Effect of Sapthaparna (Alstonia scholaris Linn) in modulating the benzo(a)pyrene-induced forestomach carcinogenesis in mice

Ethnobotanical study of Loloh: Traditional herbal drinks from Bali (Indonesia)

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Loloh are herbal drinks produced and consumed exclusively in Bali (Indonesia) to prevent and treat different ailments. This is the first study to document plants species used as Loloh, reporting the phytochemical components and pharmacological properties of the most cited plants. Documenting the plants used in herbal drinks in Bali by local communities to treat various ailments (providing some information on phytochemistry and pharmacology of the most interesting plants).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Ethnobotanical data were obtained through semi-structured interviews (individual and group discussions) and questionnaires. Plant specimens were collected, identified and made into herbarium vouchers.

RESULTS

A total of 51 plants species (belonging to 32 families) have been documented for their use in the various preparation of Loloh. Different plants and plant parts are used to prepare Loloh to treat heartburn, fever, diarrhea, hypertension, aphthous stomatitis (canker sores), and other minor health problems. These plants are mainly prepared as decoctions, are juiced or simply added to the preparation. The most cited plants (>30 informants) are Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br., Blumea balsamifera (L.) DC., Cinnamomum burmanni Nees ex Bl., and Piper betle L. These plants are well studied with multiple demonstrated pharmacological activities (e.g., antimicrobial, anticancer, antidiabetic).

CONCLUSION

The Balinese communities still preserve a rich ethnobotanical knowledge. Several species are well known for their pharmacological properties, but some [such as Pneumatopteris callosa (Blume) Nakai and Dendrocnide stimulans (L. f.) Chew] are understudied and could be promising candidates for further research.

Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. and Alstonia macrophylla Wall. ex G. Don: A comparative review on traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. and Alstonia macrophylla Wall. ex G. Don are two vital medicinal plant species (family: Apocynaceae). In India, the therapeutic use of Alstonia scholaris has been described in both codified and non-codified drug systems for the treatment of malaria, jaundice, gastrointestinal troubles, cancer and in many other ailments. Other species, Alstonia macrophylla has been used in conventional medicines in Thailand, Malaysia and Philippines as a general tonic, aphrodisiac, anticholeric, antidysentery, antipyretic, emmenagogue, and vulnerary agents. In India, Alstonia macrophylla is used as a substitute for Alstonia scholaris in various herbal pharmaceutical preparations. However, one certainly cannot evaluate the truthfulness of a practice (i.e. in scientific terms). In this article we discuss and summarize comparative data about traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicity of Alstonia scholaris and Alstonia macrophylla. Moreover, in order to unfold future research opportunities, lacunae in the present knowledge are also highlighted.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Literature about Alstonia scholaris and Alstonia macrophylla was collected by using electronic and library search. Additionally, referred books on traditional medicine and ethnopharmacology were also utilized for receiving traditional records about both the plant species.

RESULTS

Both Alstonia scholaris and Alstonia macrophylla are rich in different types of bioactive alkaloids. So far, broad spectrum of in vitro and in vivo biological and pharmacological activities have been reported to both the species. Amongst them, antimicrobial and anticancer activities were promising.

CONCLUSIONS

The use of Alstonia macrophylla as a substitute for Alstonia scholaris is not at all justifiable as both the species are distinct from each other in their phytochemistry and pharmacology. Further detail chemical fingerprinting and metabolic studies of these two species are warranted to prevent their mutual adulteration most importantly in the context of commercial preparations.

Ethnopharmacological survey of medicinal plants used by traditional healers in Bangladesh for gastrointestinal disorders

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Gastrointestinal diseases are common worldwide, including Bangladesh where majority of the rural people depend on water from unprotected sources. The people from Bangladesh use medicinal plants as their first line of health care to cure and prevent different types of gastrointestinal disorders.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To compile plants used for the treatment of different gastrointestinal disorders in Bangladesh.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The field survey was carried out in a period of 18 months. Fieldwork was undertaken in total of eleven districts of Bangladesh. Open-ended and semi structured questionnaire were used to interview a total of 1280 people including traditional healers, Ayurvedic/Unani drug manufacturers and local people.

RESULTS

A total of 250 plant species of 93 families were listed. Leaves were the most cited plant part used against gastrointestinal disorders. Most of the reported species were tree in nature and decoction is the mode of preparation of major portions of the plant species. Most of the plant species were very common and were cultivated or planted in homestead or roadsides. The doses of the plants for different treatments varied widely.

CONCLUSION

In view of the fact that the plants were selected based on their medicinal usage for treating different kinds of gastrointestinal diseases including diarrhoea, the activities reported here need more works for validation and could be rationalised by the presence of active compounds found in those plants. The documentation represents the preliminary information in need of future phytochemical investigation and is important for the conservation of these plants.

Effect of combined pollution of chromium and benzo(a)pyrene on seed growth of Lolium perenne

The single and joint effects of chromium (Cr) and benzo (a) pyrene (B (a) P) on the seed germination and the elongation of root and shoot of Lolium perenne were investigated. Seed germination represents the first important step to effective phytoremediation. Young seedlings may be susceptible to PAH and heavy metal contaminants. The results showed that in solution, increasing concentration of Cr could inhibit the germination rate as well as root and shoot elongation of L. perenne. Also, the increasing concentration of B (a) P (1-4 mg L(-1)) could accelerate the germination rate. The joint toxicity of Cr and B (a) P showed that increasing concentration of Cr and B (a) P had significant antagonistic effect on the germination rate of L. perenne. In the single factor experiments and joint effect tests of Cr and B (a) P on the seedling growth, the root and shoot elongation were inhibited significantly (p<0.05) for higher concentration of Cr whereas increasing concentration of B (a) P accelerated the shoot elongation. There were significant relationships between the concentration of pollutants and root and shoot elongation (p<0.05). Higher concentration of B (a) P with low concentration of Cr had significant antagonistic effect on shoot and root elongation of L. perenne in solution tests. Also, low concentration of B (a) P with increasing concentration of Cr had a significant synergistic effect on shoot elongation. The toxicity effects of Cr and B (a) P to seed germination, root and shoot elongation are-root elongation>shoot elongation>germination rate.

Ethnobotanical survey of Purulia district, West Bengal, India for medicinal plants used against gastrointestinal disorders

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

An ethnobotanical survey was conducted in the remote hills, forests and rural areas of Purulia, one of the tribal rich districts of the West Bengal state of eastern India. Purulia is a part of the biogeographic zone Deccan Peninsula Chhotonagpur. The authors have reported the use of medicinal plants by nine tribes of the district against various gastrointestinal disorders.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Semi structured questionnaire was used during the interview with the informants having traditional botanical knowledge. Bhumijs, Birhor, Gond, Ho, Kharia, Mal Pahariya, Mundas, Oraon and Santhali represent the various aboriginal groups present in the district. The use of medicinal plants were documented using an interview data sheet mentioning the names, age, profession and gender of the informants and scientific and vernacular names, families, part(s) used, disease(s) treated, method of preparation, mode of administration of the botanicals and the preparations.

RESULTS

A total number of 56 plants belonging to 29 families have been reported to be used against different types of gastrointestinal disorders viz. indigestion, stomach pain, vomiting tendency, constipation, piles, diarrhea, dysentery, cholera, loss of appetite, liver complaints, intestinal worms etc. Fabaceae and Apocynaceae were found to be the dominant families of medicinal plants used to treat such ailments.

CONCLUSION

Age, gender, literacy and profession of the aboriginals were found to be the significant factors when the traditional knowledge of medicinal botanicals was concerned. Due to urbanization and loss of biodiversity, the authors have noted a significant decrease in the ethnic knowledge as well as the botanicals. Preservation of folklore should be given utmost importance in this region to prevent the rapid loss of ethnobotanical wealth.

Review of the phytochemical, pharmacological and toxicological properties of Alstonia Scholaris Linn. R. Br (Saptaparna)

The use of ethnornedical information has immensely contributed to health care, and scientific studies have shown that the evaluation of traditionally used medicines may provide leads towards effective drug discovery. Since antiquity, Alstonia scholaris connmonly known as devil's tree has been used for the treatment of many human ailments. Literature suggests that Alstonia scholaris is useful in treating malaria, abdominal disorders, dyspepsia, leprosy, skin diseases, tumors, chronic and foul ulcers, asthma, bronchitis, helminthiasis, agalactia, and debility. Preclinical studies have shown that it possesses anti-microbial, anti-diarrhoeal, anti-plasmodial, anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory hepatoprotective, nootrophic, anti-stress, anti-fertility, immunomodulatory, analgesic, anti-ulcer, wound healing, anti-cancer, chemopreventive, radiation protection, radiation sensitization, and chemosensitization activities. The diverse pharmacological observations are supposed to be due to the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids and phenolic acids. The bark and leaf extract when administered orally did not induce lethality or adverse affects at the limit doses of 2 000 mg/kg body weight. However when administered intraperitoneally at high concentrations, the extract showed systemic and developmental toxicities. This review addresses the experimentally authenticated facts and also suggests the need for research on chemical and pharmacological properties of Alstonia scholaris.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and digestive tract cancers: a perspective

Cancers of the colon are most common in the Western world. In majority of these cases, there is no familial history and sporadic gene damage seems to play an important role in the development of tumors in the colon. Studies have shown that environmental factors, especially diet, play an important role in susceptibility to gastrointestinal (GI) tract cancers. Consequently, environmental chemicals that contaminate food or diet during preparation become important in the development of GI cancers. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are one such family of ubiquitous environmental toxicants. These pollutants enter the human body through consumption of contaminated food, drinking water, inhalation of cigarette smoke, automobile exhausts, and contaminated air from occupational settings. Among these pathways, dietary intake of PAHs constitutes a major source of exposure in humans. Although many reviews and books on PAHs and their ability to cause toxicity and breast or lung cancer have been published, aspects on contribution of diet, smoking and other factors toward development of digestive tract cancers, and strategies to assess risk from exposure to PAHs have received much less attention. This review, therefore, focuses on dietary intake of PAHs in humans, animal models, and cell cultures used for GI cancer studies along with epidemiological findings. Bioavailability and biotransformation processes, which influence the disposition of PAHs in body and the underlying causative mechanisms of GI cancers, are also discussed. The existing data gaps and scope for future studies is also emphasized. This information is expected to stimulate research on mechanisms of sporadic GI cancers caused by exposure to environmental carcinogens.

Micronucleus assays in rodent tissues other than bone marrow

This report updates previous reviews that were conducted as part of the third and fourth International Workshops on Genetic Toxicology Testing of micronucleus (MN) assays in rodent tissues other than bone marrow. Tissues discussed here are liver, lung, skin, colon, spleen, testes and foetal/neonatal tissues with transplacental exposure. Previous reviews have been updated to include literature published after 2000. In addition to the previously described tissues, MN assays in bladder, buccal mucosal cells, stomach and vagina are also included. MN assays using tissues other than bone marrow are critical for risk assessments, for in situ evaluation and for studies of systemic genotoxic effects and modes of action. Protocols for the majority of assays in tissues other than bone marrow have not yet been well standardised and validated for regulatory application, and further development is needed to support regulatory studies.

Phytoremediation for co-contaminated soils of benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) and heavy metals using ornamental plant Tagetes patula

Pot-culture experiments were conducted to investigate the single effect of benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) and the joint effect of metal-B[a]P on the growth of Tagetes patula and its uptake, accumulation and dissipation of heavy metals and B[a]P. Results showed that the low concentration of B[a]P (≤10 mg kg(-1)) could facilitate plant growth and resulted in an increase in biomass at the rate of 10.0-49.7% relative to the control. There were significantly positive correlations between the concentrations of B[a]P accumulated in tissues of the plants and soil B[a]P (P<0.001). However, the occurrence of Cd, Cu and Pb had inhibitive effects on plant growth and B[a]P uptake and accumulation on the whole. T. patula still exhibited a steady feature of Cd-hyperaccumulator under combined contaminated soils. By contrast, the effectiveness of Cu and Pb absorption in the plants was very weak. Plant-promoted biodegradation of B[a]P was the dominant contribution, 79.2-92.4% and 78.2-92.9% of dissipation of B[a]P came from plant-biodegradation under single B[a]P and metal-B[a]P contaminated soils, respectively. Therefore, T. patula might be useful for phytoremediation of B[a]P and B[a]P-Cd contaminated sites.

Alstonia scholaris Linn R Br in the treatment and prevention of cancer: past, present, and future

Alstonia scholaris, commonly known as devil's tree, is an important medicinal plant in the various folk and traditional systems of medicine in Asia, Australia, and Africa. The decoction, mostly prepared from the bark, is used to treat a variety of diseases of which the most important is malaria. Furthermore, ethnomedicinal practices also suggest it to be of use in treating cancer, and preclinical studies performed with cultured neoplastic cells and tumor-bearing animals having validated these observations. Additionally, the phytochemicals like echitamine, alstonine, pleiocarpamine, O-methylmacralstonine, macralstonine, and lupeol are also reported to possess antineoplastic effects. In addition to the cytotoxic effects, A scholaris is also observed to possess radiomodulatory, chemomodulatory, and chemopreventive effects and free-radical scavenging, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimutagenic, and immunomodulatory activities, all of which are properties efficacious in the treatment and prevention of cancer. The current review for the first time summarizes the results related to these properties. An attempt is also made to address the lacunae in these published studies and emphasize aspects that need further investigations for it to be of use in clinics in the future.

Azadirachta indica modulates carcinogen biotransformation and reduced glutathione at peri-initiation phase of benzo(a)pyrene induced murine forestomach tumorigenesis

The present study evaluated the effects of aqueous Azadirachta indica leaf extract (AAILE) on the activities of certain phase I (cytochrome P450, cytochrome b(5) and aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase) as well as phase II (glutathione-S-transferase and UDP-glucuronosyl transferase) biotransformation enzymes; and reduced glutathione (GSH) (in forestomach and hepatic tissues) during/after intra-gastric instillations of B(a)P in murine forestomach tumorigenesis bioassay protocol. The activities of phase I biotransformation enzymes were found to increase, whereas a decrease in GSH content as well as glutathione-S-transferase was observed in mice receiving only B(a)P during as well as 2 weeks after B(a)P instillations. The activity of UDP-glucuronosyltransferase decreased during B(a)P instillations, whereas after the latter, the activity increased when compared with the control mice. However, in mice that received AAILE along with B(a)P instillations, a decrease in phase I enzymes was accompanied by an increase in phase II enzymes as well as GSH contents. Only AAILE treatment reduced the activities of phase I biotransformation enzymes and enhanced the GSH contents as well as the activities of phase II enzymes. Observations of the present study seem to be quite significant and (when taken together with our earlier findings) provides evidence for A. indica mediated modulation of the peri-initiation phase of the process of forestomach tumorigenesis.

Preventive effects ofAzadirachta indicaon benzo(a)pyrene-DNA adduct formation in murine forestomach and hepatic tissues

In the present investigation, the effects of aqueous Azadirachta indica leaf extract (AAILE) on (3)H-benzo(a)pyrene-DNA [(3)H-B(a)P-DNA] adduct formation, the status of biotransformation enzymes and reduced glutathione (GSH) content were evaluated in the forestomach and liver of Balb/c mice. Two weeks of AAILE treatment reduced the (3)H-B(a)P-DNA adduct levels by 31.6% in forestomach tissue. Similarly, (3)H-B(a)P-DNA adduct levels were decreased by 34.7% in the liver of AAILE treated mice compared with their control counterparts. After AAILE treatment, the cytochrome P450 content decreased, whereas the GSH content increased significantly in the hepatic tissue. In the forestomach as well as in the liver, the cytochrome b5 content declined, whereas an increase in glutathione-S-transferase (GST) activity was observed in both tissues. These observations suggested that AAILE may have reduced the metabolic activation of (3)H-B(a)P with enhanced detoxification of its active metabolites, hence the observed decrease in the levels of (3)H-B(a)P-DNA adducts. These molecular and biochemical modulations observed at the initiation phase of carcinogenesis seems to be significant and could be correlated with the chemopreventive effects of A. indica against B(a)P induced forestomach tumorigenesis.

Chemomodulatory effects of Azadirachta indica on the hepatic status of skin tumor bearing mice

The liver plays an important role in the modulation of the process of carcinogenesis, as it is the primary site for the biotransformation of xenobiotics including carcinogens as well as anticancer drugs. The present study was designed to evaluate the biochemical alterations occurring in the liver of 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene (DMBA) induced skin tumor bearing male Balb/c mice and their modulation by aqueous Azadirachta indica leaf extract (AAILE). It was observed that skin tumor induction caused hepatic damage characterized by a decreased hepatosomatic index and significantly increased (p < 0.001) activities of the hepatic tissue injury marker enzymes, namely alkaline phosphatase, alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase. However, upon treatment with AAILE, the above-mentioned alterations, including the increased activities of hepatic tissue injury marker enzymes, were significantly reversed, which signified the hepato-protective efficacy of Azadirachta indica. Increased oxidative stress was also observed in the hepatic tissue of skin tumor bearing mice as revealed by a significant increase (p < 0.001) in lipid peroxidation levels and a decrease in reduced glutathione contents and activities of various antioxidant enzymes studied, namely glutathione-S-transferase, glutathione peroxidase and glutathione reductase. The AAILE treatment reduced oxidative stress by decreasing lipid peroxidation levels and enhancing the reduced glutathione contents and activities of various antioxidant enzymes. The activities of the xenobiotic biotransformation enzymes, namely cytochrome P450, cytochrome b5 and glutathione-S-transferase, were found to be decreased in the hepatic tissue of tumor bearing mice. Treatment with AAILE further caused a decrease in the activity of cytochrome P450 and cytochrome b5, whereas it up-regulated the activity of glutathione-S-transferase. The significance of these observations with respect to the progress of the process of carcinogenesis is explained in the present research article.

Chemopreventive effects of aloe against genotoxicity induced by benzo[a]pyrene

Chemopreventive effects of aloe against benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) mutagenicity were investigated in the Salmonella typhimurium bacterial mutation assay, the chromosome aberration assay using Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells, and the mouse micronuclei test using bone-marrow cells. In the bacterial assay, aloe produced a concentration-dependent decrease in the number of mutant colonies induced by BaP. The chromosome-damaging responses of BaP in CHO cells were abolished by treatment with aloe, approximately to the level seen in control. In the in vivo mouse bone-marrow micronuclei test, pretreatment of aloe 24 h prior to BaP treatment reduced the frequency of micronucleated polychromatic erythrocytes. In the cells of CHO and bone marrow treated with aloe, glutathione (GSH) levels were shown to be higher and extracellular discharge rate increased as incubation time with aloe rose. MDR1 and MRP2 gene were more expressed in Hepa c cells than in NTCC cells, but there was no change in BCRP gene expression. The antimutagenic effects of aloe were statistically significant and concentration dependent. These results demonstrated that aloe might exert chemopreventive effects against BaP-induced mutagenicity.

Age-related changes in oxidative DNA damage and benzo(a)pyrene diolepoxide-I (BPDE-I)-DNA adduct levels in human stomach

This study was conducted in order to obtain information on the association between age and oxidative DNA damage and benzo[a]pyrene diolepoxide-I (BPDE-I)-DNA adduct levels in the stomach tissues of normal subjects (n = 113). Subjects ranged from 17 to 75 yr. The levels of 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), a biomarker of oxidative DNA damage, were measured by high-performance liquid chromatography-electrochemical detector (HPLC-ECD). BPDE-I-DNA adduct levels were quantitatively measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) using the monoclonal antibody 8E11. Increase in 8-OHdG levels was observed in subjects from 31 to 60 yr of age. Higher levels of 8-OHdG were observed in the stomach tissues of those in the 51-60 yr old group. Although Helicobacter. Pylori-positive group subjects had higher 8-OHdG levels than those in the H. pylori-negative group, no age-related changes in 8-OHdG levels were observed in these groups. The levels of BPDE-I-DNA adduct also markedly increased with age. Higher levels of BPDE-I-DNA adduct were observed in subjects aged 61-70 yr, but this difference was not significant from other age groups. These results provide evidence that there is a progressive age-dependent accumulation of oxidative DNA damage and of BPDE-I-DNA adducts in human stomach tissues. It is possible that such damage contributes to the known increased incidence of gastric tumor with aging.

Inhibitory effects of polysaccharides isolated from Phellinus gilvus on benzo(a)pyrene-induced forestomach carcinogenesis in mice

AIM: Although polysaccharides from Phellinus mushrooms are a well-known material with anti-tumor properties, there is no information about the effect of polysaccharides from Phellinus gilvus (PG) on tumor. The modulating effect of polysaccharides isolated from PG on the benzo(a)pyrene (BaP)-induced forestomach carcinogenesis in ICR female mice was investigated in this study.

METHODS: A forestomach carcinogenesis model was established in 40 ICR female mice receiving oral administration of BaP for 4 wk. The mice were randomly assigned to 4 groups (10 each). The mice in each group were treated with sterile water or PG for 4 and 8 wk (SW4, PGW4, SW8, and PGW8 groups). Eight or 12 wk after the first dose of BaP, forestomachs were removed for histopathological and RT-PCR analysis.

RESULTS: In histopathological changes and RT-PCR analysis, sterile water-treated mice showed significant hyperplasia of the gastric mucosa with a significantly increased expression of mutant p53 mRNA compared to mice treated with PG for 8 wk.

CONCLUSION: Polysaccharides isolated from PG may inhibit BaP-induced forestomach carcinogenesis in mice bydown-regulating mutant p53 expression.

The effect of seasonal variation on the antineoplastic activity of Alstonia scholaris R. Br. in HeLa cells

In order to evaluate the seasonal variation as well as cytotoxicity of different fractions of Alstonia scholaris R. Br. (ASE), the HeLa cells were treated with different doses of various fractions of ASE collected in monsoon, winter and summer. The exposure of HeLa cells to different extracts prepared from the stem bark collected in monsoon, winter and summer seasons resulted in a dose dependent increase in the cell killing effect of ASE and the highest cell killing effect was observed for the extract prepared from the summer collections. Similarly, treatment of HeLa cells with different doses of various fractions of the Alstonia scholaris extract viz. residue (ASERS), steroidal (ASEST), chloroform (ASECH), petroleum ether (ASEPE), diethyl ether (ASEDE), ethyl acetate (ASEEA), n-butanol (ASENB), aqueous (ASEAQ) and echitamine chloride (ECL) also resulted in a dose dependent decline in the cell viability, where the greatest cytotoxic effect was observed for residue (ASERS), followed by the whole extract (ASE) and chloroform (ASECH) fraction, while the least activity was observed for the steroidal (ASEST) fraction. The cytotoxicity declined ASERS > ASE > ASECH >ECL > ASEEA > ASEDE > ASEPE > ASENB > ASEAQ > ASEST in order. Our study demonstrates that the extract prepared from the summer collection, and the fractions containing the alkaloids were highly effective in cell killing. The extract of ASE was more powerful than the active principle echitamine present in ASE.

Cancer—an ayurvedic perspective

An integrated approach is needed to manage cancer using the growing body of knowledge gained through scientific developments. Thousands of herbal and traditional compounds are being screened worldwide to validate their use as anti-cancerous drugs. The science of Ayurveda is supposed to add a step on to the curative aspects of cancers that have resemblance with clinical entities of arbuda and granthi mentioned in Sushrutha samhita. Hence, an attempt is made in this review to discuss about the pathology and therapeutic management of various cancers described in Ayurveda. Review of literature on anticancer drugs of plant origin revealed identification of newer ayurvedic drugs that are not mentioned in the ancient texts. These new findings add up to ayurvedic science that has been developed through ages. In addition, details of experimental and clinical studies conducted on single and compound ayurvedic preparations for their anticancer efficacy strongly emphasize ayurvedic therapy as a scientifically driven one and not simply unconventional.