Comparative evaluation of non-toxic and toxic varieties of Jatropha curcas for chemical composition, digestibility, protein degradability and toxic factors

Heat detoxification of Jatropha cucas meal and its effect on productive and reproductive performance of quail

Jatropha is a large, multipurpose, drought-tolerant plant with many traits and great potential as a biofuel crop. It originates from Central America but is now distributed throughout the tropics, including Africa and Asia. The study determines whether the dietary inclusion of raw Jatropha cucas meal (RJM, 3.5%) had negative impacts on the reproductive and productive performances of male Japanese quail as well as whether these impacts could be mitigated by heating the jatropha meal at 100°C for 24 or 48 h (JH24 or JH48 respectively). One hundred twenty healthy mature male quails at the age of 12 wk were assigned randomly to 4 treatments. Every treatment had 6 replicates, with 5 birds per replicate. The RJM caused a considerable decline in fertility and a high mortality rate in quail, whereas heat-treated jatropha meal (JH24 or JH48) decreased these unwanted effects. The RJM significantly increased triglycerides, aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and alanine aminotransferase (ALT), while reducing total protein and albumin. These values returned to normal in the JH24 and JH48 groups. The RJM significantly reduced the testosterone and increased estradiol and hepatic content of vitellogenin (Vtg) and estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) while they were normal in JH48 group. Superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activities, and the reduced glutathione (GSH) content in testicular tissues were significantly reduced in the RJM group when compared to control. Protein carbonyl (PC), malondialdehyde (MDA), and 8-hydroxy 2 deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) levels were significantly increased in the RJM group when compared to control. Heating of JM for 48 h reduced the 8-OHdG and MDA levels toward the control level better than JH24 and restored PC to normal. Based on the obtained results, The toxic components in JM could be eliminated through heat treatment, and extending the treatment duration to 48 h is recommended for transforming the potentially harmful jatropha meal into an alternative protein source for livestock nutrition.

Investigation of bioethanol production from jatropha deoiled cake and its blending effects for environmental sustainability

This paper describes the process of extracting ethanol from Jatropha curcas and its various blending effects on spark-ignited engine performance for environmental sustainability. Alternatives to conventional fuel sources have to be found because of the depletion of fossil fuels and stringent regulations. Every day, the growing population and improved transportation increase the energy demand. Bioethanol is an effective substitute for gasoline and SI engine diesel. Worldwide, passenger cars typically blend 10% bioethanol with gasoline. Some nations, like India, have stated plans to blend 20% bioethanol with gasoline starting shortly. From leftover jatropha deoiled cake (JDC), bioethanol was produced utilizing the fermentation and vacuum distillation methods. Four different blends were prepared on a volumetric basis at different engine speeds at a constant compression ratio of 10:1 and the wide-open throttle was tested for various performances and emissions. Bioethanol enrichments reduce CO and CO2 emissions but increase nitrogen oxide emissions. JDCE 15 was found to have the best engine performance out of all the fuel blends tested. This study suggests that, if NOx emission reduction measures are carried out, JDC can be used as a source for the manufacturing of second-generation bioethanol.

Development of reference genes for RT-qPCR analysis of gene expression in Pleurotus pulmonarius for biotechnological applications

Jatropha curcas is an oilseed crop with biorefinery applications. Whilst cake generated following oil extraction offers potential as a protein source for animal feed, inactivation of toxic phorbol esters present in the material is necessary. Pleurotus pulmonarius is a detoxifying agent for jatropha cake with additional potential as animal feed, edible mushroom and for enzyme production. For the characterization of fungal genes involved in phorbol ester degradation, together with other industrial applications, reverse transcription-quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) is a tool that enables accurate quantification of gene expression. For this, reliable analysis requires reference genes for normalization of mRNA levels validated under conditions employed for target genes. The stability of potential reference genes β-TUB, ACTIN, GAPDH, PHOS, EF1α, TRPHO, LAC, MNP3, MYP and VP were evaluated following growth of P. pulmonarius on toxic, non-toxic jatropha cake and a combined treatment, respectively. NormFinder and geNorm algorithms for expression stability analysis identified PHOS, EF1α and MNP3 as appropriate for normalizing gene expression. Reference gene combinations contrasting in ranking were compared following normalization of relative expression of the CHU_2040 gene, encoding an esterase enzyme potentially involved in phorbol ester degradation. The reference genes for P. pulmonarius will facilitate the elucidation of mechanisms involved in detoxification of phorbol esters as well as analysis of target genes for application in biorefinery models.

Biotechnological Research Progress in Jatropha, a Biodiesel-Yielding Plant

Environmental pollution is one of the most pressing challenges in today's world. The main cause of this pollution is fuel emissions from automobiles and other sources. As industrialization progresses, we will be unable to compromise on the use of energy to power heavy machines and will be forced to seek out the best options. As a consequence, utilizing green fuel, such as biodiesel derived from natural sources, is a realistic option. Jatropha curcas L. (Euphorbiaceae) is recognized as the greatest feedstock for biodiesel production throughout the world, and it has gained a huge market value in the recent years. Conventional cultivation alone will not be sufficient to meet the global need for the plant's biomass for the production of biodiesel. Adoption of plant tissue culture techniques that improve the biomass availability is an immediate need. The present review provides detailed information regarding in-vitro plant propagation (direct and indirect organogenesis), somatic embryogenesis, and acclimatization protocols of plantlets for stabilized production of biomass. The review also focuses on biotechnological approaches such as gene transformation studies, production of haploids, and double haploids for developing elite germplasm for high biomass and improved traits for the production of biodiesel.

Safety of hydrothermally treated kernels from edible Jatropha curcas L. (Chuta) as a novel food pursuant to Regulation (EU) 2015/2283

Following a request from the European Commission, the EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens (NDA) was asked to deliver an opinion on hydrothermally treated kernels from edible Jatropha curcas (Chuta) as a novel food (NF) pursuant to Regulation (EU) 2015/2283. Although Jatropha curcas is generally considered a toxic plant due to the presence of phorbol esters (PEs), edible varieties exist in Central America. The applicant has developed a breeding programme for an edible cultivar and proposes the kernels from this cultivar as an NF as whole kernels or fragments thereof to be used as a snack or as a food ingredient. Procedures are in place to avoid commingling with non-edible kernels, with the last steps being the analytical control of PEs concentrations in all produced batches. The Panel considers that the production process of the NF is sufficiently described and that the information provided on the composition of the NF is sufficient for its characterisation. Components of the NF were tested for genotoxicity applying the standard in vitro test battery and no genotoxic concerns have been identified. In a conservative scenario for exposure to PEs from the NF, it was assumed that all kernels contain PEs at the level of detection of the analytical method. When comparing the estimated maximum exposure to PEs with a reference point from a subchronic study in pigs, a margin of exposure ≥ 900 is obtained, which is considered sufficiently large. The presence of anti-nutritional factors does not pose safety concerns as they are within the ranges found in vegetables. The Panel concludes that the NF is safe under the proposed conditions of use.

Benefits and Challenges of Jatropha Meal as Novel Biofeed for Animal Production

Jatropha curcas L. has gained importance as a source of seed oil for biodiesel production. The meal contained about 60% protein with a good balance of essential amino acids, containing various bioactive compounds, including saponins, phytic acids, trypsin inhibitors, lectins, phenolics, and flavonoids, which render it as a potential biofeed for animal production. The Jatropha meal demonstrated various biological activities, including antioxidant, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory effects which enhance its property as a bio-feed. The levels of these bioactive compounds in the seeds are dependent on the genotypes. The J. curcas possessed different varieties which are either toxic or non-toxic according to the presence of phorbol esters. The presence of phorbol esters in the meal confirmed the toxic variety of Jatropha resulting in the limited application of meal as a biofeed. The Jatropha meal devoid of phorbol esters could be applied as a biofeed in the animal production industry, and for the toxic varieties, various techniques such as physicochemical and biological treatments have been introduced to the industry to remove the phorbol esters from Jatropha meal. Several studies employing various cells and animals confirmed the toxicity of the phorbol esters. The molecular mechanism of action of phorbol esters is through up-regulation of PKC-β II gene, overexpression of down-stream proto-oncogenes resulted in inflammation and oxidative stress ending by apoptotic cell death. Despite the presence of valuable bioactive compounds in the Jatropha meal, its nutritional application is not recommended unless the phorbol esters are completely removed.

Detoxification of jatropha kernel meal to utilize it as aqua-feed

BACKGROUND

Jatropha is an oilseed crop with high kernel oil (55-58%) and protein (26-29%) contents, which makes it a good source of biodiesel and animal/aqua-feed. However, the presence of anti-nutritional toxins, such as phorbol esters, lectins, trypsin inhibitor, phytate, and saponins, restricts its use as feed. This paper describes chemical, ultraviolet (UV) radiation, and biological treatments for detoxification of jatropha kernel meal. Raw, defatted, and one-time and two-times mechanically expressed oil samples were analyzed for toxins. Chemical treatment involved heating with 90% methanol and 4% sodium hydroxide. UV treatment was carried out at UV light intensity of 53.4 mW cm^-2 for 30 min. For biological treatment, cell-free extract from Pseudomonas aeruginosa (strain PAO1) was mixed with kernel meal for detoxification.

RESULTS

Among treatments, chemical treatment was most effective in reducing all toxins, with phorbol esters in the range 0.034-0.052 mg g^-1 , lectin 0.082-10.766 mg g^-1 , trypsin inhibitor 10.499-11.350 mg g^-1 , phytate 2.475-5.769 mg g^-1 , and saponins 0.044-0.098 mg g^-1 . Biological treatment reduced all toxins except phytate, whereas UV treatment could not reduce any of toxins and, hence, cannot be used for aqua-feed preparation. Pellets prepared from chemically detoxified kernel meal with the least oil content (defatted) resulted in the highest strength (70.93 N).

CONCLUSION

Chemically treated jatropha kernel meal can be used for aqua-feed pellet preparation because of its low toxin content. The highest compressive strength was obtained for pellets with the least oil content (defatted). Biological treatment time must have been extended for many hours instead of 24 h. Jatropha kernel meal treated chemically can be recommended for aqua-feed manufacturing. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

<i>In vitro </i> Evaluation and <i>in vivo</i> Digestibility of Physically, Chemically and Biologically Treated Jatropha Meal

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Protein considered the second main nutrient in diet formulation for all types of animals after energy. Present study aimed to evaluate the effect of different treatments on the nutritive value of Jatropha meal (JM) by in vitro and in vivo trials as protein source in sheep diet.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Chemical composition, in vitro digestibility, gas production and phorbol esters (PE) were recorded for physically, chemically and biologically treated Jatropha meal. In vivo digestibility was measured by using 24 Barki rams randomly assigned into 4 nutritional groups (6 animals/treatment) as follow: 1) control ration and in 2, 3 and 4 groups cotton seed meal replaced with 30, 45 and 60% heated Jatropha meal (HJM).

RESULTS

The various treatments raised DM (Dry matter), CP (Crude protein), NFE (Nitrogen free extract) and ash, whereas reduced OM (Organic matter), CF (Crude fiber) and EE (Ether extract) content in JM, the results of in vitro dry matter disappearance (IVDMD) have a significant height (p<0.01) for physical followed by the chemical and biological treatments. Otherwise high significant results (p<0.01) for gas production for different treatments was observed. The different treatments decreased the concentration of PE in JM than untreated.

CONCLUSION

It can be concluded that all treatments especially heat enhanced chemical composition, IVDMD of JM and gas production. Feeding values were better with the ratio 30 and 45%.

High SNP diversity in the non-toxic indigenous Jatropha curcas germplasm widens the potential of this upcoming major biofuel crop species

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Jatropha curcas (jatropha) is an oil crop cultivated in (sub)tropical regions around the world, and holds great promise as a renewable energy source. However, efforts to fully commercialize jatropha are currently hampered by the lack of genetic diversity in the extant breeding germplasm, and by the toxicity of its seeds meaning that its seed cake cannot be used as a protein source in animal feed, among other constraints. In Mexico, the species' native range, there are jatropha plants whose seeds are used to prepare traditional meals. This non-toxic jatropha 'type' is considered to harbour low genetic variation due to a presumed domestication bottleneck and therefore to be of limited breeding value; yet, very little is known regarding its origin and genetic diversity.

METHODS

Using genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS), we extensively genotyped both indigenous toxic and non-toxic jatropha collected along roads and home gardens throughout southern Mexico.

KEY RESULTS

Single nucleotide polymorphism diversity in non-toxic jatropha is relatively high, particularly in northern Veracruz state, the probable origin of this germplasm. Genetic differences between toxic and non-toxic indigenous genotypes are overall quite small. A a genome-wide association study supported a genomic region (on LG 8, scaffold NW_012130064), probably involved in the suppression of seed toxicity.

CONCLUSIONS

Conservation actions are urgently needed to preserve this non-toxic indigenous, relatively wild germplasm, having potential as a fuel feedstock, animal feed and food source among other uses. More generally, this work demonstrates the value of conservation genomic research on the indigenous gene pool of economically important plant species.

Traditional detoxification of Jatropha curcas L. seeds

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Jatropha curcas L. is a plant with high cultural significance for quilombola communities of Oriximiná (Pará State, Brazil). Although the plant is highly toxic, its seeds are used in these communities to treat tuberculosis and related diseases and symptoms.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study was designed to provide a scientific rationale for the traditional detoxification method and use of J. curcas seeds in quilombola communities of Oriximiná.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

J. curcas seeds were manually separated into testa, tegmen, endosperm, and embryo, and then methanolic extracts of each sample were prepared. The traditional preparation of J. curcas seeds consists of a water extract of endosperms that is known as "milk of pinhão-branco". The content of phorbol esters (PEs) in the extracts was analyzed by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography with Diode-Array Detection (HPLC-DAD). The cytotoxic activity was evaluated in human monocytic cell line THP-1 by Resazurin Reduction Assay, and antimycobacterial activity was assessed by determining Minimal Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) values against H37Rv and BCG strains using the Resazurin Microtiter Assay (REMA).

RESULTS

The content analysis revealed that the distribution of PEs within the seeds is not homogeneous. High contents were found in tegmens (4.22 ± 0.25-15.52 ± 0.06 mg/g) and endosperms (1.61 ± 0.07-5.00 ± 0.42 mg/g), while concentrations found in testas and embryos were all below 0.5 mg/g. The traditional preparation derived from the endosperm of J. curcas contained significantly less PEs than the endosperms (0.01 ± 0.005 mg/g). Against THP-1 cells, all the parts of the seed showed cytotoxic activity, while the traditional preparation was considered non-cytotoxic. Nevertheless, only the tegmen and endosperm of J. curcas were considered active against M. tuberculosis and M. bovis (MIC = 200 μg/mL).

CONCLUSION

The results of this study indicated that the traditional processing performed by the quilombola people from Oriximiná is effective in reducing the toxicity of J. curcas seeds. Although inactive against mycobacteria, the extensive use of the traditional preparation and its low toxicity encourage further studies to investigate other biological activities.

Identification and validation of SNP markers linked to seed toxicity in Jatropha curcas L

Edible/non-toxic varieties of Jatropha curcas L. are gaining increasing attention, providing both oil as biofuel feedstock or even as edible oil and the seed kernel meal as animal feed ingredient. They are a viable alternative to the limitation posed by the presence of phorbol esters in toxic varieties. Accurate genotyping of toxic/non-toxic accessions is critical to breeding management. The aim of this study was to identify SNP markers linked to seed toxicity in J. curcas. For SNP discovery, NGS technology was used to sequence the whole genomes of a toxic and non-toxic parent along with a bulk of 51 toxic and 30 non-toxic F₂ plants. To ascertain the association between SNP markers and seed toxicity trait, candidate SNPs were genotyped on 672 individuals segregating for seed toxicity and two collections of J. curcas composed of 96 individuals each. In silico SNP discovery approaches led to the identification of 64 candidate SNPs discriminating non-toxic and toxic samples. These SNPs were mapped on Chromosome 8 within the Linkage Group 8 previously identified as a genomic region important for phorbol ester biosynthesis. The association study identified two new SNPs, SNP_J22 and SNP_J24 significantly linked to low toxicity with R² values of 0.75 and 0.54, respectively. Our study released two valuable SNP markers for high-throughput, marker-assisted breeding of seed toxicity in J. curcas.

Rapid and selective screening for toxic phorbol esters in Jatropha curcas seed oil using high-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry

Jatropha curcas L. is an inedible plant whose seed oil is an interesting source for biodiesel production. Seed cake, the main byproduct remaining (about 70% w/w) after the oil extraction process, has a high nutritional value but the presence in Jatropha curcas seed of phorbol esters (PEs), a family of toxic compounds with a tigliane skeleton, prevents application of seed cake and other byproducts (e.g. glycerin) in animal feed without an efficient detoxification. Considering the high toxicity of PEs, it is important to have a sensitive analytical method to evaluate the presence of these compounds in Jatropha curcas derivatives. In this paper we present the study of the ESI-MS/MS fragmentation pattern of the [M+Na]⁺ ion at m/z 733.5 of the six known PEs, namely Jatropha factors (JFs) C₁-C₆, which allowed to tentatively identify a series of characteristic and specific fragment ions useful to reveal the presence of JFs in Jatropha curcas seed oil, distinguish them from each other, and identify new PEs (J1-J4). Moreover, the substitution of the usual acetonitrile/water as mobile phase with a mixture of methanol/water (85:15, v/v) allowed to increase the signal of the sodium adduct of about 50-fold during the HPLC-ESI-MS/MS analysis.

Effects of partial dietary substitution of groundnut meal by defatted, Aspergillus niger-fermented and heated Jatropha curcas kernel meal on feed intake and growth performance of broiler chicks

This study was conducted to determine intake and growth performance of broiler chicks fed with Jatropha curcas kernel meal physico-chemically and biologically processed. The feed experiment lasted for 7 days with 20-day-old Ross 308 strain unsexed broiler chicks. Two dietary treatments were given each to ten animals, according to a complete randomized design. Kernels, manually obtained from J. curcas seed, were defatted, heated, and fermented with a strain of Aspergillus niger and oven-dried, in order to obtain the treated jatropha kernel meal. This latter was used to replace one third of a groundnut meal premix which was then incorporated in a commercial diet to warrant iso-nitrogenous and iso-caloric characteristics of the diets. Data collected were analyzed according to ANOVA procedure. The results revealed that the animals that received the diet incorporating jatropha kernel meal had numerically higher live weight (156.1 vs. 152.7 g/animal) (P > 0.05) and average daily weight gain (12.3 vs. 11.7 g/day/animal) (P > 0.05) than the control ones, at the end of experiment. The average daily feed intake was the same for the two groups of animals (23.2 g/day/animal) (P > 0.05) with a similar feed conversion ratio (2.0 vs. 2.1 respectively for the jatropha group and the control group). The survival rate, at the end of the experiment, was 100% for the two groups of animals. Physico-chemically and biologically processed Jatropha curcas kernel could be an interesting by-product for poultry feeding.

Genome sequence of Jatropha curcas L., a non-edible biodiesel plant, provides a resource to improve seed-related traits

Jatropha curcas (physic nut), a non-edible oilseed crop, represents one of the most promising alternative energy sources due to its high seed oil content, rapid growth and adaptability to various environments. We report ~339 Mbp draft whole genome sequence of J. curcas var. Chai Nat using both the PacBio and Illumina sequencing platforms. We identified and categorized differentially expressed genes related to biosynthesis of lipid and toxic compound among four stages of seed development. Triacylglycerol (TAG), the major component of seed storage oil, is mainly synthesized by phospholipid:diacylglycerol acyltransferase in Jatropha, and continuous high expression of homologs of oleosin over seed development contributes to accumulation of high level of oil in kernels by preventing the breakdown of TAG. A physical cluster of genes for diterpenoid biosynthetic enzymes, including casbene synthases highly responsible for a toxic compound, phorbol ester, in seed cake, was syntenically highly conserved between Jatropha and castor bean. Transcriptomic analysis of female and male flowers revealed the up-regulation of a dozen family of TFs in female flower. Additionally, we constructed a robust species tree enabling estimation of divergence times among nine Jatropha species and five commercial crops in Malpighiales order. Our results will help researchers and breeders increase energy efficiency of this important oil seed crop by improving yield and oil content, and eliminating toxic compound in seed cake for animal feed.

Sacha inchi seeds from sub-tropical cultivation: effects of roasting on antinutrients, antioxidant capacity and oxidative stability

Due to the strong bitter taste, sacha inchi seeds are usually consumed after roasting, which also contributes to the elimination of antinutrients. Sacha inchi plants fully adapted to cultivation under sub-tropical climate conditions were produced in southeastern Brazil. Our main goal was to evaluate the effect of dry heating (roasting) on the antinutrient content of these seeds. We also investigated the effects of the applied roasting treatments on the antioxidant activity, proximate composition and oxidative stability of the seeds. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on antinutrients of sacha inchi seeds cultivated under sub-tropical conditions, outside their native tropical environment. Except for saponins, which are not heat-labile compounds, the contents of all assessed antinutrients continually reduced with the increase in roasting temperature. Roasting improved antioxidant activity and phenolic content in the seeds at the highest temperature. Oxidation changes occurred in the seed oil, and they increased with temperature. However, maximum peroxide value was within the acceptable consumption limits. As a conclusion, roasting treatments can be applied to minimize the antinutrient potential in sacha inchi seeds. Knowledge on the composition and proper processing of sacha inchi cultivated under sub-tropical conditions may support future efforts focused on the development of new production areas.

Current Strategies for the Detoxification of Jatropha curcas Seed Cake: A Review

Jatropha curcas is an important oilseed plant, with considerable potential in the development of biodiesel. Although Jatropha seed cake, the byproduct of oil extraction, is a residue rich in nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and carbon, with high protein content suitable for application in animal feed, the presence of toxic phorbol esters limits its application in feed supplements and fertilizers. This review summarizes the current methods available for detoxification of this residue, based upon chemical, physical, biological, or combined processes. The advantages and disadvantages of each process are discussed, and future directions involving genomic and proteomic approaches for advancing our understanding of biodegradation processes involving microorganisms are highlighted.

An overview of Jatropha curcas meal-induced productive and reproductive toxicity in Japanese quail: Potential mechanisms and heat detoxification

The present study was carried out to investigate the toxic effects of dietary inclusion of raw Jatropha cucas meal [RJM, 3.5%] on productive and reproductive performances of laying Japanese quail and the influence of physical treatment of jatropha meal by heating at [100 ^oc] for 24 or 48 h [JH₂₄ or JH₄₈ respectively] on reducing these effects. The inclusion of RJM in quail diets significantly decreased the egg production, fertility and hatchability percentages and resulted in a high mortality rate. While heat-treated jatropha meal [JH₂₄ or JH₄₈] improved such undesirable effects. The levels of hepatic proteins related to lipid synthesis, cholesterol metabolism and those related to lipid synthesis and transporting to egg yolk were increased in JH₂₄ and JH₄₈ groups than RJM group. Hepatic contents of vitellogenin [VGT-II] and estrogen receptor α [ERα] and circulating estradiol [E2] were improved in JH₄₈ than RJM and JH₂₄ groups however still under the control values. On the other hand, estrogen receptor β [ERβ] were restored to normal control value in both JH₂₄ and JH₄₈ groups. Histopathological investigation revealed that RJM produced various alterations in the histoarchitecture of liver, ovary and oviducts but these alterations were reduced in both JH₂₄ and JH₄₈ groups. From the obtained data we concluded that heating of jatropha meal for 24 h improved its nutritive value and increasing the time of heating is preferable for reduction of the most of toxic impacts indicating that heat treatment can convert toxic jatropha meal to an alternative protein source for livestock feed in a cheap and clean way without combining any other types of treatments.

Comparative nutritional value of Jatropha curcas protein isolate and soy protein isolate in common carp

Jatropha seed cake (JSC) is an excellent source of protein but does contain some antinutritional factors (ANF) that can act as toxins and thus negatively affect the growth and health status of fish. While this can limit the use of JSC, detoxified Jatropha protein isolate (DJPI) may be a better option. An 8-week study was performed to evaluate dietary DJPI to common carp Cyprinus carpio. Five iso-nitrogenous diets (crude protein of 38%) were formulated that consisted of a C ontrol (fish meal (FM) based protein), J 50 or J 75 (50 and 75% of FM protein replaced by DJPI), and S 50 or S 75 (50 and 75% of FM protein replaced by soy protein isolate, SPI) and fed to triplicate groups of 75 carp fingerlings (75; av. wt. ± SD; 11.4 ± 0.25 g). The growth, feeding efficiencies, digestibility, plasma biochemistry, and intestinal enzymes were measured. Results showed that growth performance of fish fed the S 75- or DJPI-based diets were not significantly different from those fed the C ontrol diet, while carp fed the S 50 had significantly better growth than the J 75 diet. Fish fed the J 75 diet had significantly lower protein and lipid digestibility as well as significantly lower intestinal amylase and protease activities than all other groups. However, all plant protein-based diets led to significantly higher crude protein, crude lipid, and gross energy in the body of common carp compared to the control treatment. Plasma cholesterol and creatinine significantly decreased in the plant protein fed groups, although plasma triglyceride as well as the red blood cells count, hematocrit, albumin, globulin, total plasma protein, and lysozyme activity were higher in plant protein fed groups compared to FM fed group. White blood cells, hemoglobulin concentration, alkaline phosphatase and alanine transaminase activities, and glucose level in blood did not differ significantly among treatments. The results suggest that the DJPI is non-toxic to carp and can be used to replace FM in the diets of common carp up to 75%, but further research to potentially reduce some inherent ANF within this protein source, such as non-starch polysaccharides, may improve nutrient utilization.

The influence of different pretreatment methods on biogas production from Jatropha curcas oil cake

Drought and pest resistance, together with high oil content in its seeds, make Jatropha curcas a good oil source for biodiesel. Oil cake from J. curcas is not suitable for animal feeding and thus may be profitably used for additional energy production by conversion into biogas; however, the anaerobic digestion process must be optimized to obtain good efficiency. We subjected oil cake to thermal and acidic pretreatment to deactivate protease inhibitors and partially hydrolyze phytate. We then digested the samples in batch conditions to determine the effects of pretreatment on biogas production. Thermal pretreatment changed the kinetics of anaerobic digestion and reduced protease inhibitor activity and the concentration of phytate; however, biogas production efficiency was not affected (0.281 m³ kg^-1). To evaluate the possibility of recirculating water for SSF hydrolysis, ammonium nitrogen recovery from effluent was evaluated by its precipitation in the form of struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate).Concentration of ammonium ions was reduced by 53% (to 980 mg L^-1). We propose a water-saving concept based on percolation of J. curcas cake using anaerobic digestion effluent and feeding that percolate into a methanogenic bioreactor.

Comparative transcriptome analysis of axillary buds in response to the shoot branching regulators gibberellin A3 and 6-benzyladenine in Jatropha curcas

Cytokinin (CK) is the primary hormone that positively regulates axillary bud outgrowth. However, in many woody plants, such as Jatropha curcas, gibberellin (GA) also promotes shoot branching. The molecular mechanisms underlying GA and CK interaction in the regulation of bud outgrowth in Jatropha remain unclear. To determine how young axillary buds respond to GA₃ and 6-benzyladenine (BA), we performed a comparative transcriptome analysis of the young axillary buds of Jatropha seedlings treated with GA₃ or BA. Two hundred and fifty genes were identified to be co-regulated in response to GA₃ or BA. Seven NAC family members were down-regulated after treatment with both GA₃ and BA, whereas these genes were up-regulated after treatment with the shoot branching inhibitor strigolactone. The expressions of the cell cycle genes CDC6, CDC45 and GRF5 were up-regulated after treatment with both GA₃ and BA, suggesting they may promote bud outgrowth via regulation of the cell cycle machinery. In the axillary buds, BA significantly increased the expression of GA biosynthesis genes JcGA20oxs and JcGA3ox1, and down-regulated the expression of GA degradation genes JcGA2oxs. Overall, the comprehensive transcriptome data set provides novel insight into the responses of young axillary buds to GA and CK.

Intake, nutrient utilization and growth performance of lambs fed detoxified Jatropha curcas meal

The study assessed the effect of dietary supplementation of detoxified Jatropha meal (DJM) on feed intake, nutrient utilization and growth performance of lambs. Growing lambs (24) of similar age and body weight (15.76±1.92kg) were selected for this study. The experimental lambs were allocated in four groups i.e. control group (CG) without DJM and replacing soybean meal (SBM) of CG with DJM on iso-nitrogenous basis in treatment groups (TG) by 12.5% (T1), 25% (T2) and 37.5% (T3). The feeding cum growth trial was conducted for a period of 180 days. The intake of dry matter (DM), organic matter (OM) and digestibility coefficients of DM, OM, CP, NDF and ADF were comparable between CG and TGs. Nutrient intake, DCP, TDN, Nitrogen (N) intake, excretion and retention were comparable between CG and TGs. Replacement of SBM with DJM even up to 37.5% did not show any significant impact on urinary excretion of total purine derivatives (PD), creatinine (C) and their ratio. Microbial N synthesis (g/d) and efficiency of microbial N synthesis of CG were comparable irrespective of DJM%. The initial and final body weights (BW) of lambs between CG and TGs were also comparable. Total BW gain (kg), average daily gain (ADG; g d-1) and feed conversion ratio (kg DM/kg gain) by lambs did not differ significantly between CG and TGs. The study concluded that SBM in the diet of lambs could be replaced by DJM up to 37.5% without any adverse impact on nutrient intake, digestibility, rumen microflora and growth of the lambs.

Degradation rates of phorbol esters in Jatropha curcas L. oil and pressed seeds under different storage conditions

BACKGROUND

Phorbol esters (PEs), found in Jatropha curcas crude oil (JCO) and J. curcas pressed seeds (JPS), are known as bioactive compounds in agricultural and pharmaceutical applications. The degradation rates of PEs in JCO and JPS under various conditions is important for the utilisation of PEs. Thus the objective of this study was to determine the PE degradation rates in JCO and JPS under different storage conditions.

RESULTS

PE degradation rates were found to be first-order reactions. The slowest degradation rate was at 0.9 × 10^-3 d^-1 for both JCO and JPS unexposed to light at 4 °C. Light intensity (1097 lx and 4690 lx, representing diffused sunlight and fluorescent lighting, respectively) and temperature (25 to 35 °C) were the significant degradation factors. Light exposure led to 280% to 380% higher degradation rates in JCO than in JPS due to light penetration through the transparent oil. Dried and sterilised JPS showed an 80% to 90% lower PE degradation rate than untreated JPS under all storage conditions since biodegradation was assembly limited.

CONCLUSION

The PEs were unstable under the studied conditions, especially when exposed to light and room temperature. To protect against PE degradation, a material should be stored in a light-protected container and below 4 °C. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.

Revisão: Jatropha curcas L.: aspectos morfofisiológicos e químicos

Resumo Jatropha curcas L. (pinhão-manso) é uma espécie vegetal oleaginosa cujo óleo, extraído de suas sementes, apresenta múltiplas aplicações para comunidades locais, além da sua potencial aplicação em diferentes setores industriais, dentre os quais a indústria de biodiesel, constituindo-se, assim, em mais uma fonte de matéria-prima dentro do elenco de espécies oleaginosas úteis. Aspectos morfofisiológicos e físico-químicos são de grande importância quando se tem interesse na prospecção de espécies vegetais visando sua domesticação e exploração comercial. O objetivo deste estudo foi realizar uma revisão do estado da arte sobre a J. curcas, compilando estudos acerca da caracterização morfofisiológica, assim como acerca da composição química das sementes, gerando assim informações que auxiliem na exploração do potencial de produção e cultivo da espécie, a fim de subsidiar estudos que propiciem a exploração comercial sustentável dessa cultura. O conhecimento morfológico disponível sobre J. curcas possibilita o entendimento preciso do ciclo biológico da planta, entretanto, estudos fisiológicos ainda necessitam ser desenvolvidos para uma melhor compreensão do comportamento dela, principalmente em termos de armazenamento, condições ótimas de germinação e formação de mudas, assim como sobre o comportamento da espécie quando sob condições adversas, tais como excessiva insolação, restrição hídrica e temperaturas elevadas, dentre outras. A descrição da composição química, caracterização de compostos tóxicos e fatores antinutricionais da semente já existentes forneceram informações que podem dar suporte a produção e exploração comercial de J. curcas, porém estudos e testes com animais devem ser conduzidos para confirmar com maior segurança suas aplicações comerciais.

Plants from disturbed savannah vegetation and their usage by Bakongo tribes in Uíge, Northern Angola

BACKGROUND

This study represents the first in-depth ethnobotanical study in the province of Uíge in northern Angola and documents the traditional knowledge of the Bakongo people living in the area. Due to deforestation and frequent fires, degraded savannahs dominate the landscape in the study region. Here we provide a list of useful plants from these savannahs including quantitative data about cultural importance of the respective species, aiming on the one hand to conserve the local knowledge and on the other hand to create a reliable basis for research projects in the region.

METHODS

Field work was conducted in April and May 2014 in 5 municipalities of Uíge province. The study is based on 32 semi-structured and free-listing interviews, group discussions of varying scope and 14 field trips, involving a total of 82 informants. Throughout the course of the study herbarium specimens of the useful species were collected for later identification. Cultural importance index was applied to analyse the data sets recorded and to determine the best-known useful species in the region. All data sets were compared to the literature available for the region.

RESULTS

The study documents a total of 498 citations for the use of 122 plants from 48 families, 34.0 % of which were unknown according to the literature used for comparison. The high amount (71 %) of medical use-reports indicates that plants still play a crucial role in rural health care. We identified 14 plant species of special interest for pharmacological analysis. Species of highest cultural importance are Annona senegalensis Pers. and Sarcocephalus latifolius (Sm.) E.A., both of which are frequently found in disturbed savannahs.

CONCLUSIONS

The study points out the importance of savannahs even if degraded in terms of useful plants and provides a valuable addition to current knowledge of plant use in Northern Angola. This is not only essential for further studies, i.e. regarding pharmaceutical agents, but also for the design of a planned botanical garden of the University Kimpa Vita in Uíge, which aims at communicating the findings to the local people.

Biodiesel production from crude Jatropha oil catalyzed by non-commercial immobilized heterologous Rhizopus oryzae and Carica papaya lipases

The aim of this study was to evaluate the feasibility of biodiesel production by transesterification of Jatropha oil with methanol, catalyzed by non-commercial sn-1,3-regioselective lipases. Using these lipases, fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) and monoacylglycerols are produced, avoiding the formation of glycerol as byproduct. Heterologous Rhizopus oryzae lipase (rROL) immobilized on different synthetic resins and Carica papaya lipase (rCPL) immobilized on Lewatit VP OC 1600 were tested. Reactions were performed at 30°C, with seven stepwise methanol additions. For all biocatalysts, 51-65% FAME (theoretical maximum=67%, w/w) was obtained after 4h transesterification. Stability tests were performed in 8 or 10 successive 4h-batches, either with or without rehydration of the biocatalyst between each two consecutive batches. Activity loss was much faster when biocatalysts were rehydrated. For rROL, half-life times varied from 16 to 579h. rROL on Lewatit VPOC 1600 was more stable than for rCPL on the same support.

Bayesian Multi-Trait Analysis Reveals a Useful Tool to Increase Oil Concentration and to Decrease Toxicity in Jatropha curcas L

The biggest challenge for jatropha breeding is to identify superior genotypes that present high seed yield and seed oil content with reduced toxicity levels. Therefore, the objective of this study was to estimate genetic parameters for three important traits (weight of 100 seed, oil seed content, and phorbol ester concentration), and to select superior genotypes to be used as progenitors in jatropha breeding. Additionally, the genotypic values and the genetic parameters estimated under the Bayesian multi-trait approach were used to evaluate different selection indices scenarios of 179 half-sib families. Three different scenarios and economic weights were considered. It was possible to simultaneously reduce toxicity and increase seed oil content and weight of 100 seed by using index selection based on genotypic value estimated by the Bayesian multi-trait approach. Indeed, we identified two families that present these characteristics by evaluating genetic diversity using the Ward clustering method, which suggested nine homogenous clusters. Future researches must integrate the Bayesian multi-trait methods with realized relationship matrix, aiming to build accurate selection indices models.

In vitro gas production of foliage from three browse tree species treated with different dose levels of exogenous fibrolytic enzymes

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of different dose levels of exogenous fibrolytic enzymes (EFE) on in vitro ruminal fermentation kinetics and energy utilization of foliages from three browse trees (Pithecellobium dulce, Heliocarpus velutinus and Guazuma ulmifolia). Mixture of EFE product was added to the leaves of the three browse tree species at three dose levels: 0 (control), 3.5 and 7.0 mg/g of DM. Chemical composition of the foliages, including plant secondary metabolites such as total phenolics (TP), saponins (SAP) and aqueous fraction (AF), was determined. In addition, in vitro assaying of ruminal gas production kinetics was determined for the three browse three foliages treated with EFE. P. dulce had the highest crude protein content (p < 0.05), whereas G. ulmifolia had the highest content of neutral detergent fibre and SAP (p < 0.05) and H. velutinus had the lowest content of TP (p < 0.05). The interaction between tree species and dose level of EFE was significant (p < 0.05) for gas production (GP) at 24 h of incubation, parameters b and c of the accumulated GP curve, short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) and metabolizable energy (ME). The lowest (p < 0.01) extent of accumulated GP as well as the b and c values occurred in G. ulmifolia at 0 mg EFE/g DM. P. dulce had the highest (p < 0.05) values for ME and SCFA at the highest dose of EFE. Tree species and dose level had significant (p < 0.05) effects on all parameters describing in vitro ruminal fermentation kinetics and energy utilization. Addition of EFE improved the fermentation kinetics of the browse species considered in this study.

Phorbol esters seed content and distribution in Latin American provenances of Jatropha curcas L.: potential for biopesticide, food and feed

BACKGROUND

Jatropha curcas L. (Jatropha) is believed to have originated from Mexico and Central America. So far, characterization efforts have focused on Asia, Africa and Mexico. Non-toxic, low phorbol ester (PE) varieties have been found only in Mexico. Differences in PE content in seeds and its structural components, crude oil and cake from Jatropha provenances cultivated in Central and South America were evaluated. Seeds were dehulled, and kernels were separated into tegmen, cotyledons and embryo for PE quantitation by RP-HPLC. Crude oil and cake PE content was also measured.

RESULTS

No phenotypic departures in seed size and structure were observed among Jatropha cultivated in Central and South America compared to provenances from Mexico, Asia and Africa. Cotyledons comprised 96.2-97.5 %, tegmen 1.6-2.4 % and embryo represented 0.9-1.4 % of dehulled kernel. Total PE content of all nine provenances categorized them as toxic. Significant differences in kernel PE content were observed among provenances from Mexico, Central and South America (P < 0.01), being Mexican the highest (7.6 mg/g) and Cabo Verde the lowest (2.57 mg/g). All accessions had >95 % of PEs concentrated in cotyledons, 0.5-3 % in the tegmen and 0.5-1 % in the embryo. Over 60 % of total PE in dehulled kernels accumulated in the crude oil, while 35-40 % remained in the cake after extraction.

CONCLUSIONS

Low phenotypic variability in seed physical, structural traits and PE content was observed among provenances from Latin America. Very high-PE provenances with potential as biopesticide were found in Central America. No PE-free, edible Jatropha was found among provenances currently cultivated in Central America and Brazil that could be used for human consumption and feedstock. Furthermore, dehulled kernel structural parts as well as its crude oil and cake contained toxic PE levels.

Engineering low phorbol ester Jatropha curcas seed by intercepting casbene biosynthesis

Casbene is a precursor to phorbol esters and down-regulating casbene synthase effectively reduces phorbol ester biosynthesis. Seed-specific reduction of phorbol ester (PE) helps develop Jatropha seed cake for animal nutrition. Phorbol esters (PEs) are diterpenoids present in some Euphorbiaceae family members like Jatropha curcas L. (Jatropha), a tropical shrub yielding high-quality oil suitable as feedstock for biodiesel and bio jet fuel. Jatropha seed contains up to 40 % of oil and can produce oil together with cake containing high-quality proteins. However, skin-irritating and cancer-promoting PEs make Jatropha cake meal unsuitable for animal nutrition and also raise some safety and environmental concerns on its planting and processing. Two casbene synthase gene (JcCASA163 and JcCASD168) homologues were cloned from Jatropha genome and both genes were highly expressed during seed development. In vitro functional analysis proved casbene synthase activity of JcCASA163 in converting geranylgeranyl diphosphate into casbene which has been speculated to be the precursor to PEs. A seed-specific promoter driving inverted repeats for RNAi interference targeting at either JcCASA163 or both genes could effectively down-regulate casbene synthase gene expression with concurrent marked reduction of PE level (by as much as 85 %) in seeds with no pleiotropic effects observed. Such engineered low PE in seed was heritable and co-segregated with the transgene. Our work implicated casbene synthase in Jatropha PE biosynthesis and provided evidence for casbene being the precursor for PEs. The success in reducing seed PE content through down-regulation of casbene synthase demonstrates the feasibility of intercepting PE biosynthesis in Jatropha seed to help address safety concerns on Jatropha plantation and seed processing and facilitate use of its seed protein for animal nutrition.

Jatropha curcas Protein Concentrate Stimulates Insulin Signaling, Lipogenesis, Protein Synthesis and the PKCα Pathway in Rat Liver

Jatropha curcas is an oil seed plant that belongs to the Euphorbiaceae family. Nontoxic genotypes have been reported in Mexico. The purpose of the present work was to evaluate the effect of a Mexican variety of J. curcas protein concentrate (JCP) on weight gain, biochemical parameters, and the expression of genes and proteins involved in insulin signaling, lipogenesis, cholesterol and protein synthesis in rats. The results demonstrated that short-term consumption of JCP increased serum glucose, insulin, triglycerides and cholesterol levels as well as the expression of transcription factors involved in lipogenesis and cholesterol synthesis (SREBP-1 and LXRα). Moreover, there was an increase in insulin signaling mediated by Akt phosphorylation and mTOR. JCP also increased PKCα protein abundance and the activation of downstream signaling pathway targets such as the AP1 and NF-κB transcription factors typically activated by phorbol esters. These results suggested that phorbol esters are present in JCP, and that they could be involved in the activation of PKC which may be responsible for the high insulin secretion and consequently the activation of insulin-dependent pathways. Our data suggest that this Mexican Jatropha variety contains toxic compounds that produce negative metabolic effects which require caution when using in the applications of Jatropha-based products in medicine and nutrition.

Digestibility of solvent-treated Jatropha curcas kernel by broiler chickens in Senegal

Jatropha curcas is a drought-resistant shrub belonging to the Euphorbiaceae family. The kernel contains approximately 60 % lipid in dry matter, and the meal obtained after oil extraction could be an exceptional source of protein for family poultry farming, in the absence of curcin and, especially, some diterpene derivatives phorbol esters that are partially lipophilic. The nutrient digestibility of J. curcas kernel meal (JKM), obtained after partial physicochemical deoiling was thus evaluated in broiler chickens. Twenty broiler chickens, 6 weeks old, were maintained in individual metabolic cages and divided into four groups of five animals, according to a 4 × 4 Latin square design where deoiled JKM was incorporated into grinded corn at 0, 4, 8, and 12 % levels (diets 0, 4, 8, and 12 J), allowing measurement of nutrient digestibility by the differential method. The dry matter (DM) and organic matter (OM) digestibility of diets was affected to a low extent by JKM (85 and 86 % in 0 J and 81 % in 12 J, respectively) in such a way that DM and OM digestibility of JKM was estimated to be close to 50 %. The ether extract (EE) digestibility of JKM remained high, at about 90 %, while crude protein (CP) and crude fiber (CF) digestibility were largely impacted by JKM, with values closed to 40 % at the highest levels of incorporation. J. curcas kernel presents various nutrient digestibilities but has adverse effects on CP and CF digestibility of the diet. The effects of an additional heat or biological treatment on JKM remain to be assessed.