1
|
Yang H, Narayan S, Schmidt MV. From Ligands to Behavioral Outcomes: Understanding the Role of Mineralocorticoid Receptors in Brain Function. Stress 2023; 26:2204366. [PMID: 37067948 DOI: 10.1080/10253890.2023.2204366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Stress is a normal response to situational pressures or demands. Exposure to stress activates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and leads to the release of corticosteroids, which act in the brain via two distinct receptors: mineralocorticoid receptors (MR) and glucocorticoid receptors (GR). Persistent HPA axis overactivation or dysregulation can disrupt an individual's homeostasis, thereby contributing to an increased risk for mental illness. On the other hand, successful coping with stressful events involves adaptive and cognitive processes in the brain that render individuals more resilient to similar stressors in the future. Here we review the role of the MR in these processes, starting with an overview of the physiological structure, ligand binding, and expression of MR, and further summarizing its role in the brain, its relevance to psychiatric disorders, and related rodent studies. Given the central role of MR in cognitive and emotional functioning, and its importance as a target for promoting resilience, future research should investigate how MR modulation can be used to alleviate disturbances in emotion and behavior, as well as cognitive impairment, in patients with stress-related psychiatric disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Huanqing Yang
- Research Group Neurobiology of Stress Resilience, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, 80804 Munich, Germany
| | - Sowmya Narayan
- Research Group Neurobiology of Stress Resilience, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, 80804 Munich, Germany
- Department Translational Research in Psychiatry, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, 80804 Munich, Germany
- International Max Planck Research School for Translational Psychiatry (IMPRS-TP), 80804 Munich, Germany
| | - Mathias V Schmidt
- Research Group Neurobiology of Stress Resilience, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, 80804 Munich, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Wei J, Arber C, Wray S, Hardy J, Piers TM, Pocock JM. Human myeloid progenitor glucocorticoid receptor activation causes genomic instability, type 1 IFN- response pathway activation and senescence in differentiated microglia; an early life stress model. Glia 2023; 71:1036-1056. [PMID: 36571248 DOI: 10.1002/glia.24325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2022] [Revised: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 12/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
One form of early life stress, prenatal exposure to glucocorticoids (GCs), confers a higher risk of psychiatric and neurodevelopmental disorders in later life. Increasingly, the importance of microglia in these disorders is recognized. Studies on GCs exposure during microglial development have been limited, and there are few, if any, human studies. We established an in vitro model of ELS by continuous pre-exposure of human iPS-microglia to GCs during primitive hematopoiesis (the critical stage of iPS-microglial differentiation) and then examined how this exposure affected the microglial phenotype as they differentiated and matured to microglia, using RNA-seq analyses and functional assays. The iPS-microglia predominantly expressed glucocorticoid receptors over mineralocorticoid receptors, and in particular, the GR-α splice variant. Chronic GCs exposure during primitive hematopoiesis was able to recapitulate in vivo ELS effects. Thus, pre-exposure to prolonged GCs resulted in increased type I interferon signaling, the presence of Cyclic GMP-AMP synthase-positive (cGAS) micronuclei, cellular senescence and reduced proliferation in the matured iPS-microglia. The findings from this in vitro ELS model have ramifications for the responses of microglia in the pathogenesis of GC- mediated ELS-associated disorders such as schizophrenia, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jingzhang Wei
- Department of Neuroinflammation, University College London Institute of Neurology, London, UK
| | - Charles Arber
- Department of Molecular Neuroscience, University College London Institute of Neurology, London, UK
| | - Selina Wray
- Department of Molecular Neuroscience, University College London Institute of Neurology, London, UK
| | - John Hardy
- Department of Molecular Neuroscience, University College London Institute of Neurology, London, UK
| | - Thomas M Piers
- Department of Neuroinflammation, University College London Institute of Neurology, London, UK
| | - Jennifer M Pocock
- Department of Neuroinflammation, University College London Institute of Neurology, London, UK
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Dong Y, Weng J, Zhu Y, Sun D, He W, Chen Q, Cheng J, Zhu Y, Jiang Y. Transcriptomic profiling of the developing brain revealed cell-type and brain-region specificity in a mouse model of prenatal stress. BMC Genomics 2023; 24:86. [PMID: 36829105 PMCID: PMC9951484 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-023-09186-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2022] [Accepted: 02/14/2023] [Indexed: 02/26/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Prenatal stress (PS) is considered as a risk factor for many mental disorders. PS-induced transcriptomic alterations may contribute to the functional dysregulation during brain development. Here, we used RNA-seq to explore changes of gene expression in the mouse fetal brain after prenatal exposure to chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS). RESULTS We compared the stressed brains to the controls and identified groups of significantly differentially expressed genes (DEGs). GO analysis on up-regulated DEGs revealed enrichment for the cell cycle pathways, while down-regulated DEGs were mostly enriched in the neuronal pathways related to synaptic transmission. We further performed cell-type enrichment analysis using published scRNA-seq data from the fetal mouse brain and revealed cell-type-specificity for up- and down-regulated DEGs, respectively. The up-regulated DEGs were highly enriched in the radial glia, while down-regulated DEGs were enriched in different types of neurons. Cell deconvolution analysis further showed altered cell fractions in the stressed brain, indicating accumulation of neuroblast and impaired neurogenesis. Moreover, we also observed distinct brain-region expression pattern when mapping DEGs onto the developing Allen brain atlas. The up-regulated DEGs were primarily enriched in the dorsal forebrain regions including the cortical plate and hippocampal formation. Surprisingly, down-regulated DEGs were found excluded from the cortical region, but highly expressed on various regions in the ventral forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain. CONCLUSION Taken together, we provided an unbiased data source for transcriptomic alterations of the whole fetal brain after chronic PS, and reported differential cell-type and brain-region vulnerability of the developing brain in response to environmental insults during the pregnancy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuhao Dong
- grid.8547.e0000 0001 0125 2443Institutes of Brain Science, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, 200032 Shanghai, China
| | - Jie Weng
- grid.8547.e0000 0001 0125 2443Institutes of Brain Science, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, 200032 Shanghai, China
| | - Yueyan Zhu
- grid.8547.e0000 0001 0125 2443Institutes of Brain Science, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, 200032 Shanghai, China
| | - Daijing Sun
- grid.8547.e0000 0001 0125 2443Institutes of Brain Science, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, 200032 Shanghai, China
| | - Wei He
- grid.8547.e0000 0001 0125 2443Institutes of Brain Science, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, 200032 Shanghai, China
| | - Qi Chen
- grid.8547.e0000 0001 0125 2443Institutes of Brain Science, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, 200032 Shanghai, China
| | - Jin Cheng
- grid.8547.e0000 0001 0125 2443Institutes of Brain Science, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, 200032 Shanghai, China
| | - Ying Zhu
- grid.8547.e0000 0001 0125 2443Institutes of Brain Science, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, 200032 Shanghai, China
| | - Yan Jiang
- Institutes of Brain Science, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, 200032, Shanghai, China.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
An X, Guo W, Wu H, Fu X, Li M, Zhang Y, Li Y, Cui R, Yang W, Zhang Z, Zhao G. Sex Differences in Depression Caused by Early Life Stress and Related Mechanisms. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:797755. [PMID: 35663561 PMCID: PMC9157793 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.797755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2021] [Accepted: 03/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Depression is a common psychiatric disease caused by various factors, manifesting with continuous low spirits, with its precise mechanism being unclear. Early life stress (ELS) is receiving more attention as a possible cause of depression. Many studies focused on the mechanisms underlying how ELS leads to changes in sex hormones, neurotransmitters, hypothalamic pituitary adrenocortical (HPA) axis function, and epigenetics. The adverse effects of ELS on adulthood are mainly dependent on the time window when stress occurs, sex and the developmental stage when evaluating the impacts. Therefore, with regard to the exact sex differences of adult depression, we found that ELS could lead to sex-differentiated depression through multiple mechanisms, including 5-HT, sex hormone, HPA axis, and epigenetics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xianquan An
- Department of Anesthesiology, China-Japan Union Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
- Department of Anesthesiology, Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Wanxu Guo
- Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory on Molecular and Chemical Genetic, Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Huiying Wu
- Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory on Molecular and Chemical Genetic, Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Xiying Fu
- Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory on Molecular and Chemical Genetic, Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Ming Li
- Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory on Molecular and Chemical Genetic, Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Yizhi Zhang
- Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory on Molecular and Chemical Genetic, Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Yanlin Li
- Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory on Molecular and Chemical Genetic, Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Ranji Cui
- Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory on Molecular and Chemical Genetic, Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Wei Yang
- Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory on Molecular and Chemical Genetic, Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Zhuo Zhang
- Department of Anesthesiology, China-Japan Union Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
- Department of Orthopedics, China-Japan Union Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
- *Correspondence: Zhuo Zhang,
| | - Guoqing Zhao
- Department of Anesthesiology, China-Japan Union Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
- Guoqing Zhao,
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Anifantaki F, Pervanidou P, Lambrinoudaki I, Panoulis K, Vlahos N, Eleftheriades M. Maternal Prenatal Stress, Thyroid Function and Neurodevelopment of the Offspring: A Mini Review of the Literature. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:692446. [PMID: 34566560 PMCID: PMC8455916 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.692446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Accepted: 08/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Fetal brain is extremely plastic and vulnerable to environmental influences that may have long-term impact on health and development of the offspring. Both the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) and the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Thyroid (HPT) axes are involved in stress responses, whereas, their final effectors, the Glucocorticoids (GCs) and the Thyroid Hormones (TH s), mediate several fundamental processes involved in neurodevelopment. The effects of these hormones on brain development are found to be time and dose-dependent. Regarding THs, the developing fetus depends on maternal supply of hormones, especially in the first half of pregnancy. It is acknowledged that inadequate or excess concentrations of both GCs and THs can separately cause abnormalities in the neuronal and glial structures and functions, with subsequent detrimental effects on postnatal neurocognitive function. Studies are focused on the direct impact of maternal stress and GC excess on growth and neurodevelopment of the offspring. Of particular interest, as results from recent literature data, is building understanding on how chronic stress and alterations of the HPA axis interacts and influences HPT axis and TH production. Animal studies have shown that increased GC concentrations related to maternal stress, most likely reduce maternal and thus fetal circulating THs, either directly or through modifications in the expression of placental enzymes responsible for regulating hormone levels in fetal microenvironment. The purpose of this review is to provide an update on data regarding maternal stress and its impact on fetal neurodevelopment, giving particular emphasis in the interaction of two axes and the subsequent thyroid dysfunction resulting from such circumstances.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Foteini Anifantaki
- Second Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Panagiota Pervanidou
- First Department of Paediatrics, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Irene Lambrinoudaki
- Second Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Konstantinos Panoulis
- Second Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Nikos Vlahos
- Second Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Makarios Eleftheriades
- Second Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Haq SU, Bhat UA, Kumar A. Prenatal stress effects on offspring brain and behavior: Mediators, alterations and dysregulated epigenetic mechanisms. J Biosci 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s12038-021-00153-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
|
7
|
Sheng JA, Bales NJ, Myers SA, Bautista AI, Roueinfar M, Hale TM, Handa RJ. The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis: Development, Programming Actions of Hormones, and Maternal-Fetal Interactions. Front Behav Neurosci 2021; 14:601939. [PMID: 33519393 PMCID: PMC7838595 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2020.601939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2020] [Accepted: 12/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis is a complex system of neuroendocrine pathways and feedback loops that function to maintain physiological homeostasis. Abnormal development of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis can further result in long-term alterations in neuropeptide and neurotransmitter synthesis in the central nervous system, as well as glucocorticoid hormone synthesis in the periphery. Together, these changes can potentially lead to a disruption in neuroendocrine, behavioral, autonomic, and metabolic functions in adulthood. In this review, we will discuss the regulation of the HPA axis and its development. We will also examine the maternal-fetal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and disruption of the normal fetal environment which becomes a major risk factor for many neurodevelopmental pathologies in adulthood, such as major depressive disorder, anxiety, schizophrenia, and others.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Julietta A. Sheng
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - Natalie J. Bales
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - Sage A. Myers
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - Anna I. Bautista
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - Mina Roueinfar
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - Taben M. Hale
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Phoenix, AZ, United States
| | - Robert J. Handa
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Phoenix, AZ, United States
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Labeur L, Small AH, Hinch GN, McFarlane JR, Schmoelzl S. Mid- and late-pregnancy ewe shearing affects lamb neonatal reactivity and vigour. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2020.105065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
|
9
|
Roque A, Ruiz-González R, Pineda-López E, Torner L, Lajud N. Prenatal immobilization stress and postnatal maternal separation cause differential neuroendocrine responses to fasting stress in adult male rats. Dev Psychobiol 2019; 62:737-748. [PMID: 31886525 DOI: 10.1002/dev.21947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2019] [Revised: 12/04/2019] [Accepted: 12/06/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Prenatal immobilization stress (PNS) and postnatal maternal separation (MS180) are two widely used rodent models of early-life stress (ELS) that affect the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, cause behavioral alterations, and affect glucose tolerance in adults. We compared anxiety-like behavior, coping strategies, and HPA axis activity in PNS and MS180 adult (4-month-old) male rats and assessed their glucose tolerance and HPA axis response after mild fasting stress. Both PNS and MS180 induced a passive coping strategy in the forced swimming test, without affecting anxiety-like behavior in the elevated plus-maze. Moreover, both PNS and MS180 increased the hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing hormone expression; however, only MS180 increased the circulating corticosterone levels. Both early life stressors increased fasting glucose levels and this effect was significantly higher in PNS rats. MS180 rats showed impaired glucose tolerance 120 min after intravenous glucose administration, whereas PNS rats displayed an efficient homeostatic response. Moreover, MS180 rats showed higher circulating corticosteroid levels in response to fasting stress (overnight fasting, 12 hr), which were restored after glucose administration. In conclusion, early exposure to postnatal MS180, unlike PNS, increases the HPA axis response to moderate fasting stress, indicating a differential perception of fasting as a stressor in these two ELS models.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Angélica Roque
- Laboratorio de Neurobiología del Desarrollo, División de Neurociencias, Centro de Investigación Biomédica de - Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Morelia, Michoacán, México
| | - Roberto Ruiz-González
- Laboratorio de Neurobiología del Desarrollo, División de Neurociencias, Centro de Investigación Biomédica de - Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Morelia, Michoacán, México
| | - Edel Pineda-López
- Laboratorio de Neurobiología del Desarrollo, División de Neurociencias, Centro de Investigación Biomédica de - Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Morelia, Michoacán, México
| | - Luz Torner
- Laboratorio de Neuroendocrinología, División de Neurociencias, Centro de Investigación Biomédica de - Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Morelia, Michoacán, México
| | - Naima Lajud
- Laboratorio de Neurobiología del Desarrollo, División de Neurociencias, Centro de Investigación Biomédica de - Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Morelia, Michoacán, México
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Raineki C, Morgan EJ, Ellis L, Weinberg J. Glucocorticoid receptor expression in the stress-limbic circuitry is differentially affected by prenatal alcohol exposure and adolescent stress. Brain Res 2019; 1718:242-251. [PMID: 31102593 PMCID: PMC6579044 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2019.05.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2019] [Revised: 04/25/2019] [Accepted: 05/14/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The dense expression of glucocorticoid receptors (GR) within the amygdala, medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and paraventricular nucleus of hypothalamus (PVN) mediates many aspects of emotional and stress regulation. Importantly, both prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) and adolescent stress are known to induce emotional and stress dysregulation. Little is known, however, about how PAE and/or adolescent stress may alter the expression of GR in the amygdala, mPFC, and PVN. To fill this gap, we exposed PAE and control adolescent male and female rats to chronic mild stress (CMS) and assessed GR mRNA expression in the amygdala, mPFC, and PVN immediately following stress or in adulthood. We found that the effects of PAE on GR expression were more prevalent in the amygdala, while effects of adolescent stress on GR expression were more prevalent in the mPFC. Moreover, PAE effects in the amygdala were more pronounced during adolescence and adolescent stress effects in the mPFC were more pronounced in adulthood. GR expression in the PVN was affected by both PAE and adolescent stress. Finally, PAE and/or adolescent stress effects were distinct between males and females. Together, these results suggest that PAE and adolescent CMS induce dynamic alterations in GR expression in the amygdala, mPFC, and PVN, which manifest differently depending on the brain area, age, and sex of the animal. Additionally, these data indicate that PAE-induced hyperresponsiveness to stress and increased vulnerability to mental health problems may be mediated by different neural mechanisms depending on the sex and age of the animal.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Charlis Raineki
- Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.
| | - Erin J Morgan
- Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Linda Ellis
- Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Joanne Weinberg
- Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Dowell J, Elser BA, Schroeder RE, Stevens HE. Cellular stress mechanisms of prenatal maternal stress: Heat shock factors and oxidative stress. Neurosci Lett 2019; 709:134368. [PMID: 31299286 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2019.134368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2019] [Revised: 06/19/2019] [Accepted: 07/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Development of the brain prenatally is affected by maternal experience and exposure. Prenatal maternal psychological stress changes brain development and results in increased risk for neuropsychiatric disorders. In this review, multiple levels of prenatal stress mechanisms (offspring brain, placenta, and maternal physiology) are discussed and their intersection with cellular stress mechanisms explicated. Heat shock factors and oxidative stress are closely related to each other and converge with the inflammation, hormones, and cellular development that have been more deeply explored as the basis of prenatal stress risk. Increasing evidence implicates cellular stress mechanisms in neuropsychiatric disorders associated with prenatal stress including affective disorders, schizophrenia, and child-onset psychiatric disorders. Heat shock factors and oxidative stress also have links with the mechanisms involved in other kinds of prenatal stress including external exposures such as environmental toxicants and internal disruptions such as preeclampsia. Integrative understanding of developmental neurobiology with these cellular and physiological mechanisms is necessary to reduce risks and promote healthy brain development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Dowell
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA, USA.
| | - Benjamin A Elser
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA, USA; Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Human Toxicology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA.
| | - Rachel E Schroeder
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA, USA; Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA.
| | - Hanna E Stevens
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA, USA; Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Human Toxicology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA; Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA; Iowa Neuroscience Institute, Iowa City, IA, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Lian S, Wang D, Xu B, Guo W, Wang L, Li W, Ji H, Wang J, Kong F, Zhen L, Li S, Zhang L, Guo J, Yang H. Prenatal cold stress: Effect on maternal hippocampus and offspring behavior in rats. Behav Brain Res 2018; 346:1-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2018.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2017] [Revised: 02/02/2018] [Accepted: 02/02/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
|
13
|
Abbott PW, Gumusoglu SB, Bittle J, Beversdorf DQ, Stevens HE. Prenatal stress and genetic risk: How prenatal stress interacts with genetics to alter risk for psychiatric illness. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2018; 90:9-21. [PMID: 29407514 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2017] [Revised: 01/20/2018] [Accepted: 01/21/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Risk for neuropsychiatric disorders is complex and includes an individual's internal genetic endowment and their environmental experiences and exposures. Embryonic development captures a particularly complex period, in which genetic and environmental factors can interact to contribute to risk. These environmental factors are incorporated differently into the embryonic brain than postnatal one. Here, we comprehensively review the human and animal model literature for studies that assess the interaction between genetic risks and one particular environmental exposure with strong and complex associations with neuropsychiatric outcomes-prenatal maternal stress. Gene-environment interaction has been demonstrated for stress occurring during childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Additional work demonstrates that prenatal stress risk may be similarly complex. Animal model studies have begun to address some underlying mechanisms, including particular maternal or fetal genetic susceptibilities that interact with stress exposure and those that do not. More specifically, the genetic underpinnings of serotonin and dopamine signaling and stress physiology mechanisms have been shown to be particularly relevant to social, attentional, and internalizing behavioral changes, while other genetic factors have not, including some growth factor and hormone-related genes. Interactions have reflected both the diathesis-stress and differential susceptibility models. Maternal genetic factors have received less attention than those in offspring, but strongly modulate impacts of prenatal stress. Priorities for future research are investigating maternal response to distinct forms of stress and developing whole-genome methods to examine the contributions of genetic variants of both mothers and offspring, particularly including genes involved in neurodevelopment. This is a burgeoning field of research that will ultimately contribute not only to a broad understanding of psychiatric pathophysiology but also to efforts for personalized medicine.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Parker W Abbott
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, 1310 PBDB, 169 Newton Rd., Iowa City, IA, 52246, USA.
| | - Serena B Gumusoglu
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, 1310 PBDB, 169 Newton Rd., Iowa City, IA, 52246, USA; Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Iowa, 356 Medical Research Center, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA.
| | - Jada Bittle
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, 1310 PBDB, 169 Newton Rd., Iowa City, IA, 52246, USA; Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Iowa, 356 Medical Research Center, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA.
| | - David Q Beversdorf
- Interdisciplinary Neuroscience Program, Interdisciplinary Intercampus Research Program, Thompson Center for Autism and Neurodevelopment Disorders, Departments of Radiology, Neurology and Psychological Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA.
| | - Hanna E Stevens
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, 1310 PBDB, 169 Newton Rd., Iowa City, IA, 52246, USA; Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Iowa, 356 Medical Research Center, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA; Iowa Neuroscience Institute, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, 2312 PBDB, 169 Newton Rd., Iowa City, IA, 52246, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Prenatal stress-induced impairments of cognitive flexibility and bidirectional synaptic plasticity are possibly associated with autophagy in adolescent male-offspring. Exp Neurol 2017; 298:68-78. [DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2017.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2017] [Revised: 08/03/2017] [Accepted: 09/01/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
|
15
|
van Bodegom M, Homberg JR, Henckens MJAG. Modulation of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis by Early Life Stress Exposure. Front Cell Neurosci 2017; 11:87. [PMID: 28469557 PMCID: PMC5395581 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2017.00087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 314] [Impact Index Per Article: 44.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2017] [Accepted: 03/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Exposure to stress during critical periods in development can have severe long-term consequences, increasing overall risk on psychopathology. One of the key stress response systems mediating these long-term effects of stress is the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis; a cascade of central and peripheral events resulting in the release of corticosteroids from the adrenal glands. Activation of the HPA-axis affects brain functioning to ensure a proper behavioral response to the stressor, but stress-induced (mal)adaptation of the HPA-axis' functional maturation may provide a mechanistic basis for the altered stress susceptibility later in life. Development of the HPA-axis and the brain regions involved in its regulation starts prenatally and continues after birth, and is protected by several mechanisms preventing corticosteroid over-exposure to the maturing brain. Nevertheless, early life stress (ELS) exposure has been reported to have numerous consequences on HPA-axis function in adulthood, affecting both its basal and stress-induced activity. According to the match/mismatch theory, encountering ELS prepares an organism for similar ("matching") adversities during adulthood, while a mismatching environment results in an increased susceptibility to psychopathology, indicating that ELS can exert either beneficial or disadvantageous effects depending on the environmental context. Here, we review studies investigating the mechanistic underpinnings of the ELS-induced alterations in the structural and functional development of the HPA-axis and its key external regulators (amygdala, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex). The effects of ELS appear highly dependent on the developmental time window affected, the sex of the offspring, and the developmental stage at which effects are assessed. Albeit by distinct mechanisms, ELS induced by prenatal stressors, maternal separation, or the limited nesting model inducing fragmented maternal care, typically results in HPA-axis hyper-reactivity in adulthood, as also found in major depression. This hyper-activity is related to increased corticotrophin-releasing hormone signaling and impaired glucocorticoid receptor-mediated negative feedback. In contrast, initial evidence for HPA-axis hypo-reactivity is observed for early social deprivation, potentially reflecting the abnormal HPA-axis function as observed in post-traumatic stress disorder, and future studies should investigate its neural/neuroendocrine foundation in further detail. Interestingly, experiencing additional (chronic) stress in adulthood seems to normalize these alterations in HPA-axis function, supporting the match/mismatch theory.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Marloes J. A. G. Henckens
- Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Centre for Neuroscience, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and BehaviourRadboudumc, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Mosley M, Shah C, Morse KA, Miloro SA, Holmes MM, Ahern TH, Forger NG. Patterns of cell death in the perinatal mouse forebrain. J Comp Neurol 2017; 525:47-64. [PMID: 27199256 PMCID: PMC5116296 DOI: 10.1002/cne.24041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2016] [Revised: 05/16/2016] [Accepted: 05/17/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The importance of cell death in brain development has long been appreciated, but many basic questions remain, such as what initiates or terminates the cell death period. One obstacle has been the lack of quantitative data defining exactly when cell death occurs. We recently created a "cell death atlas," using the detection of activated caspase-3 (AC3) to quantify apoptosis in the postnatal mouse ventral forebrain and hypothalamus, and found that the highest rates of cell death were seen at the earliest postnatal ages in most regions. Here we have extended these analyses to prenatal ages and additional brain regions. We quantified cell death in 16 forebrain regions across nine perinatal ages from embryonic day (E) 17 to postnatal day (P) 11 and found that cell death peaks just after birth in most regions. We found greater cell death in several regions in offspring delivered vaginally on the day of parturition compared with those of the same postconception age but still in utero at the time of collection. We also found massive cell death in the oriens layer of the hippocampus on P1 and in regions surrounding the anterior crossing of the corpus callosum on E18 as well as the persistence of large numbers of cells in those regions in adult mice lacking the pro-death Bax gene. Together these findings suggest that birth may be an important trigger of neuronal cell death and identify transient cell groups that may undergo wholesale elimination perinatally. J. Comp. Neurol. 525:47-64, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Morgan Mosley
- Neuroscience Institute, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia, 30302
| | - Charisma Shah
- Neuroscience Institute, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia, 30302
| | - Kiriana A Morse
- Department of Psychology, Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, Quinnipiac University, Hamden, Connecticut, 06518
| | - Stephen A Miloro
- Department of Psychology, Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, Quinnipiac University, Hamden, Connecticut, 06518
| | - Melissa M Holmes
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, Ontario, L5L 1C6, Canada
| | - Todd H Ahern
- Department of Psychology, Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, Quinnipiac University, Hamden, Connecticut, 06518
| | - Nancy G Forger
- Neuroscience Institute, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia, 30302
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Bartlett AA, Singh R, Hunter RG. Anxiety and Epigenetics. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2017; 978:145-166. [PMID: 28523545 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-53889-1_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Anxiety disorders are highly prevalent psychiatric disorders often comorbid with depression and substance abuse. Twin studies have shown that anxiety disorders are moderately heritable. Yet, genome-wide association studies (GWASs) have failed to identify gene(s) significantly associated with diagnosis suggesting a strong role for environmental factors and the epigenome. A number of anxiety disorder subtypes are considered "stress related." A large focus of research has been on the epigenetic and anxiety-like behavioral consequences of stress. Animal models of anxiety-related disorders have provided strong evidence for the role of stress on the epigenetic control of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and of stress-responsive brain regions. Neuroepigenetics may continue to explain individual variation in susceptibility to environmental perturbations and consequently anxious behavior. Behavioral and pharmacological interventions aimed at targeting epigenetic marks associated with anxiety may prove fruitful in developing treatments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew A Bartlett
- Department of Psychology, University of Massachusetts, 100 Morrissey Blvd, Boston, MA, 02125, USA
| | - Rumani Singh
- Department of Psychology, University of Massachusetts, 100 Morrissey Blvd, Boston, MA, 02125, USA
| | - Richard G Hunter
- Department of Psychology, University of Massachusetts, 100 Morrissey Blvd, Boston, MA, 02125, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Lin Y, Xu J, Huang J, Jia Y, Zhang J, Yan C, Zhang J. Effects of prenatal and postnatal maternal emotional stress on toddlers' cognitive and temperamental development. J Affect Disord 2017; 207:9-17. [PMID: 27665073 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2016.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2016] [Revised: 09/13/2016] [Accepted: 09/18/2016] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Maternal stress is associated with impairments in the neurodevelopment of offspring; however, the effects of the timing of exposure to maternal stress on a child's neurodevelopment are unclear. METHODS In 2010, we studied 225 mother-child pairs in Shanghai, recruiting mothers in mid-to-late pregnancy and monitoring offspring from birth until 30 months of age. Maternal stress was assessed prenatally (at 28-36 weeks of gestation) and postnatally (at 24-30 months postpartum) using the Symptom-Checklist-90-Revised Scale (SCL-90-R) and Life-Event-Stress Scale to evaluate mothers' emotional stress and life event stress levels, respectively. Children's cognition and temperament were assessed at 24-30 months of age using the Gesell Development Scale and Toddler Temperament Scale, respectively. Multi-variable linear regression models were used to associate prenatal and postnatal stress with child cognitive and temperamental development. RESULTS Maternal prenatal and postnatal Global Severity Index (GSI) of SCL-90-R were moderately correlated (ICC r=0.30, P<0.001). After adjusting for relevant covariates, the increase in prenatal GSI was associated with decreases in toddlers' gross motor, fine motor, adaptive and social behavior development independently of postnatal GSI, while the increase in postnatal GSI was associated with changes in multiple temperament dimensions independently of prenatal GSI. The effects of prenatal and postnatal depression scores of SCL-90-R were similar to those of GSI. LIMITATION Relatively small sample size. CONCLUSIONS Compared with postnatal exposure, children's cognitive development may be more susceptible to prenatal exposure to maternal emotional stress, whereas temperamental development may be more affected by postnatal exposure to maternal emotional stress compared with prenatal exposure.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yanfen Lin
- Xinhua Hospital, MOE-Shanghai Key Laboratory of Children's Environmental Health, Department of Child and Adolescent Healthcare, Shanghai Institute for Pediatric Research, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Jian Xu
- Xinhua Hospital, MOE-Shanghai Key Laboratory of Children's Environmental Health, Department of Child and Adolescent Healthcare, Shanghai Institute for Pediatric Research, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.
| | - Jun Huang
- Minhang Maternal & Child Health Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Yinan Jia
- Xinhua Hospital, MOE-Shanghai Key Laboratory of Children's Environmental Health, Department of Child and Adolescent Healthcare, Shanghai Institute for Pediatric Research, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Jinsong Zhang
- Xinhua Hospital, MOE-Shanghai Key Laboratory of Children's Environmental Health, Department of Child and Adolescent Healthcare, Shanghai Institute for Pediatric Research, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Chonghuai Yan
- Xinhua Hospital, MOE-Shanghai Key Laboratory of Children's Environmental Health, Department of Child and Adolescent Healthcare, Shanghai Institute for Pediatric Research, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Jun Zhang
- Xinhua Hospital, MOE-Shanghai Key Laboratory of Children's Environmental Health, Department of Child and Adolescent Healthcare, Shanghai Institute for Pediatric Research, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Huang Y, Shen Z, Hu L, Xia F, Li Y, Zhuang J, Chen P, Huang Q. Exposure of mother rats to chronic unpredictable stress before pregnancy alters the metabolism of gamma-aminobutyric acid and glutamate in the right hippocampus of offspring in early adolescence in a sexually dimorphic manner. Psychiatry Res 2016; 246:236-245. [PMID: 27723521 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2016.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2015] [Revised: 10/01/2016] [Accepted: 10/02/2016] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
There is increasing evidence that mothers' exposure to stress before or during pregnancy is linked to an incidence of psychiatric disorders in offspring. However, a few studies have estimated the role of sex in the detrimental effects of pre-gestational stress on the offspring rats at early adolescence. Sex differences regarding the metabolism of gamma-aminobutyric acid and glutamate in the right hippocampus were investigated by MRS when the offspring rats reached 30 days. Additionally, the impact of pre-gestational stress exposed on an additional short-term acute stressor, such as forced swim, was examined in the male and female offspring rats. Our findings showed female offspring rats were more vulnerable to stressful conditions for either pre-gestational stress or acute stress in early adolescence, and had decreased GABA/Cr+PCr and Glu/Cr+PCr in the right hippocampus. Interestingly, in response to forced swim, male offspring rats whose mothers were exposed to pre-gestational stress were more affected by the short-term acute stressor and this was manifested by change of Glu/GABA and Glu/Gln in the right hippocampus. These data indicated that although female offspring rats were more vulnerable to pre-gestational stress from their mothers than males, in response to an additional acute stressor they showed better response. Therefore, both sexually dimorphic manner and combination of stressful procedures should be carefully considered in the study of stress-related psychiatric disorders in early adolescence.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuejun Huang
- Department of Pediatrics, First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University, West Huangpu Rd, Guangzhou 510632, Guangdong, China; Department of Pediatrics, Second Affiliated Hospital of Medical College of Shantou University, North Dongxia Rd, Shantou 515041, Guangdong, China
| | - Zhiwei Shen
- Department of Imageology, Second Affiliated Hospital of Medical College of Shantou University, North Dongxia Rd, Shantou 515041, Guangdong, China
| | - Liu Hu
- Department of Pediatrics, Second Affiliated Hospital of Medical College of Shantou University, North Dongxia Rd, Shantou 515041, Guangdong, China
| | - Fang Xia
- Department of Pediatrics, Second Affiliated Hospital of Medical College of Shantou University, North Dongxia Rd, Shantou 515041, Guangdong, China
| | - Yuewa Li
- Department of Pediatrics, Second Affiliated Hospital of Medical College of Shantou University, North Dongxia Rd, Shantou 515041, Guangdong, China
| | - Jingwen Zhuang
- Department of Pediatrics, Second Affiliated Hospital of Medical College of Shantou University, North Dongxia Rd, Shantou 515041, Guangdong, China.
| | - Peishan Chen
- Department of Obstetrics, Second Affiliated Hospital of Medical College of Shantou University, North Dongxia Rd, Shantou 515041, Guangdong, China.
| | - Qingjun Huang
- Joint Lab of Biological Psychiatry, Mental Health Center of Shantou University, Taishan Rd, Shantou 515041, Guangdong, China.
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Manojlović-Stojanoski M, Nestorović N, Trifunović S, Ristić N, Jarić I, Filipović B, Milošević V. Dexamethasone exposure affects paraventricular nucleus and pituitary corticotrophs in female rat fetuses: An unbiased stereological and immunohistochemical study. Tissue Cell 2016; 48:516-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tice.2016.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2016] [Revised: 06/27/2016] [Accepted: 06/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
|
21
|
Prenatal stressors in rodents: Effects on behavior. Neurobiol Stress 2016; 6:3-13. [PMID: 28229104 PMCID: PMC5314420 DOI: 10.1016/j.ynstr.2016.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 163] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2016] [Revised: 08/07/2016] [Accepted: 08/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The current review focuses on studies in rodents published since 2008 and explores possible reasons for any differences they report in the effects of gestational stress on various types of behavior in the offspring. An abundance of experimental data shows that different maternal stressors in rodents can replicate some of the abnormalities in offspring behavior observed in humans. These include, anxiety, in juvenile and adult rats and mice, assessed in the elevated plus maze and open field tests and depression, detected in the forced swim and sucrose-preference tests. Deficits were reported in social interaction that is suggestive of pathology associated with schizophrenia, and in spatial learning and memory in adult rats in the Morris water maze test, but in most studies only males were tested. There were too few studies on the novel object recognition test at different inter-trial intervals to enable a conclusion about the effect of prenatal stress and whether any deficits are more prevalent in males. Among hippocampal glutamate receptors, NR2B was the only subtype consistently reduced in association with learning deficits. However, like in humans with schizophrenia and depression, prenatal stress lowered hippocampal levels of BDNF, which were closely correlated with decreases in hippocampal long-term potentiation. In mice, down-regulation of BDNF appeared to occur through the action of gene-methylating enzymes that are already increased above controls in prenatally-stressed neonates. In conclusion, the data obtained so far from experiments in rodents lend support to a physiological basis for the neurodevelopmental hypothesis of schizophrenia and depression.
Collapse
|
22
|
Silberman DM, Acosta GB, Zorrilla Zubilete MA. Long-term effects of early life stress exposure: Role of epigenetic mechanisms. Pharmacol Res 2016; 109:64-73. [PMID: 26774789 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2015.12.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2015] [Revised: 12/27/2015] [Accepted: 12/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Stress is an adaptive response to demands of the environment and thus essential for survival. Exposure to stress during the first years of life has been shown to have profound effects on the growth and development of an adult individual. There are evidences demonstrating that stressful experiences during gestation or in early life can lead to enhanced susceptibility to mental disorders. Early-life stress triggers hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis activation and the associated neurochemical reactions following glucocorticoid release are accompanied by a rapid physiological response. An excessive response may affect the developing brain resulting in neurobehavioral and neurochemical changes later in life. This article reviews the data from experimental studies aimed to investigate hormonal, functional, molecular and epigenetic mechanisms involved in the stress response during early-life programming. We think these studies might prove useful for the identification of novel pharmacological targets for more effective treatments of mental disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dafne M Silberman
- Centro de Estudios Farmacológicos y Botánicos (CEFYBO-CONICET), 1ª Cátedra de Farmacología, Facultad de Medicina, UBA, Paraguay 2155, Piso 15, C1121ABG Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Gabriela B Acosta
- Instituto de Investigaciones Farmacológicas (ININFA), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA), Junín 956, 5(to) piso, C1113AAD, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - María A Zorrilla Zubilete
- Centro de Estudios Farmacológicos y Botánicos (CEFYBO-CONICET), 1ª Cátedra de Farmacología, Facultad de Medicina, UBA, Paraguay 2155, Piso 15, C1121ABG Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Bronson SL, Bale TL. The Placenta as a Mediator of Stress Effects on Neurodevelopmental Reprogramming. Neuropsychopharmacology 2016; 41:207-18. [PMID: 26250599 PMCID: PMC4677129 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2015.231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2015] [Revised: 07/10/2015] [Accepted: 07/30/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Adversity experienced during gestation is a predictor of lifetime neuropsychiatric disease susceptibility. Specifically, maternal stress during pregnancy predisposes offspring to sex-biased neurodevelopmental disorders, including schizophrenia, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and autism spectrum disorders. Animal models have demonstrated disease-relevant endophenotypes in prenatally stressed offspring and have provided unique insight into potential programmatic mechanisms. The placenta has a critical role in the deleterious and sex-specific effects of maternal stress and other fetal exposures on the developing brain. Stress-induced perturbations of the maternal milieu are conveyed to the embryo via the placenta, the maternal-fetal intermediary responsible for maintaining intrauterine homeostasis. Disruption of vital placental functions can have a significant impact on fetal development, including the brain, outcomes that are largely sex-specific. Here we review the novel involvement of the placenta in the transmission of the maternal adverse environment and effects on the developing brain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie L Bronson
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Tracy L Bale
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Sandi C, Haller J. Stress and the social brain: behavioural effects and neurobiological mechanisms. Nat Rev Neurosci 2015; 16:290-304. [PMID: 25891510 DOI: 10.1038/nrn3918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 374] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Stress often affects our social lives. When undergoing high-level or persistent stress, individuals frequently retract from social interactions and become irritable and hostile. Predisposition to antisocial behaviours - including social detachment and violence - is also modulated by early life adversity; however, the effects of early life stress depend on the timing of exposure and genetic factors. Research in animals and humans has revealed some of the structural, functional and molecular changes in the brain that underlie the effects of stress on social behaviour. Findings in this emerging field will have implications both for the clinic and for society.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carmen Sandi
- Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne CH-1050, Switzerland
| | - József Haller
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest H-1450, Hungary
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Korgan AC, Vonkeman J, Esser MJ, Perrot TS. An enhanced home cage modulates hypothalamic CRH-ir Labeling in juvenile rats, with and without sub-threshold febrile convulsions. Dev Psychobiol 2015; 57:374-81. [DOI: 10.1002/dev.21300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2014] [Accepted: 02/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Austin C. Korgan
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience; Dalhousie University; Halifax Nova Scotia Canada
| | - Janeske Vonkeman
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience; Dalhousie University; Halifax Nova Scotia Canada
| | - Michael J. Esser
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience; Dalhousie University; Halifax Nova Scotia Canada
- Departments of Pediatrics and Pharmacology; IWK Health Care Center; Halifax Nova Scotia Canada
| | - Tara S. Perrot
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience; Dalhousie University; Halifax Nova Scotia Canada
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Wang Y, Ma Y, Cheng W, Jiang H, Zhang X, Li M, Ren J, Zhang X, Li X. Sexual differences in long‐term effects of prenatal chronic mild stress on anxiety‐like behavior and stress‐induced regional glutamate receptor expression in rat offspring. Int J Dev Neurosci 2015; 41:80-91. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2015.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2014] [Revised: 01/27/2015] [Accepted: 01/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Yan Wang
- College of Humanities and Social Sciences, Applied psychologyChina Medical UniversityShenyang110001China
| | - Yuchao Ma
- College of Humanities and Social Sciences, Applied psychologyChina Medical UniversityShenyang110001China
| | - Wenwen Cheng
- College of Humanities and Social Sciences, Applied psychologyChina Medical UniversityShenyang110001China
| | - Han Jiang
- Department of PsychiatryThe First Hospital of China Medical UniversityShenyang110001China
| | - Xinxin Zhang
- The Research Center for Medical GenomicsKey Laboratory of Cell Biology, Ministry of Public Health, Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology, Ministry of EducationChina Medical UniversityShenyang110001China
| | - Min Li
- College of Humanities and Social Sciences, Applied psychologyChina Medical UniversityShenyang110001China
| | - Jintao Ren
- College of Humanities and Social Sciences, Applied psychologyChina Medical UniversityShenyang110001China
| | - Xiaosong Zhang
- College of Humanities and Social Sciences, Applied psychologyChina Medical UniversityShenyang110001China
| | - Xiaobai Li
- Department of PsychiatryThe First Hospital of China Medical UniversityShenyang110001China
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Bouret S, Levin BE, Ozanne SE. Gene-environment interactions controlling energy and glucose homeostasis and the developmental origins of obesity. Physiol Rev 2015; 95:47-82. [PMID: 25540138 PMCID: PMC4281588 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00007.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) often occur together and affect a growing number of individuals in both the developed and developing worlds. Both are associated with a number of other serious illnesses that lead to increased rates of mortality. There is likely a polygenic mode of inheritance underlying both disorders, but it has become increasingly clear that the pre- and postnatal environments play critical roles in pushing predisposed individuals over the edge into a disease state. This review focuses on the many genetic and environmental variables that interact to cause predisposed individuals to become obese and diabetic. The brain and its interactions with the external and internal environment are a major focus given the prominent role these interactions play in the regulation of energy and glucose homeostasis in health and disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sebastien Bouret
- The Saban Research Institute, Neuroscience Program, Childrens Hospital Los Angeles, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California; Inserm U837, Jean-Pierre Aubert Research Center, University Lille 2, Lille, France; Neurology Service, Veterans Administration Medical Center, East Orange, New Jersey; Department of Neurology and Neurosciences, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, New Jersey; and University of Cambridge Institute of Metabolic Science and MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Barry E Levin
- The Saban Research Institute, Neuroscience Program, Childrens Hospital Los Angeles, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California; Inserm U837, Jean-Pierre Aubert Research Center, University Lille 2, Lille, France; Neurology Service, Veterans Administration Medical Center, East Orange, New Jersey; Department of Neurology and Neurosciences, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, New Jersey; and University of Cambridge Institute of Metabolic Science and MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Susan E Ozanne
- The Saban Research Institute, Neuroscience Program, Childrens Hospital Los Angeles, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California; Inserm U837, Jean-Pierre Aubert Research Center, University Lille 2, Lille, France; Neurology Service, Veterans Administration Medical Center, East Orange, New Jersey; Department of Neurology and Neurosciences, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, New Jersey; and University of Cambridge Institute of Metabolic Science and MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Griffiths B, Hunter R. Neuroepigenetics of stress. Neuroscience 2014; 275:420-35. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.06.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2014] [Revised: 06/05/2014] [Accepted: 06/16/2014] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
|
29
|
Kesar AG. Effect of prenatal chronic noise exposure on the growth and development of body and brain of chick embryo. Int J Appl Basic Med Res 2014; 4:3-6. [PMID: 24600569 PMCID: PMC3931211 DOI: 10.4103/2229-516x.125666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Context: Noise acts as an environmental stressor as has been demonstrated by an increased brain acetyl cholinesterase activity as well as elevated plasma corticosterone and adrenocorticotropic hormone levels. Noise can lead to neurodegenerative changes in the brain and in the ear. Aim: This study was undertaken to investigate the effect of chronic noise on growth and development during the sensitive period of embryonic life. Materials and Methods: In this study, we analyzed the body weight, brain weight and brain size following prenatal chronic noise exposure. Fertilized eggs of domestic chicks were exposed to chronic excessive acoustic stimulation with frequency of the sound ranging from 30 to 3000 Hz with a peak at 2700 Hz was given at 110 dB sound pressure level from embryonic day (E) 10 until hatching. Results: An appreciable decrease in body weight, brain weight and brain size was evident in the experimental group exposed to noise. A generalized decrease in the neuronal nuclear size and increase in the density of neurons was also observed. Conclusion: These observations could be an indicator of growth and developmental retardation following exposure to noise.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alpana Goel Kesar
- Department of Anatomy, PDM Dental College, Bahadurgarh, Haryana, India
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Maternal dexamethasone exposure during pregnancy in rats disrupts gonadotropin-releasing hormone neuronal development in the offspring. Cell Tissue Res 2013; 355:409-23. [PMID: 24374911 PMCID: PMC3921457 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-013-1765-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2013] [Accepted: 10/29/2013] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
The migration of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) neurons from the olfactory placode to the preoptic area (POA) from embryonic day 13 is important for successful reproduction during adulthood. Whether maternal glucocorticoid exposure alters GnRH neuronal morphology and number in the offspring is unknown. This study determines the effect of maternal dexamethasone (DEX) exposure on enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) driven by GnRH promoter neurons (TG-GnRH) in transgenic rats dual-labelled with GnRH immunofluorescence (IF-GnRH). The TG-GnRH neurons were examined in intact male and female rats at different postnatal ages, as a marker for GnRH promoter activity. Pregnant females were subcutaneously injected with DEX (0.1 mg/kg) or vehicle daily during gestation days 13–20 to examine the number of GnRH neurons in P0 male offspring. The total number of TG-GnRH neurons and TG-GnRH/IF-GnRH neuronal ratio increased from P0 and P5 stages to P47–52 stages, suggesting temporal regulation of GnRH promoter activity during postnatal development in intact rats. In DEX-treated P0 males, the number of IF-GnRH neurons decreased within the medial septum, organum vasculosom of the lamina terminalis (OVLT) and anterior hypothalamus. The percentage of TG-GnRH neurons with branched dendritic structures decreased in the OVLT of DEX-P0 males. These results suggest that maternal DEX exposure affects the number and dendritic development of early postnatal GnRH neurons in the OVLT/POA, which may lead to altered reproductive functions in adults.
Collapse
|
31
|
Kesar AG. Effect of prenatal chronic excessive sound exposure on auditory filial imprinting area of chick forebrain. J ANAT SOC INDIA 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jasi.2013.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
|
32
|
Hunter RG, McEwen BS. Stress and anxiety across the lifespan: structural plasticity and epigenetic regulation. Epigenomics 2013; 5:177-94. [PMID: 23566095 DOI: 10.2217/epi.13.8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The brain is the central organ of the body's response to and perception of stress. Both the juvenile and the adult brain show a significant capacity for lasting physiological, structural and behavioral plasticity as a consequence of stress exposure. The hypothesis that epigenetic mechanisms might lie behind the lasting effects of stress upon the brain has proven a fruitful one. In this review, we examine the growing literature showing that stress has a direct impact on epigenetic marks at all life history stages thus far examined and how, in turn, epigenetic mechanisms play a role in altering stress responsiveness, anxiety and brain plasticity across the lifespan and beyond to succeeding generations. In addition, we will examine our own recent findings that stress interacts with the epigenome to regulate the expression of transposable elements in a regionally specific fashion, a finding with significant implications for a portion of the genome which is tenfold larger than that occupied by the genes themselves.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Richard G Hunter
- Harold & Margaret Milliken Hatch Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Ave., New York, NY 10065, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
33
|
Xu J, Yang B, Yan C, Hu H, Cai S, Liu J, Wu M, Ouyang F, Shen X. Effects of duration and timing of prenatal stress on hippocampal myelination and synaptophysin expression. Brain Res 2013; 1527:57-66. [PMID: 23806778 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2013.06.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2012] [Revised: 06/04/2013] [Accepted: 06/17/2013] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The relationship between prenatal stress (PS) exposure and neurodevelopmental deficits remains inconclusive, especially when assessing the role of PS duration and timing and sex-dependent effects. This study explored a sex-specific association between the duration and timing of exposure and the outcomes of PS-induced neurotoxicity in hippocampal microstructure, synaptophysin expression, and neurobehavioral performance in rats. Pregnant rats were randomly assigned to control, PS-ML (exposed to prenatal restraint stress in the mid-to-late period of pregnancy), or PS-L (exposed in the late period of pregnancy) groups, and offspring in each group were divided into two subgroups by sex. Surface-righting reflex test, cliff avoidance test and Morris water maze test showed that neurodevelopmental levels were reduced in PS-treated pups but without significant sex differences. On postnatal day 22, hippocampal microstructure was examined by electron microscopy, and the expression of hippocampal synaptophysin was assessed by western blot. Abnormal ultrastructural appearance of hippocampal neurons and myelin sheaths, more degenerating neurons and higher G-ratios were found in young PS-ML and PS-L rats as well as reduced expression of hippocampal synaptophysin, although PS-ML pups were more greatly affected than PS-L, with males showing slightly greater impairments than females. These findings suggest that hippocampal hypo-myelination and decreased synaptophysin expression in neurodevelopment may be a duration and time-dependent effect of prenatal stress exposure, modified slightly by sex.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jian Xu
- Xinhua Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai Institute for Pediatric Research, MOE-Shanghai Key Laboratory of Children's Environmental Health, Shanghai 200092, China.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
34
|
Stevens HE, Su T, Yanagawa Y, Vaccarino FM. Prenatal stress delays inhibitory neuron progenitor migration in the developing neocortex. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2013; 38:509-21. [PMID: 22910687 PMCID: PMC3532962 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2011] [Revised: 06/11/2012] [Accepted: 07/20/2012] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Prenatal stress has been widely demonstrated to have links with behavioral problems in clinical populations and animal models, however, few investigations have examined the immediate developmental events that are affected by prenatal stress. Here, we utilize GAD67GFP transgenic mice in which GABAergic progenitors express green fluorescent protein (GFP) to examine the impact of prenatal stress on the development of these precursors to inhibitory neurons. Pregnant female mice were exposed to restraint stress three times daily from embryonic day 12 (E12) onwards. Their offspring demonstrated changes in the distribution of GFP-positive (GFP+) GABAergic progenitors in the telencephalon as early as E13 and persisting until postnatal day 0. Changes in distribution reflected alterations in tangential migration and radial integration of GFP+ cells into the developing cortical plate. Fate mapping of GAD67GFP+ progenitors with bromodeoxyuridine injected at E13 demonstrated a significant increase of these cells at P0 in anterior white matter. An overall decrease in GAD67GFP+ progenitors at P0 in medial frontal cortex could not be attributed to a reduction in cell proliferation. Significant changes in dlx2, nkx2.1 and their downstream target erbb4, transcription factors which regulate interneuron migration, were found within the prenatally stressed developing forebrain, while no differences were seen in mash1, a determinant of interneuron fate, bdnf, a maturation factor for GABAergic cells or fgf2, an early growth/differentiation factor. These results demonstrate that early disruption in GABAergic progenitor migration caused by prenatal stress may be responsible for neuronal defects in disorders with GABAergic abnormalities like schizophrenia.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hanna E. Stevens
- Child Study Center, Yale University, 230 South Frontage Rd, New Haven, CT O6520,Corresponding author: Hanna E. Stevens, Child Study Center, Yale University, 230 South Frontage Rd, New Haven, CT O6520, , Phone: 203-915-9460, Fax: 203-785-7400
| | - Tina Su
- Child Study Center, Yale University, 230 South Frontage Rd, New Haven, CT O6520
| | - Yuchio Yanagawa
- Department of Genetic and Behavioural Neuroscience, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi 371-8511, Japan
| | - Flora M. Vaccarino
- Child Study Center, Yale University, 230 South Frontage Rd, New Haven, CT O6520,Department of Neurobiology, Yale University, 333 Cedar St., New Haven, CT 06519
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
Hunter RG. Epigenetic effects of stress and corticosteroids in the brain. Front Cell Neurosci 2012; 6:18. [PMID: 22529779 PMCID: PMC3329877 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2012.00018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2012] [Accepted: 04/02/2012] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Stress is a common life event with potentially long lasting effects on health and behavior. Stress, and the corticosteroid hormones that mediate many of its effects, are well known for their ability to alter brain function and plasticity. While genetic susceptibility may influence the impact of stress on the brain, it does not provide us with a complete understanding of the capacity of stress to produce long lasting perturbations on the brain and behavior. The growing science of epigenetics, however, shows great promise of deepening our understanding of the persistent impacts of stress and corticosteroids on health and disease. Epigenetics, broadly defined, refers to influences on phenotype operating above the level of the genetic code itself. At the molecular level, epigenetic events belong to three major classes: DNA methylation, covalent histone modification and non-coding RNA. This review will examine the bi-directional interactions between stress and corticosteroids and epigenetic mechanisms in the brain and how the novel insights, gleaned from recent research in neuro-epigenetics, change our understanding of mammalian brain function and human disease states.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Richard G Hunter
- Laboratories of Neuroendocrinology and Neurobiology and Behavior, The Rockefeller University, New York NY, USA
| |
Collapse
|
36
|
Huang Y, Xu H, Li H, Yang H, Chen Y, Shi X. Pre-gestational stress reduces the ratio of 5-HIAA to 5-HT and the expression of 5-HT1A receptor and serotonin transporter in the brain of foetal rat. BMC Neurosci 2012; 13:22. [PMID: 22373128 PMCID: PMC3311061 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2202-13-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2011] [Accepted: 02/28/2012] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Many studies have found that stress before or during pregnancy is linked to an increased incidence of behavioural disorders in offspring. However, few studies have investigated hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activity and the serotonergic system as a consequence of pregestational stress. In the present study, we investigated the effect of pre-gestational stress on HPA axis activity in maternal rats and their foetuses and examined whether changes in HPA axis activity of maternal rats produced functional changes in the serotonergic system in the brain of foetuses. Results We used the behavioural tests to assess the model of chronic unpredictable stress (CUS) in maternal rats. We found the activity in the open field and sucrose consumption was lower for rats with CUS than for the controls. Body weight but not brain weight was higher for control foetuses than those from the CUS group. Serum corticosterone and corticotrophin-releasing hormone levels were significantly higher for mothers with CUS before pregnancy and their foetuses than for the controls. Levels of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) were higher in the hippocampus and hypothalamus of foetuses in the CUS group than in the controls, and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) levels were lower in the hippocampus in foetuses in the CUS group than in the control group. Levels of 5-HIAA in the hypothalamus did not differ between foetuses in the CUS group and in the control group. The ratio of 5-HIAA to 5-HT was significantly lower for foetuses in the CUS group than in the control group. Levels of 5-HT1A receptor were significantly lower in the foetal hippocampus in the CUS group than in the control group, with no significant difference in the hypothalamus. The levels of serotonin transporter (SERT) were lower in both the foetal hippocampus and foetal hypothalamus in the CUS group than in the control group. Conclusions Our data demonstrate that pre-gestational stress alters HPA axis activity in maternal rats and their foetuses, which is associated with functional changes in 5-HT activity (5-HT, 5-HIAA and ratio of 5-HIAA to 5-HT), as well as the levels of the 5-HT1A receptor and SERT in the hippocampus and hypothalamus of foetuses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuejun Huang
- Department of Pediatrics, Second Affiliated Hospital of Medical College of Shantou University, North Dongxia Rd, Shantou 515041, Guangdong, China
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
37
|
Kanter M. Protective effects of quercetine on the neuronal injury in frontal cortex after chronic toluene exposure. Toxicol Ind Health 2012; 29:643-51. [PMID: 22252859 DOI: 10.1177/0748233711430982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was designed to evaluate the possible protective effects of quercetine (QE) on the neuronal injury in the frontal cortex after chronic toluene exposure in rats. The rats were randomly allotted into one of the three experimental groups, namely, groups A (control), B (toluene treated) and C (toluene-treated with QE), where each group contains 10 animals. Control group received 1 ml of normal saline solution, and toluene treatment was performed by the inhalation of 3000 ppm toluene in an 8-h/day and 6-day/week order for 12 weeks. The rats in QE-treated group was given QE (15 mg/kg body weight) once a day intraperitoneally for 12 weeks, starting just after toluene exposure. Tissue samples were obtained for histopathological investigation. To date, no histopathological changes of neurodegeneration in the frontal cortex after chronic toluene exposure in rats by QE treatment have been reported. In this study, the morphology of neurons in the QE treatment group was well protected. Chronic toluene exposure caused severe degenerative changes, shrunken cytoplasm and extensively dark picnotic nuclei in neurons of the frontal cortex. We conclude that QE therapy causes morphologic improvement in neurodegeneration of frontal cortex after chronic toluene exposure in rats. We believe that further preclinical research into the utility of QE may indicate its usefulness as a potential treatment on neurodegeneration after chronic toluene exposure in rats.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mehmet Kanter
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, Istanbul Medeniyet University, Istanbul, Turkey.
| |
Collapse
|
38
|
Baquedano E, García-Cáceres C, Diz-Chaves Y, Lagunas N, Calmarza-Font I, Azcoitia I, Garcia-Segura LM, Argente J, Chowen JA, Frago LM. Prenatal stress induces long-term effects in cell turnover in the hippocampus-hypothalamus-pituitary axis in adult male rats. PLoS One 2011; 6:e27549. [PMID: 22096592 PMCID: PMC3212572 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0027549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2011] [Accepted: 10/19/2011] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Subchronic gestational stress leads to permanent modifications in the hippocampus-hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis of offspring probably due to the increase in circulating glucocorticoids known to affect prenatal programming. The aim of this study was to investigate whether cell turnover is affected in the hippocampus-hypothalamus-pituitary axis by subchronic prenatal stress and the intracellular mechanisms involved. Restraint stress was performed in pregnant rats during the last week of gestation (45 minutes; 3 times/day). Only male offspring were used for this study and were sacrificed at 6 months of age. In prenatally stressed adults a decrease in markers of cell death and proliferation was observed in the hippocampus, hypothalamus and pituitary. This was associated with an increase in insulin-like growth factor-I mRNA levels, phosphorylation of CREB and calpastatin levels and inhibition of calpain -2 and caspase -8 activation. Levels of the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2 were increased and levels of the pro-apoptotic factor p53 were reduced. In conclusion, prenatal restraint stress induces a long-term decrease in cell turnover in the hippocampus-hypothalamus-pituitary axis that might be at least partly mediated by an autocrine-paracrine IGF-I effect. These changes could condition the response of this axis to future physiological and pathophysiological situations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eva Baquedano
- Department of Pediatrics, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid-Hospital Infantil Universitario Niño Jesús, Madrid, Spain
- CIBER Fisiopatología de Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERobn), Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Princesa, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Cristina García-Cáceres
- Department of Pediatrics, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid-Hospital Infantil Universitario Niño Jesús, Madrid, Spain
- CIBER Fisiopatología de Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERobn), Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Princesa, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Yolanda Diz-Chaves
- Laboratory of Neuroactive Steroids, Instituto Cajal, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Natalia Lagunas
- Laboratory of Neuroactive Steroids, Instituto Cajal, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Isabel Calmarza-Font
- Laboratory of Neuroactive Steroids, Instituto Cajal, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Iñigo Azcoitia
- Department of Cellular Biology, School of Biology, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Luis M. Garcia-Segura
- Laboratory of Neuroactive Steroids, Instituto Cajal, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Jesús Argente
- Department of Pediatrics, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid-Hospital Infantil Universitario Niño Jesús, Madrid, Spain
- CIBER Fisiopatología de Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERobn), Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Princesa, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Julie A. Chowen
- Department of Pediatrics, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid-Hospital Infantil Universitario Niño Jesús, Madrid, Spain
- CIBER Fisiopatología de Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERobn), Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Princesa, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Laura M. Frago
- Department of Pediatrics, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid-Hospital Infantil Universitario Niño Jesús, Madrid, Spain
- CIBER Fisiopatología de Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERobn), Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Princesa, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
39
|
Harris A, Seckl J. Glucocorticoids, prenatal stress and the programming of disease. Horm Behav 2011; 59:279-89. [PMID: 20591431 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2010.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 565] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2010] [Revised: 05/26/2010] [Accepted: 06/08/2010] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
An adverse foetal environment is associated with increased risk of cardiovascular, metabolic, neuroendocrine and psychological disorders in adulthood. Exposure to stress and its glucocorticoid hormone mediators may underpin this association. In humans and in animal models, prenatal stress, excess exogenous glucocorticoids or inhibition of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 (HSD2; the placental barrier to maternal glucocorticoids) reduces birth weight and causes hyperglycemia, hypertension, increased HPA axis reactivity, and increased anxiety-related behaviour. Molecular mechanisms that underlie the 'developmental programming' effects of excess glucocorticoids/prenatal stress include epigenetic changes in target gene promoters. In the case of the intracellular glucocorticoid receptor (GR), this alters tissue-specific GR expression levels, which has persistent and profound effects on glucocorticoid signalling in certain tissues (e.g. brain, liver, and adipose). Crucially, changes in gene expression persist long after the initial challenge, predisposing the individual to disease in later life. Intriguingly, the effects of a challenged pregnancy appear to be transmitted possibly to one or two subsequent generations, suggesting that these epigenetic effects persist.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anjanette Harris
- University of Edinburgh, Endocrinology Unit, Centre for Cardiovascular Science, Queen's Medical Research Institute, 47 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK.
| | | |
Collapse
|
40
|
Manojlović-Stojanoski M, Nestorović N, Ristić N, Trifunović S, Filipović B, Sošić-Jurjević B, Sekulić M. Unbiased stereological estimation of the rat fetal pituitary volume and of the total number and volume of TSH cells after maternal dexamethasone application. Microsc Res Tech 2011; 73:1077-85. [PMID: 20232363 DOI: 10.1002/jemt.20842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Glucocorticoids have an inhibitory influence on proliferation activity of the pituitary cells while stimulating apoptosis. Therefore, it was hypothesized that the synthetic glucocorticoid, dexamethasone (DX), has an inhibitory influence on the number of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) cells during fetal development. The effects of maternal administration of DX on stereological parameters of TSH cells, and TSH serum concentration were investigated in 21-day-old rat fetuses. On day 16 of pregnancy, the experimental dams received 1.0 mg DX/kg b.w. subcutaneously, followed by 0.5 mg DX/kg b.w./day on days 17 and 18 of gestation. The control gravid females received the same volume of saline vehicle. TSH cells were stained immunocytochemically by the peroxidase-antiperoxidase (PAP) method. The fetal pituitary volumes were estimated using Cavalieri's principle. A physical disector counting technique in combination with the fractionator sampling method was used for estimation of pituitary TSH cell number. Cell and nuclear volumes were measured with a planar rotator. Maternal DX application was found to cause a significant decrease of pituitary volume and number of TSH cells per pituitary in 21-day-old fetuses in comparison with the control fetuses. TSH cell number expressed per body weight unit declined significantly after maternal DX administration. These results indicate an inhibitory DX influence on proliferative activity of precursors and likely differentiated TSH cells and increased apoptotic prevalence. The histological appearance, volume of TSH cells and TSH serum concentration suggest intensive synthetic activity in TSH cells of DX exposed fetuses.
Collapse
|
41
|
Dudley KJ, Li X, Kobor MS, Kippin TE, Bredy TW. Epigenetic mechanisms mediating vulnerability and resilience to psychiatric disorders. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2011; 35:1544-51. [PMID: 21251925 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.12.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2010] [Revised: 12/13/2010] [Accepted: 12/20/2010] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
The impact that stressful encounters have upon long-lasting behavioural phenotypes is varied. Whereas a significant proportion of the population will develop "stress-related" conditions such as post-traumatic stress disorder or depression in later life, the majority are considered "resilient" and are able to cope with stress and avoid such psychopathologies. The reason for this heterogeneity is undoubtedly multi-factorial, involving a complex interplay between genetic and environmental factors. Both genes and environment are of critical importance when it comes to developmental processes, and it appears that subtle differences in either of these may be responsible for altering developmental trajectories that confer vulnerability or resilience. At the molecular level, developmental processes are regulated by epigenetic mechanisms, with recent clinical and pre-clinical data obtained by ourselves and others suggesting that epigenetic differences in various regions of the brain are associated with a range of psychiatric disorders, including many that are stress-related. Here we provide an overview of how these epigenetic differences, and hence susceptibility to psychiatric disorders, might arise through exposure to stress-related factors during critical periods of development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kevin J Dudley
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
42
|
Effects of a constant light environment on hippocampal neurogenesis and memory in mice. Neurosci Lett 2011; 488:41-4. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2010.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2010] [Revised: 10/05/2010] [Accepted: 11/01/2010] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
|
43
|
Levin BE. Developmental gene x environment interactions affecting systems regulating energy homeostasis and obesity. Front Neuroendocrinol 2010; 31:270-83. [PMID: 20206200 PMCID: PMC2903638 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2010.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2010] [Revised: 02/25/2010] [Accepted: 02/25/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Most human obesity is inherited as a polygenic trait which is largely refractory to medical therapy because obese individuals avidly defend their elevated body weight set-point. This set-point is mediated by an integrated neural network that controls energy homeostasis. Epidemiological studies suggest that perinatal and pre-pubertal environmental factors can promote offspring obesity. Rodent studies demonstrate the important interactions between genetic predisposition and environmental factors in promoting obesity. This review covers issues of development and function of neural systems involved in the regulation of energy homeostasis and the roles of leptin and insulin in these processes, the ways in which interventions at various phases from gestation, lactation and pre-pubertal stages of development can favorably and unfavorably alter the development of obesity n offspring. These studies suggest that early identification of obesity-prone humans and of the factors that can prevent them from becoming obese could provide an effective strategy for preventing the world-wide epidemic of obesity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Barry E Levin
- Neurology Service, VA Medical Center, E. Orange, NJ 07018-1095, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
44
|
Levin BE. Interaction of perinatal and pre-pubertal factors with genetic predisposition in the development of neural pathways involved in the regulation of energy homeostasis. Brain Res 2010; 1350:10-7. [PMID: 20059985 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2009.12.085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2009] [Revised: 12/28/2009] [Accepted: 12/29/2009] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
A majority of human obesity is inherited as a polygenic trait. Once obesity develops, over 90% of individuals repeatedly regain lost weight after dieting. Only surgical interventions offer long lasting weight loss. Thus, clinical data suggest that some individuals have a predisposition to develop and maintain an elevated body weight set-point once they are provided with sufficient calories to gain weight. This set-point is mediated by an integrated neural network that controls energy homeostasis. Unfortunately, currently available tools for identifying obesity-prone individuals and examining the functioning of these neural systems have insufficient resolution to identify specific neural factors that cause humans to develop and maintain the obese state. However, rodent models of polygenically inherited obesity allow us to investigate the factors that both predispose them to become obese and that prevent or enhance the development of such obesity. Maternal obesity during gestation and lactation in obesity-prone rodents enhances offspring obesity and alters their neural pathways involved in energy homeostasis regulation. Early postnatal exposure of obesity-resistant offspring to the milk of genetically obese dams alters their hypothalamic pathways involved in energy homeostasis causing them to become obese when fed a high fat diet as adults. Finally, short-term exercise begun in the early post-weaning period increases the sensitivity to the anorectic effects of leptin and protects obesity-prone offspring from becoming obese for months exercise cessation. Such studies suggest that early identification of obesity-prone humans and of the factors that can prevent them from becoming obese could provide an effective strategy for preventing the world wide epidemic of obesity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Barry E Levin
- Neurology Service (127C), Veterans Administration Medical Center, and Department of Neurology and Neurosciences, New Jersey Medical School, E. Orange, Newark, NJ 07018-1095, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
45
|
Burton C, Lovic V, Fleming AS. Early adversity alters attention and locomotion in adult Sprague-Dawley rats. Behav Neurosci 2009; 120:665-75. [PMID: 16768618 DOI: 10.1037/0735-7044.120.3.665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated the effects of prenatal stress and its interaction with artificial rearing (AR) on adult rat behavior. Pregnant dams underwent restraint stress from Gestational Day 10 to 21. After parturition, pups were raised by their mothers or in the AR paradigm, with or without stroking stimulation. In adulthood, rats were tested on prepulse inhibition (PPI), locomotor activity, elevated plus-maze, and spatial working memory. There were main effects and interactions of both prenatal stress and AR on activity. Additional stimulation reduced activity in nonstressed AR rats but increased activity in prenatally stressed AR rats. AR altered PPI and plus-maze behavior whereas additional stimulation partially reversed these effects. This study demonstrates that prenatal experiences can modulate the effects of postnatal treatments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christie Burton
- Program in Maternal Adversity, Vulnerability and Neurodevelopment, Department of Psychology, University of Toronto at Mississauga, Mississauga, Ontario, Canada
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
46
|
Bellinger DL, Lubahn C, Lorton D. Maternal and early life stress effects on immune function: relevance to immunotoxicology. J Immunotoxicol 2009; 5:419-44. [PMID: 19404876 DOI: 10.1080/15476910802483415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Stress is triggered by a variety of unexpected environmental stimuli, such as aggressive behavior, fear, forced physical activity, sudden environmental changes, social isolation or pathological conditions. Stressful experiences during very early life (particularly, maternal stress during fetal ontogeny) can permanently alter the responsiveness of the nervous system, an effect called programming or imprinting. Programming affects the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis, brain neurotransmitter systems, sympathetic nervous system (SNS), and the cognitive abilities of the offspring, which can alter neural regulation of immune function. Prenatal or early life stress may contribute to the maladaptive immune responses to stress that occur later in life. This review focuses on the effect of maternal and early life stress on immune function in the offspring across life span. It highlights potential mechanisms by which prenatal stress impacts immune functions over life span. The literature discussed in this review suggests that psychosocial stress during pre- and early postnatal life may increase the vulnerability of infants to the effects of immunotoxicants or immune-mediated diseases, with long-term consequences. Neural-immune interactions may provide an indirect route through which immunotoxicants affect the developing immune system. A developmental approach to understanding how immunotoxicants interact with maternal and early life stress-induced changes in immunity is needed, because as the body changes physiologically across life span so do the effects of stress and immunotoxicants. In early and late life, the immune system is more vulnerable to the effects of stress. Stress can mimic the effects of aging and exacerbate age-related changes in immune function. This is important because immune dysregulation in the elderly is more frequently and seriously associated with clinical impairment and death. Aging, exposure to teratogens, and psychological stress interact to increase vulnerability and put the elderly at the greatest risk for disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Denise L Bellinger
- Department of Human Anatomy and Pathology, Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, CA 92352, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
47
|
Long-term effects of prenatal stress: Changes in adult cardiovascular regulation and sensitivity to stress. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2009; 33:191-203. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2008] [Revised: 07/21/2008] [Accepted: 08/01/2008] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
|
48
|
|
49
|
Beauquis J, Saravia F, Coulaud J, Roig P, Dardenne M, Homo-Delarche F, De Nicola A. Prominently decreased hippocampal neurogenesis in a spontaneous model of type 1 diabetes, the nonobese diabetic mouse. Exp Neurol 2008; 210:359-67. [DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2007.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2007] [Revised: 11/08/2007] [Accepted: 11/09/2007] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
|
50
|
Weinstock M. The long-term behavioural consequences of prenatal stress. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2008; 32:1073-86. [PMID: 18423592 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 685] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2007] [Revised: 02/11/2008] [Accepted: 02/11/2008] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Maternal distress during pregnancy increases plasma levels of cortisol and corticotrophin releasing hormone in the mother and foetus. These may contribute to insulin resistance and behaviour disorders in their offspring that include attention and learning deficits, generalized anxiety and depression. The changes in behaviour, with or independent of alterations in the function of the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis, can be induced by prenatal stress in laboratory rodents and non-human primates. The appearance of such changes depends on the timing of the maternal stress, its intensity and duration, gender of the offspring and is associated with structural changes in the hippocampus, frontal cortex, amygdala and nucleus accumbens. The dysregulation of the HPA axis and behaviour changes can be prevented by maternal adrenalectomy. However, only the increased anxiety and alterations in HPA axis are re-instated by maternal injection of corticosterone. CONCLUSION Excess circulating maternal stress hormones alter the programming of foetal neurons, and together with genetic factors, the postnatal environment and quality of maternal attention, determine the behaviour of the offspring.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marta Weinstock
- Department of Pharmacology, Hebrew University, Medical Centre, Ein Kerem, Jerusalem 91120, Israel.
| |
Collapse
|