inhibitory receptors which results in NK cell functional competence to be triggered through their activation receptors. We discuss recent data with respect to issues related to licensing, thereby providing a framework for unifying concepts on NK cell education.

Confinement of activating receptors at the plasma membrane controls natural killer cell tolerance

Natural killer (NK) cell tolerance to self is partly ensured by major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I-specific inhibitory receptors on NK cells, which dampen their reactivity when engaged. However, NK cells that do not detect self MHC class I are not autoreactive. We used dynamic fluorescence correlation spectroscopy to show that MHC class I-independent NK cell tolerance in mice was associated with the presence of hyporesponsive NK cells in which both activating and inhibitory receptors were confined in an actin meshwork at the plasma membrane. In contrast, the recognition of self MHC class I by inhibitory receptors "educated" NK cells to become fully reactive, and activating NK cell receptors became dynamically compartmentalized in membrane nanodomains. We propose that the confinement of activating receptors at the plasma membrane is pivotal to ensuring the self-tolerance of NK cells.

Ly49-dependent NK cell licensing and effector inhibition involve the same interaction site on MHC ligands

NK cells become functionally competent to be triggered by their activation receptors through the interaction of NK cell inhibitory receptors with their cognate self-MHC ligands, an MHC-dependent educational process termed "licensing." For example, Ly49A(+) NK cells become licensed by the interaction of the Ly49A inhibitory receptor with its MHC class I ligand, H2D(d), whereas Ly49C(+) NK cells are licensed by H2K(b). Structural studies indicate that the Ly49A inhibitory receptor may interact with two sites, termed site 1 and site 2, on its H2D(d) ligand. Site 2 encompasses the α1/α2/α3 domains of the H2D(d) H chain and β(2)-microglobulin (β2m) and is the functional binding site for Ly49A in effector inhibition. Ly49C functionally interacts with a similar site in H2K(b). However, it is currently unknown whether this same site is involved in Ly49A- or Ly49C-dependent licensing. In this study, we produced transgenic C57BL/6 mice expressing wild-type or site 2 mutant H2D(d) molecules and studied whether Ly49A(+) NK cells are licensed. We also investigated Ly49A- and Ly49C-dependent NK licensing in murine β2m-deficient mice that are transgenic for human β2m, which has species-specific amino acid substitutions in β2m. Our data from these transgenic mice indicate that site 2 on self-MHC is critical for Ly49A- and Ly49C-dependent NK cell licensing. Thus, NK cell licensing through Ly49 involves specific interactions with its MHC ligand that are similar to those involved in effector inhibition.

Human natural killer cells

Natural killer (NK) cells were discovered more than 30 years ago. NK cells are large granular lymphocytes that belong to the innate immune system because unlike T or B lymphocytes of the adaptive or antigen-specific immune system, NK cells do not rearrange T-cell receptor or immunoglobulin genes from their germline configuration. During the past 2 decades there has been a substantial gain in our understanding of what and how NK-cells "see," lending important insights into their functions and purpose in normal immune surveillance. The most recent discoveries in NK-cell receptor biology have fueled translational research that has led to remarkable results in treating human malignancy.

NK cell tolerance and the maternal-fetal interface

Natural killer (NK) cells play a fundamental role in the innate immune response through their ability to secrete cytokines and kill target cells without prior sensitization. These effector functions are central to NK cell anti-viral and anti-tumor abilities. Due to their cytotoxic nature, it is vital that NK cells have the capacity to recognize normal self-tissue and thus prevent their destruction. In addition to their role in host defense, NK cells accumulate at the maternal-fetal interface and are thought to play a critical role during pregnancy. The close proximity of uterine NK (uNK) cells to fetal trophoblast cells of the placenta would seemingly lead to catastrophic consequences, as the trophoblast cells are semi-allogeneic. A fundamental enigma of pregnancy is that the fetal cells constitute an allograft but, in normal pregnancies, they are in effect not perceived as foreign and are not rejected by the maternal immune system. Although the mechanisms involved in achieving NK cell tolerance are becoming increasingly well-defined, further clarification is required, given the clinical implications of this work in the areas of infection, transplantation, cancer and pregnancy. Herein, we discuss several mechanisms of NK cell tolerance and speculate as to how they may apply to uNK cells at the maternal-fetal interface.

Distinct KIR/HLA compound genotypes affect the kinetics of human antiviral natural killer cell responses

Genetic studies suggest a role for killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptor/HLA (KIR/HLA) compound genotypes in the outcome of viral infections, but functional data to explain these epidemiological observations have not been reported. Using an in vitro model of infection with influenza A virus (IAV), we attribute functional differences in human NK cell activity to distinct KIR/HLA genotypes. Multicolor flow cytometry revealed that the HLA-C-inhibited NK cell subset in HLA-C1 homozygous subjects was larger and responded more rapidly in IFN-gamma secretion and CD107a degranulation assays than its counterpart in HLA-C2 homozygous subjects. The differential IFN-gamma response was also observed at the level of bulk NK cells and was independent of KIR3DL1/HLA-Bw4 interactions. Moreover, the differential response was not caused by differences in NK cell maturation status and phenotype, nor by differences in the type I IFN response of IAV-infected accessory cells between HLA-C1 and HLA-C2 homozygous subjects. These results provide functional evidence for differential NK cell responsiveness depending on KIR/HLA genotype and may provide useful insights into differential innate immune responsiveness to viral infections such as IAV.

Self-tolerance of human natural killer cells lacking self-HLA-specific inhibitory receptors

Natural killer (NK) cells identify cells with altered human leucocyte antigen (HLA) expression as targets through lacking engagement of self-HLA-specific inhibitory receptors (e.g. killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptor, KIR). Thus, they eliminate cells with 'missing self' because of viral or malignant transformation. We performed analysis of HLA, KIR genotypes and KIR receptor expression patterns at single cell level in NK cells in 17 donors. The function of NK cell subsets is determined by degranulation assays using target cells expressing self, cognate, control or no HLA class I. Donors could be grouped into three groups: their NK cells possess potential for alloreactivity, autoreactivity based on the presence of NK cells expressing particular KIR only (mono-KIR) in the absence of its ligand or lack alloreactivity. All donors possess NK cells lacking all detectable inhibitory receptors. Both potential autoreactive subpopulations did not respond to HLA class I-positive target cells. They retain partial reactivity against HLA class I-negative tumour target cells. Mono-KIR NK cells without the corresponding ligands in the individuals and NK cells lacking all inhibitory receptors behave self-tolerant. Our results suggest alternative mechanisms than HLA-specific inhibitory receptors to control NK cell activity. But HLA seems to be involved in shaping effector function of the NK cell repertoire.

Humanized immune system (HIS) mice as a tool to study human NK cell development

The study of human hematopoiesis is conditioned by access to nondiseased human tissue samples that harbor the cellular substrates for this developmental process. Technical and ethical concerns limit the availability to tissues derived from the fetal and newborn periods, while adult samples are generally restricted to peripheral blood. Access to a small animal model that faithfully recapitulates the process of human hematopoiesis would provide an important tool. Natural killer (NK) cells comprise between 10% and 15% of human peripheral blood lymphocytes and appear conserved in several species. NK cells are implicated in the recognition of pathogen-infected cells and in the clearance of certain tumor cells. In this chapter, we discuss NK cell developmental pathways and the use of humanized murine models for the study of human hematopoiesis and, in particular, human NK cell development.

Analysis of individual natural killer cell responses

Typical assays for natural killer (NK) cell function assess the responses of entire NK cell populations. It is now possible to determine the responses of individual NK cells. Herein, two representative assays are described along with examples of how they have helped clarify current understanding of NK cell biology.

Developmental pathways that generate natural-killer-cell diversity in mice and humans

Natural killer (NK) cells are large granular lymphocytes capable of producing inflammatory cytokines and spontaneously killing malignant, infected or 'stressed' cells. These NK-cell functions are controlled by cell-surface receptors that titrate stimulatory and inhibitory signals. However, we remain puzzled about where and when NK cells develop and differentiate, and this has fuelled the debate over the diversification of the peripheral NK-cell pool: are NK cells functionally homogeneous or are there subsets with specialized effector functions? In this Review, we consider the developmental relationships and biological significance of the diverse NK-cell subsets in mice and humans, and discuss how new humanized mouse models may help to characterize them further.

Description of HLA class I- and CD8-deficient patients: Insights into the function of cytotoxic T lymphocytes and NK cells in host defense

Over the last few years, several patients with defects in the HLA class I presentation pathway have been described. Analysis of their clinical symptoms and immunological parameters have led to the identification of several unexpected findings which are of importance to understand the role of HLA class I-dependent immune responses in host defense. Here, we will describe and compare clinical manifestations and immunological findings of patients with defects in the peptide transporter proteins (TAP complex), tapasin and CD8 molecules.

Licensing of natural killer cells by self-major histocompatibility complex class I

Natural killer (NK) cells have potent capacities to immediately kill cellular targets and produce cytokines that may potentially damage normal self-tissues unless they are kept in check. Such tolerance mechanisms are incompletely understood. Here we discuss recent studies suggesting that NK cells undergo a host major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I-dependent functional maturation process, termed 'licensing'. Ironically, licensing directly involves inhibitory receptors that recognize target cell MHC class I molecules and block activation of NK cells in effector responses. This process results in two types of tolerant NK cells: functionally competent (licensed) NK cells, whose effector responses are inhibited by self-MHC class I molecules through the same receptors that conferred licensing, and functionally incompetent (unlicensed) NK cells.

The dynamics of natural killer cell tolerance

Natural killer (NK) cells are important mediators of resistance against tumor growth and metastasis. NK cell reactivity is regulated by a balance of signals from activating and inhibitory receptors. While reactivity against tumor cells is beneficial, it is essential that NK cells do not attack normal tissue. The distinction between tumor cells and normal cells is partly made at the level of activating receptors: transformation often results in induction of ligands for such receptors. In addition, NK cells discriminate self from non-self using MHC class I-binding inhibitory receptors. Host MHC class I molecules regulate development of NK cell reactivity and tolerance, a process that is not well understood. Recent data suggest that functional maturation may not be a binary phenomenon: quantitative aspects, with regards to avidity and frequency in interactions between developing NK cells and normal cells, may be important for the generation of NK cells that are 'tuned' to optimally sensing the absence of self-MHC class I. In this article, we discuss models for development of NK cell reactivity and tolerance. Our understanding of this process may have significant implications for the use of NK cells in cancer therapy.

Self-tolerance of natural killer cells

Natural killer (NK) cells, similar to other lymphocytes, acquire tolerance to self. This means that NK cells have the potential to attack normal self cells but that there are mechanisms to ensure that this does not usually occur. Self-tolerance is acquired by NK cells during their development, but the underlying molecular and cellular mechanisms remain poorly understood. Recent studies have produced important new information about NK-cell self-tolerance. Here, we review the evidence for and against possible mechanisms of NK-cell self-tolerance, with an emphasis on the role of MHC-specific receptors.

What is natural in natural killer cells?

Denomination is a not a trivial issue in human activities in general, and in science in particular. Natural killer (NK) cells have been originally characterized as cytolytic effector lymphocytes present in mouse spleen and human peripheral blood. The "NK" name was originally coined after the NK cell's ability to kill targets cells without requirement for a prior exposure to these targets, in contrast to cytolytic T cells (Kiessling, R., Klein, E., Wigzell, H. 1975. "Natural" killer cells in the mouse. I. Cytotoxic cells with specificity for mouse Moloney leukemia cells. Specificity and distribution according to genotype. Eur J Immunol 5:112-117). In this review, an attempt is made to revisit the basis for this vastly admitted definition of NK cells, and to enumerate some of the unsolved questions related to NK cell biology. An emphasis will be given to recent data showing that circulating NK cells are not steady state killers unless they have gone through a process of functional maturation. This process that is referred as to "NK cell education" thereafter involves self MHC class I recognition via inhibitory receptors, but also some still unidentified factors. Therefore, the NK denomination does not reflect a genuine property of these lymphocytes that appear to more and more resemble T and B lymphocytes.

Human NK Cell Education by Inhibitory Receptors for MHC Class I

Natural killer (NK) cells recognize the absence of self MHC class I as a way to discriminate normal cells from cells in distress. In humans, this "missing self" recognition is ensured by inhibitory receptors such as KIR, which dampen NK cell activation upon interaction with their MHC class I ligands. We show here that NK cells lacking inhibitory KIR for self MHC class I molecules are present in human peripheral blood. These cells harbor a mature NK cell phenotype but are hyporesponsive to various stimuli, including MHC class I-deficient target cells. This response is in contrast to NK cells that express a single inhibitory KIR specific for self MHC class I, which are functionally competent when exposed to the same stimuli. These results show the involvement of KIR-MHC class I interactions in the calibration of NK cell effector capacities, suggesting its role in the subsequent "missing self" recognition.

How do natural killer cells find self to achieve tolerance?

Natural killer (NK) cells provide innate defense against tumors and infections by virtue of potent capacities to immediately kill cellular targets and produce cytokines. These effector functions may potentially damage normal self-tissues unless they are kept in check by tolerance mechanisms that need clarification. Here, we discuss recent studies indicating that the NK cells acquire functional competence directly through engagement of their MHC-specific receptors by self-MHC. Ironically, these receptors were first identified in terms of recognizing target cell MHC class I molecules and inhibiting NK cells in effector responses. Other studies of NK cell tolerance are also discussed. Although these studies begin to clarify the means by which NK cell tolerance is achieved, much more investigation is needed because NK cell tolerance is relevant to clinical observations in patients with infections and cancer.

Clinical and immunological aspects of HLA class I deficiency

Human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I deficiency is a rare disease with remarkable clinical and biological heterogeneity. The spectrum of possible manifestations extends from the complete absence of symptoms to life-threatening disease conditions. It is usually diagnosed when HLA class I serological typing is unsuccessful; flow cytometric studies then reveal a severe reduction in the cell surface expression of HLA class I molecules (90-99% reduction compared to normal cells). In most cases to date, this low expression is due to a homozygous inactivating mutation in one of the two subunits of the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP), critically involved in the peptide loading of HLA class I molecules. Although asymptomatic cases have been described, TAP deficiencies are usually characterized by chronic bacterial infections of the upper and lower airways, evolving to bronchiectasis, and in half of the cases, also skin ulcers with features of a chronic granulomatous inflammation. Despite the defect in HLA class-I-mediated presentation of viral antigens to cytotoxic T cells, the patients do not suffer from severe viral infections, presumably because of other efficient antiviral defence mechanisms such as antibodies, non-HLA-class-I-restricted cytotoxic effector cells and CD8+ T-cell responses to TAP-independent antigens. Treatment is at present exclusively symptomatic, and should particularly focus on the prevention of bronchiectasis, which requires early detection.

Licensing of natural killer cells by host major histocompatibility complex class I molecules

Self versus non-self discrimination is a central theme in biology from plants to vertebrates, and is particularly relevant for lymphocytes that express receptors capable of recognizing self-tissues and foreign invaders. Comprising the third largest lymphocyte population, natural killer (NK) cells recognize and kill cellular targets and produce pro-inflammatory cytokines. These potentially self-destructive effector functions can be controlled by inhibitory receptors for the polymorphic major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules that are ubiquitously expressed on target cells. However, inhibitory receptors are not uniformly expressed on NK cells, and are germline-encoded by a set of polymorphic genes that segregate independently from MHC genes. Therefore, how NK-cell self-tolerance arises in vivo is poorly understood. Here we demonstrate that NK cells acquire functional competence through 'licensing' by self-MHC molecules. Licensing involves a positive role for MHC-specific inhibitory receptors and requires the cytoplasmic inhibitory motif originally identified in effector responses. This process results in two types of self-tolerant NK cells--licensed or unlicensed--and may provide new insights for exploiting NK cells in immunotherapy. This self-tolerance mechanism may be more broadly applicable within the vertebrate immune system because related germline-encoded inhibitory receptors are widely expressed on other immune cells.

Adenosine Deaminase Deficiency: Metabolic Basis of Immune Deficiency and Pulmonary Inflammation

Genetic deficiencies in the purine catabolic enzyme adenosine deaminase (ADA) in humans results primarily in a severe lymphopenia and immunodeficiency that can lead to the death of affected individuals early in life. The metabolic basis of the immunodeficiency is likely related to the sensitivity of lymphocytes to the accumulation of the ADA substrates adenosine and 2'-deoxyadenosine. Investigations using ADA-deficient mice have provided compelling evidence to support the hypothesis that T and B cells are sensitive to increased concentrations of 2'-deoxyadenosine that kill cells through mechanisms that involve the accumulation of dATP and the induction of apoptosis. In addition to effects on the developing immune system, ADA-deficient humans exhibit phenotypes in other physiological systems including the renal, neural, skeletal, and pulmonary systems. ADA-deficient mice develop similar abnormalities that are dependent on the accumulation of adenosine and 2'-deoxyadenosine. Detailed analysis of the pulmonary insufficiency seen in ADA-deficient mice suggests that the accumulation of adenosine in the lung can directly access cellular signaling pathways that lead to the development and exacerbation of chronic lung disease. The ability of adenosine to regulate aspects of chronic lung disease is likely mediated by specific interactions with adenosine receptor subtypes on key regulatory cells. Thus, the examination of ADA deficiency has identified the importance of purinergic signaling during lymphoid development and in the regulation of aspects of chronic lung disease.

Human natural killer cell deficiencies and susceptibility to infection

There are a surprisingly large number of human natural killer (NK) cell deficiency states that provide insight into the role of NK cells in defense against human infectious disease. Many disorders associated with NK cell defects are caused by single gene mutations and, thus, give additional understanding concerning the function of specific molecules in NK cell development and activities. A resounding theme of NK cell deficiencies is susceptibility to herpesviruses, suggesting that unexplained severe herpesviral infection should raise the possibility of an NK cell deficit.

A subject with a novel type I bare lymphocyte syndrome has tapasin deficiency due to deletion of 4 exons by Alu-mediated recombination

HLA class I expression depends on the formation of a peptide-loading complex composed of class I heavy chain; beta(2)-microglobulin; the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP); and tapasin, which links TAP to the heavy chain. Defects in TAP result in a class I deficiency called the type I bare lymphocyte syndrome (BLS). In the present study, we examined a subject with a novel type I BLS who does not exhibit apparent TAP abnormalities but who has a tapasin defect. The subject's TAPASIN gene has a 7.4-kilobase deletion between introns 3 and 7; an Alu repeat-mediated unequal homologous recombination may be the cause of the deletion. No tapasin polypeptide was detected in the subject's cells. The cell surface class I expression level in tapasin-deficient cells was markedly reduced but the reduction was not as profound as in TAP-deficient cells. These results suggest that tapasin deficiency is another cause of type I BLS.

Promoter-region alleles of the TNF-alpha and IL-10 genes have no effect on pretransplant alloantibody production

BACKGROUND

The presence of high levels of alloantibodies are known to be a risk factor in renal graft outcome. Expression level polymorphisms in cytokine genes are also thought to have an effect on allograft outcome, but the studies examining this have been inconsistent. This may be due to center-specific differences in immunosuppressive protocols. Therefore, we studied the effects of these polymorphisms on pretransplant class I alloantibody production in nonexogenously immunosuppressed candidates.

METHODS

Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and interleukin-10 (IL-10) gene polymorphisms were assayed genotypically by PCR-SSP on 177 renal transplant candidates. Candidates with a peak goat antihuman immunoglobulin-enhanced T-cell panel reactive antibody (PRA) of >or=10% were considered to be positive for alloantibody (32% of 177 total).

RESULTS

Previous transplants, transfusions, or pregnancies were all associated with alloantibody production, but TNF-alpha and IL-10 phenotypes were not. High levels of alloantibody production (peak PRA >50%) were also not effected by cytokine phenotype.

CONCLUSIONS

These data suggest that differences in TNF-alpha and IL-10 phenotype do not effect a patient's likelihood of becoming sensitized by transfusions, pregnancies, and prior transplants.

Molecular studies and NK cell function of a new case of TAP2 homozygous human deficiency

In this paper we describe the clinical and molecular features of a new case (GOR) of homozygous human TAP2 deficiency, analysing the phenotype and function of NK cells. The patient presented from infancy with recurrent sinopulmonary infections; a selective IgG2 deficiency, negative antibody response to polysaccharide vaccination and low level of cell surface expression of HLA class I antigens were found. The sequence of TAP2 gene identified a single mutation, a C to T substitution changing the CGA arg codon at amino acid 220 into TGA stop codon in exon 3. By using MoAbs for KIRs, CD94, CD94/NKG2A and ILT2 we observed, in agreement with others, that the latter two receptors were overexpressed on TAP2-deficient NK cells. The inhibitory CD94/NKG2A and triggering CD94/NKG2C NK receptors, specific for HLA-E, appeared to be functional in a limited number of NK clones that could be expanded in vitro. Expression of HLA-E was virtually undetectable in GOR B-LCL and very faint in PBMC, further supporting that interactions of class I leader sequence nonamers with HLA-E in the ER depend on a functional TAP complex.