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da Silveira BP, Cohen ND, Lawhon SD, Watson RO, Bordin AI. Protective immune response against Rhodococcus equi: An innate immunity-focused review. Equine Vet J 2024. [PMID: 39258739 DOI: 10.1111/evj.14214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2024] [Accepted: 07/30/2024] [Indexed: 09/12/2024]
Abstract
Rhodococcus equi causes pyogranulomatous pneumonia in foals and immunocompromised people. Despite decades of research efforts, no vaccine is available against this common cause of disease and death in foals. The purpose of this narrative review is to summarise the current understanding of interactions between R. equi and the host innate immune system, to describe features of the immune response that are associated with resistance or susceptibility to R. equi infection, and help guide strategies for developing novel approaches for preventing R. equi infections. Virulence of R. equi in foals has been attributed to the virulence associated protein A which allows intracellular survival in macrophages by preventing acidification of R. equi-containing vacuole. Additionally, foal susceptibility to R. equi infection is associated with immaturity and naivety of innate and adaptive immune systems, while adult horses with fully functional immune system are resistant to pneumonia. Specific interaction between R. equi and innate immune cells can result in bacterial survival or death; learning how to manipulate these responses to control infection is critical to prevent pneumonia in foals. Administration of live vaccines and stimulation of innate immune responses appears to improve foals' immune response and has the potential to overcome the challenges of foal active vaccination and elicit protection against pneumonia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bibiana Petri da Silveira
- Equine Infectious Disease Laboratory, Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, Texas A&M University, School of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, College Station, Texas, USA
| | - Noah D Cohen
- Equine Infectious Disease Laboratory, Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, Texas A&M University, School of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, College Station, Texas, USA
| | - Sara D Lawhon
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Texas A&M University, School of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, College Station, Texas, USA
| | - Robert O Watson
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis & Immunology, Texas A&M University, School of Medicine, College Station, Texas, USA
| | - Angela I Bordin
- Equine Infectious Disease Laboratory, Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, Texas A&M University, School of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, College Station, Texas, USA
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Rivolta AA, Bujold AR, Wilmarth PA, Phinney BS, Navelski JP, Horohov DW, Sanz MG. Comparison of the broncoalveolar lavage fluid proteomics between foals and adult horses. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0290778. [PMID: 37669266 PMCID: PMC10479908 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0290778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Accepted: 08/15/2023] [Indexed: 09/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Neonates have different cellular composition in their bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) when compared to foals and adult horses; however, little is known about the non-cellular components of BALF. The objective of this study was to determine the proteomic composition of BALF in neonatal horses and to compare it to that of foals and adult horses. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid samples of seven neonates (< 1 week age), four 5 to 7-week-old foals, and six adult horses were collected. Quantitative proteomics of the fluid was performed using tandem mass tag labeling followed by high resolution liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry and protein relative abundances were compared between groups using exact text. A total of 704 proteins were identified with gene ontology terms and were classified. Of these, 332 proteins were related to the immune system in neonates, foals, and adult horses. The most frequent molecular functions identified were binding and catalytic activity and the most common biological processes were cellular process, metabolic process, and biological regulation. There was a significant difference in the proteome of neonates when compared to foals and to adult horses. Neonates had less relative expression (FDR < 0.01) of many immune-related proteins, including immunoglobulins, proteins involved in the complement cascade, ferritin, BPI fold-containing family B member 1, and macrophage receptor MARCO. This is the first report of equine neonate BALF proteomics and reveals differential abundance of proteins when compared to BALF from adult horses. The lower relative abundance of immune-related proteins in neonates could contribute to their susceptibility to pulmonary infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandra A. Rivolta
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
| | - Adina R. Bujold
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Phillip A. Wilmarth
- Proteomic Shared Resource, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, United States of America
| | - Brett S. Phinney
- Genome Center Proteomics Core Facility, UC Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Joseph P. Navelski
- School of Economic Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
| | - David W. Horohov
- Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Macarena G. Sanz
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
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Gressler AE, Lübke S, Wagner B, Arnold C, Lohmann KL, Schnabel CL. Comprehensive Flow Cytometric Characterization of Bronchoalveolar Lavage Cells Indicates Comparable Phenotypes Between Asthmatic and Healthy Horses But Functional Lymphocyte Differences. Front Immunol 2022; 13:896255. [PMID: 35874777 PMCID: PMC9296846 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.896255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2022] [Accepted: 05/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Equine asthma (EA) is a highly relevant disease, estimated to affect up to 20% of all horses, and compares to human asthma. The pathogenesis of EA is most likely immune-mediated, yet incompletely understood. To study the immune response in the affected lower airways, mixed leukocytes were acquired through bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) and the cell populations were analyzed on a single-cell basis by flow cytometry (FC). Samples of 38 horses grouped as respiratory healthy or affected by mild to moderate (mEA) or severe EA (sEA) according to their history, clinical signs, and BAL cytology were analyzed. Using FC, BAL cells and PBMC were comprehensively characterized by cell surface markers ex vivo. An increased percentage of DH24A+ polymorphonuclear cells, and decreased percentages of CD14+ macrophages were detected in BAL from horses with sEA compared to healthy horses or horses with mEA, while lymphocyte proportions were similar between all groups. Independently of EA, macrophages in BAL were CD14+CD16+, which contrasts the majority of CD14+CD16- classical monocytes in PBMC. Percentages of CD16-expressing BAL macrophages were reduced in BAL from horses with sEA compared to healthy horses. While PBMC lymphocytes predominantly contain CD4+ T cells, B cells and few CD8+ T cells, BAL lymphocytes comprised mainly CD8+ T cells, fewer CD4+ T cells and hardly any B cells. These lymphocyte subsets’ distributions were similar between all groups. After PMA/ionomycin stimulation in vitro, lymphocyte activation (CD154 and T helper cell cytokine expression) was analyzed in BAL cells of 26 of the horses and group differences were observed (p=0.01–0.11). Compared to healthy horses’ BAL, CD154+ lymphocytes from horses with mEA, and CD4+IL-17A+ lymphocytes from horses with sEA were increased in frequency. Activated CD4+ T helper cells were more frequent in asthmatics’ (mEA, sEA) compared to healthy horses’ PBMC lymphocytes. In summary, FC analysis of BAL cells identified increased polymorphonuclear cells frequencies in sEA as established, while macrophage percentages were mildly reduced, and lymphocyte populations remained unaffected by EA. Cytokine production differences of BAL lymphocytes from horses with sEA compared to healthy horses’ cells point towards a functional difference, namely increased local type 3 responses in sEA.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Elisabeth Gressler
- Institute of Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Sabrina Lübke
- Institute of Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Bettina Wagner
- Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States
| | - Corinna Arnold
- Department for Horses, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Katharina L Lohmann
- Department for Horses, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Christiane L Schnabel
- Institute of Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
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Hostetter SJ, Clark SK, Gilbertie JM, Wiechert SA, Jones DE, Sponseller BA. Age-related variation in the cellular composition of equine bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. Vet Clin Pathol 2017; 46:344-353. [PMID: 28346682 PMCID: PMC10629498 DOI: 10.1111/vcp.12473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Previous reports reveal variation in the cellular composition of equine bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF). OBJECTIVES The purpose of this study was to compare the profiles of BALF from horses to assess age-related differences. Serial BALF samples were collected from the same individuals over a one-year period to identify changes in individual animals as they aged. METHODS Collection of BALF was performed on horses aged one week and one, 2, 6, and 12 months. Total nucleated cell count (TNCC), protein concentration, and cytology were assessed. Longitudinal analysis was performed and compared to healthy adults. RESULTS Foals at one week and 6 months of age had significantly higher TNCC than adults (medians: 320/μL, 285/μL, and 90/μL, respectively); no differences in total protein were found. Foals at one month had the highest proportion of macrophages (median: 87.3%), differing significantly from both yearlings and adults (medians: 45.5% and 48.7%, respectively). Foals aged one week and one month had significantly lower proportions of lymphocytes than yearlings and adults (medians: 3.2% and 4.7% vs 43.2% and 45.8%, respectively). Eosinophil percentage was lowest in foals aged one week, one month, and 2 months (median: 0.0%) and highest in foals aged 6 months (median: 2.2%). Mast cell percentages were highest in yearlings and adults (medians: 2.2% and 3.3%, respectively) and neutrophil percentage was highest in foals aged one week (13.7%). CONCLUSIONS Cytologic profiles of BALF from foals and adult horses differed considerably. Significant changes in TNCC and percentages of lymphocytes, macrophages, and eosinophils occurred with age.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sandra K Clark
- Departments of Veterinary Microbiology and Preventive Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
| | - Jessica M Gilbertie
- Departments of Veterinary Microbiology and Preventive Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
| | - Sarah A Wiechert
- Departments of Veterinary Microbiology and Preventive Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
| | - Doug E Jones
- Departments of Veterinary Pathology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
| | - Brett A Sponseller
- Departments of Veterinary Microbiology and Preventive Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
- Departments of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
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Hansen S, Baptiste K, Fjeldborg J, Horohov D. A review of the equine age-related changes in the immune system: comparisons between human and equine aging, with focus on lung-specific immune-aging. Ageing Res Rev 2015; 20:11-23. [PMID: 25497559 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2014.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2014] [Revised: 10/04/2014] [Accepted: 12/02/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The equine aging process involves many changes to the immune system that may be related to genetics, the level of nutrition, the environment and/or an underlying subclinical disease. Geriatric horses defined as horses above the age of 20, exhibit a decline in body condition, muscle tone and general well-being. It is not known whether these changes contribute to decreased immune function or are the result of declining immune function. Geriatric years are characterized by increased susceptibility to infections and a reduced antibody response to vaccination as a result of changes in the immune system. Humans and horses share many of these age-related changes, with only a few differences. Thus, inflamm-aging and immunosenescence are well-described phenomena in both human and equine research, particularly in relation to the peripheral blood and especially the T-cell compartment. However, the lung is faced with unique challenges because of its constant interaction with the external environment and thus may not share similarities to peripheral blood when considering age-related changes in immune function. Indeed, recent studies have shown discrepancies in cytokine mRNA and protein expression between the peripheral blood and bronchoalveolar lavage immune cells. These results provide important evidence that age-related immune changes or 'dys-functions' are organ-specific.
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Fultz L, Giguère S, Berghaus LJ, Grover GS, Merritt DA. Pulmonary pharmacokinetics of desfuroylceftiofur acetamide after nebulisation or intramuscular administration of ceftiofur sodium to weanling foals. Equine Vet J 2014; 47:473-7. [DOI: 10.1111/evj.12316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2014] [Accepted: 06/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- L. Fultz
- Department of Large Animal Medicine; College of Veterinary Medicine; University of Georgia; Athens USA
| | - S. Giguère
- Department of Large Animal Medicine; College of Veterinary Medicine; University of Georgia; Athens USA
| | - L. J. Berghaus
- Department of Large Animal Medicine; College of Veterinary Medicine; University of Georgia; Athens USA
| | - G. S. Grover
- Metabolism and Safety; Zoetis; Kalamazoo Michigan USA
| | - D. A. Merritt
- Metabolism and Safety; Zoetis; Kalamazoo Michigan USA
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Berghaus LJ, Giguère S, Sturgill TL. Effects of age and macrophage lineage on intracellular survival and cytokine induction after infection with Rhodococcus equi. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2014; 160:41-50. [PMID: 24736188 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2014.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2013] [Revised: 02/20/2014] [Accepted: 03/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Rhodococcus equi, a facultative intracellular pathogen of macrophages, causes life-threatening pneumonia in foals and in people with underlying immune deficiencies. As a basis for this study, we hypothesized that macrophage lineage and age would affect intracellular survival of R. equi and cytokine induction after infection. Monocyte-derived and bronchoalveolar macrophages from 10 adult horses and from 10 foals (sampled at 1-3 days, 2 weeks, 1 month, 3 months, and 5 months of age) were infected ex vivo with virulent R. equi. Intracellular R. equi were quantified and mRNA expression of IL-1β, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12 p40, IL-18, IFN-γ, and TNF-α was measured. Intracellular replication of R. equi was significantly (P<0.001) greater in bronchoalveolar than in monocyte-derived macrophages, regardless of age. Regardless of the macrophage lineage, replication of R. equi was significantly (P=0.002) higher in 3-month-old foals than in 3-day old foals, 2-week-old foals, 1-month-old foals, and adult horses. Expression of IL-4 mRNA was significantly higher in monocyte-derived macrophages whereas expression of IL-6, IL-18, and TNF-α was significantly higher in bronchoalveolar macrophages. Induction of IL-1β, IL-10, IL-12 p40, and IL-8 mRNA in bronchoalveolar macrophages of 1-3-day old foals was significantly higher than in older foals or adult horses. Preferential intracellular survival of R. equi in bronchoalveolar macrophages of juvenile horses may play a role in the pulmonary tropism of the pathogen and in the window of age susceptibility to infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Londa J Berghaus
- Department of Large Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, United States
| | - Steeve Giguère
- Department of Large Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, United States.
| | - Tracy L Sturgill
- Department of Large Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, United States
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Hansen S, Sun L, Baptiste KE, Fjeldborg J, Horohov DW. Age-related changes in intracellular expression of IFN-γ and TNF-α in equine lymphocytes measured in bronchoalveolar lavage and peripheral blood. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2013; 39:228-233. [PMID: 23219905 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2012.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2012] [Revised: 11/20/2012] [Accepted: 11/20/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Diseases of the lower airways represent some of the most common conditions affecting horses of all ages, but the type and severity tends to follow the horses' age. The age-related dysregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines may, in part contribute to the development of the diseases. Therefore, we hypothesize that the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines increases with age. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) and bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) cells from clinically healthy horses of different ages were used for the investigation. The cells were stimulated and the production of IFN-γ and TNF-α measured using flow cytometry. The frequency of IFN-γ producing lymphocytes in both BAL and PBMCs from old horses was significantly increased compared to the young horses. The age-related increase of TNF-α production was also found in PBMCs but not in BAL cells. In conclusion, the productions of certain pro-inflammatory cytokine are age-associated. This age-associated increase of pro-inflammatory cytokines production may be a co-factor for the pathogenesis of equine airway diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanni Hansen
- Department of Large Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Taastrup, Denmark.
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Sun L, Adams AA, Page AE, Betancourt A, Horohov DW. The effect of environment on interferon-gamma production in neonatal foals. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2011; 143:170-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2011.06.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2011] [Revised: 05/19/2011] [Accepted: 06/20/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Tallmadge RL, McLaughlin K, Secor E, Ruano D, Matychak MB, Flaminio MJBF. Expression of essential B cell genes and immunoglobulin isotypes suggests active development and gene recombination during equine gestation. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2009; 33:1027-1038. [PMID: 19442687 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2009.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2008] [Revised: 04/30/2009] [Accepted: 05/03/2009] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Many features of the equine immune system develop during fetal life, yet the naïve or immature immune state of the neonate renders the foal uniquely susceptible to particular pathogens. RT-PCR and immunohistochemical experiments investigated the progressive expression of developmental B cell markers and immunoglobulins in lymphoid tissues from equine fetus, pre-suckle neonate, foal, and adult horses. Serum IgM, IgG isotype, and IgA concentrations were also quantified in pre-suckle foals and adult horses. The expression of essential B cell genes suggests active development and gene recombination during equine gestation, including immunoglobulin isotype switching. The corresponding production of IgM and IgG proteins is detectable in a limited scale at birth. Although the equine neonate humoral response seems competent, B cell activation factors derived from antigen presenting cells and T cells may control critical developmental regulation and immunoglobulin production during the initial months of life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca L Tallmadge
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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Venner M, Reinhold B, Beyerbach M, Feige K. Efficacy of azithromycin in preventing pulmonary abscesses in foals. Vet J 2009; 179:301-3. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2007.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2006] [Revised: 08/03/2007] [Accepted: 10/01/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Jacks S, Giguère S, Crawford PC, Castleman WL. Experimental infection of neonatal foals with Rhodococcus equi triggers adult-like gamma interferon induction. CLINICAL AND VACCINE IMMUNOLOGY : CVI 2007; 14:669-77. [PMID: 17409222 PMCID: PMC1951072 DOI: 10.1128/cvi.00042-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Rhodococcus equi is a facultative intracellular pathogen that causes pneumonia in young foals but does not induce disease in immunocompetent adult horses. Clearance of R. equi depends mainly on gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) production by T lymphocytes, whereas the predominance of interleukin 4 (IL-4) is detrimental. Young foals, like neonates of many other species, are generally deficient in the ability to produce IFN-gamma. The objective of this study was to compare the cytokine profiles, as well as cell-mediated and antibody responses, of young foals to those of adult horses following intrabronchial challenge with R. equi. The lymphoproliferative responses of bronchial lymph node (BLN) cells to concanavalin A were significantly higher in foals than in adult horses. In contrast, adult horses had significantly higher lymphoproliferative responses to R. equi antigens than did foals. Infected foals had significantly lower IL-4 mRNA expression but significantly higher IFN-gamma expression and IFN-gamma/IL-4 ratio in R. equi-stimulated BLN lymphocytes than did infected adults. Infection with R. equi in foals resulted in a significant increase in the percentage of T lymphocytes and CD4(+) T lymphocytes in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid in association with a significant decrease in the percentage of these cell populations in BLNs. Infection of foals also resulted in a marked increase in serum immunoglobulin Ga (IgGa) and IgGb levels, resulting in concentrations in serum that were significantly higher than those of adult horses. This study demonstrates that the immune response to R. equi in foals is not biased toward IL-4 and is characterized by the predominant induction of IFN-gamma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Jacks
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, P.O. Box 100136, 2015 S.W. 16th Ave., Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
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Liebler-Tenorio EM, Pabst R. MALT structure and function in farm animals. Vet Res 2006; 37:257-80. [PMID: 16611547 DOI: 10.1051/vetres:2006001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2005] [Accepted: 09/15/2005] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) is defined as an organized lymphoid tissue in the mucosa that samples antigens. The morphological characteristics that distinguish MALT from lymphoid infiltrates are discussed. MALT has been extensively investigated in laboratory animals, while knowledge in cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and horses that are summarized under the term farm animals in this review is fragmentary. Literature data about the distribution, morphology, function and involvement in infectious diseases of MALT in farm animals are described. The understanding of specific features of MALT in other species than laboratory animals is important for comparative research, in order to understand pathological and immunological processes in the respective species and as a potential route of vaccination of mucosal surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabeth M Liebler-Tenorio
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Naumburger Str. 96 a, 07743 Jena, Germany.
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Abstract
Foals live in an environment heavily populated by bacteria, many of which are capable of causing disease. Development of infection,however, is the exception rather than the rule. The ability of the foal to prevent infection by most pathogens is the result of a sophisticated set of defense mechanisms. These defense mechanisms can be divided into adaptive and innate immunity. Innate immunity encompasses defense mechanisms that pre-exist or are rapidly induced within hours of exposure to a pathogen. Conversely, adaptive or acquired immunity represents host defenses mediated by T and B lymphocytes, each expressing a highly specific antigen receptor and exhibiting memory during a second encounter with a given antigen. Immunologic disorders are relatively common in foals compared with their occurrence in adult horses. This article summarizes the current understanding of the equine fetal and neonatal immune system and reviews common immunodeficiency disorders as well as disorders resulting from allogenic incompatibilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steeve Giguère
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, PO Box 100136, Southwest 16th Avenue, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA.
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Chaffin MK, Cohen ND, Martens RJ, Edwards RF, Nevill M, Smith R. Hematologic and immunophenotypic factors associated with development of Rhodococcus equi pneumonia of foals at equine breeding farms with endemic infection. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2004; 100:33-48. [PMID: 15182994 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2004.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2003] [Revised: 01/05/2004] [Accepted: 02/25/2004] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Rhodococcus equi causes severe pyogranulomatous pneumonia in foals and in immunocompromised people. In mice, both CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes contribute to host defense against R. equi, but CD4+ T lymphocytes are required for pulmonary clearance of the bacteria. In this prospective study of 208 foals at two equine breeding farms with endemic R. equi infections, we collected peripheral blood samples at 2 and 4 weeks of age and at the time of diagnosis of R. equi pneumonia. Samples were analyzed for concentrations of total and differential leukocytes, EqCD4+ and EqCD8+ T lymphocytes, and B lymphocytes. Thirty (14.4%) foals developed R. equi pneumonia. At the 2nd week of life, affected foals had significantly lower concentrations of white blood cells (WBC) and segmented neutrophils, significantly lower proportions of EqCD4+ T lymphocytes, and significantly higher proportions of EqCD8+ T lymphocytes. The EqCD4:EqCD8 ratio was significantly lower for affected foals. At the 4th week of life, affected foals had significantly lower concentrations of segmented neutrophils and EqCD4+ T lymphocytes than did unaffected foals. The ratio of EqCD4:EqCD8 was significantly lower for affected foals. Two- and 4-week-old foals with ratios of EqCD4:EqCD8<3 were significantly more likely to develop R. equi pneumonia. There was a significant farm effect which diluted our statistical power to detect differences; however; after adjusting for the farm effect, 2-week-old foals with ratios of EqCD4:EqCD8<3 remained significantly more likely to develop R. equi pneumonia. There were no significant differences in immunophenotypic variables between affected foals (at the time of diagnosis) and age-matched control foals. These data suggest that there are hematologic and immunophenotypic differences between affected and unaffected foals during the first 2-4 weeks of life, prior to onset of clinical signs of R. equi pneumonia. These differences may represent important immunologic mechanisms associated with increased susceptibility of individual foals to infection with R. equi. Because there was considerable overlap between values for affected and unaffected foals, we cannot yet recommend immunophenotyping of foals at endemically-infected farms as a clinically useful screening tool to identify foals at increased risk of developing R. equi pneumonia.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Keith Chaffin
- Department of Large Animal Medicine and Surgery, College of Veterinary Medicine, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-4475, USA.
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Robinson NE. International Workshop on Equine Chronic Airway Disease. Michigan State University 16-18 June 2000. Equine Vet J 2001; 33:5-19. [PMID: 11191611 DOI: 10.2746/042516401776767412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 186] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- N E Robinson
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing 48824-1314, USA
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Flaminio MJ, Rush BR, Davis EG, Hennessy K, Shuman W, Wilkerson MJ. Characterization of peripheral blood and pulmonary leukocyte function in healthy foals. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2000; 73:267-85. [PMID: 10713340 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-2427(00)00149-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Studies in infants and foals indicate an age-dependent maturation of peripheral lymphocyte subsets. The age-dependent relationship for maturation of cellular immune responses, such as phagocytosis and lymphocyte responses of the peripheral and pulmonary-derived leukocytes, has not been characterized in foals. Lymphocyte subpopulations, mitogen stimulation response of lymphocytes, lymphokine-activated killing cell activity, phagocytosis and oxidative burst activity, and serum immunoglobulin (Ig) classes G and M concentrations were determined in developing foals. This study illustrates age-dependent changes in immunoglobulin class concentrations, lymphocyte subsets, and EqMHC Class II expression in cells of the peripheral blood and lungs of developing neonatal-to-weanling foals. The increase in peripheral blood and BAL B-lymphocytes and serum immunoglobulins in developing foals suggests expansion of immune cell populations during a time in which environmental pathogen exposure is great. General immune function, mitogenic responses, LAK cell activity, opsonized phagocytosis, and oxidative burst activity of newborns was similar to the adult horse. Total immune-cell numbers, rather than function, seemed to be the limiting factor in the development of the equine neonatal immune system. There was an age-related percent increase in the appearance of pulmonary lymphocytes, but a percent decrease in macrophages. Although development of the respiratory immune system follows changes in the peripheral blood, cellular expansion, activation, and migration may occur at a slower pace, making the respiratory environment susceptible to pathogens prior to optimal immune system maturity.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J Flaminio
- The James A. Baker Institute for Animal Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
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Giguère S, Wilkie BN, Prescott JF. Modulation of cytokine response of pneumonic foals by virulent Rhodococcus equi. Infect Immun 1999; 67:5041-7. [PMID: 10496876 PMCID: PMC96851 DOI: 10.1128/iai.67.10.5041-5047.1999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability of Rhodococcus equi to induce pneumonia in foals depends on the presence of an 85- to 90-kb plasmid. In this study, we evaluated whether plasmid-encoded products mediate virulence by modulating the cytokine response of foals. Foals infected intrabronchially with a virulence plasmid-containing strain of R. equi had similar gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) and interleukin-12 (IL-12) p35 but significantly higher IL-1beta, IL-10, IL-12 p40, and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) mRNA expression in lung tissue compared to foals infected with the plasmid-cured derivative. IFN-gamma mRNA expression levels in CD4+ T lymphocytes isolated from bronchial lymph nodes (BLN) were similar for the two groups of R. equi-infected foals on day 3 postinfection. However, on day 14, in association with pneumonia and marked multiplication of virulent R. equi but with complete clearance of the plasmid-cured derivative, IFN-gamma mRNA expression in BLN CD4+ T lymphocytes was significantly (P < 0.001) higher in foals infected with the plasmid-cured derivative. These results suggests an immunomodulating role for R. equi virulence plasmid-encoded products in downregulating IFN-gamma mRNA expression by CD4+ T lymphocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Giguère
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Canada
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Flaminio MJB, Rush BR, Shuman W. Peripheral Blood Lymphocyte Subpopulations and Immunoglobulin Concentrations in Healthy Foals and Foals with Rhodococcus equi Pneumonia. J Vet Intern Med 1999. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.1999.tb02180.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
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