Lipid peroxidative damage on pyrethroid exposure and alterations in antioxidant status in rat erythrocytes: a possible involvement of reactive oxygen species

Investigation of the therapeutic effect of melatonin on deltamethrin applied mouse primary hepatocyte culture

OBJECTIVE

In recent years, it has been known that the melatonin hormone, secreted from the pineal gland, possesses significant antioxidant activity. This study explores the therapeutic effect of melatonin on the deleterious effects of deltamethrin, a pyrethroid pesticide extensively used worldwide, including in Türkiye, on mouse liver cells.

METHODS

Hepatocytes from Balb/C mice were isolated using a two-stage perfusion method, resulting in over 85% live hepatocytes. The isolated cells were cultured with different doses of deltamethrin (1 and 10 µM) and melatonin (100 µM) for 24 and 48 hours. At the conclusion of the culture period, hepatocytes were extracted at the 24th and 48th hours, and Malondialdehyde (MDA), Total Antioxidant Capacity (TAC), Total Oxidation Status (TOS), and DNA damages (8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG)) were examined.

RESULTS

While an increase in MDA, TOS, and DNA damage was observed in the deltamethrin-administered groups of hepatocytes, a decrease in TAC level was noted. It was determined that the applied deltamethrin had no effect on cell viability throughout the application period.

CONCLUSION

Furthermore, it was observed that melatonin, when administered concurrently with deltamethrin, reduced the toxic effect of deltamethrin. This study suggests that melatonin has a protective effect against deltamethrin-induced damage in mouse hepatocyte cells.

The clinical importance and correlations of post-partum changes in the clinical findings, reproductive cyclicity, serum-milk oxidant/antioxidant parameters as a stress indicator in female dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) and their effect on milk palatability

Dramatic metabolic changes during pregnancy and post-partum period resulted in alteration of the biochemical parameters in dromedary she-camels. The current study focused on assessment of stress indicators in post-partum dromedary she-camels on days 14, 28 and 42 post-calving through monitoring the clinical findings, serum steroid hormones, serum or milk oxidant/antioxidant indicators, and milk somatic cell count (SCC) status with reference to serum lipid profile changes. The study also stated several correlations between reproductive cyclicity parameters, stress biomarkers and serum-milk oxidant/antioxidant indicators. The study was conducted on clinically healthy recently calved she-camels (n = 25). They were subjected to clinical and laboratory assays including lipid profiles, serum steroid hormones [Progesterone (P4) and estradiol (E2)], serum or milk oxidant/antioxidant biomarkers [Malondialdehyde (MDA), reduced glutathione (GSH) and cortisol], and milk SCC on days 14, 21 and 28 post-calving. The study concluded the influence of stress as a result of lactation in post-partum period in recently calved she-camels and its relationship with reproductive cyclicity as well as changes in serum steroids, lipid profiles, serum-milk oxidant/antioxidants parameters, and milk SCC that was reflected through significant elevations in serum levels of P4, E2, cortisol, MDA and glucose, and milk values of MDA, cortisol and SCC as well as significant drop in serum levels of GSH, TPs, albumins and globulins on day 14 post-calving comparing with their values particularly on day 42. The study stated variable correlation relationships between reproductive cyclicity parameters, lipid profiles, serum-milk oxidant/antioxidants parameters and milk SCC.

Sex comparison of oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and apoptosis triggers induced by single-dose Abamectin in albino rats

Abamectin (AB) is widely used in agriculture and has been employed as an insecticide, nematicide, and livestock pest control agent. However, it may also pose a serious threat to mammals. The primary purpose of this research was to compare the sex variations between male and female rats during exposure and to assess the risk of toxicity of abamectin, which are still largely unknown. The twenty albino rats were divided randomly into four groups (n = 5): 1) the male control group; 2) the male treatment group treated with AB (1 mg/kg B.W.); 3) the female control group; and 4) the female treatment group treated with AB (1 mg/kg B.W.). AB administration caused a drop in body weight in females more than males with showing oxidative stress in both sexes of animals, as characterized by an increase in MDA content and a decrease in glutathione (GSH) content and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity. Reported sex-specific effects suggested that females are more susceptible from males in brain tissues for alteration of antioxidant markers while females' liver and kidney tissues showed more level of lipid peroxidation than males. In addition, mitochondrial dysfunction was associated with a significant decrease in NADH dehydrogenase (Complex I) and a significant decrease in mitochondrial ATPase, which led to apoptosis and histopathological alterations in the targeted tissues, indicating that females are higher sensitive than males to these biological events. In brief, the results of this study led to female rats are generally more sensitive than male rats to neurobehavioral and hepatic complications associated with abamectin treatment. Further evaluation should be performed to determine the adverse outcome pathways involved and to determine the effects of sex on improving the risk assessment of abamectin in both sexes.

Biomarkers of oral subacute toxicity of deltamethrin in exposed male Albino rats

Deltamethrin is one of the most effective pyrethroid compounds, widely employed in veterinary medicine, public health, and farming. Deltamethrin-triggered oxidative stress largely causes serious harm to an organism. Acute toxicity of this compound was extensively investigated, while less information is available on its oral sub-acute effects. This study assessed, in the male Albino rats, the effects of oral gavage of either 0.874 mg/kg (0.01 LD50) or 8.740 mg/kg (0.10 LD50) of deltamethrin for successive 14 days to investigate its effects on biomarkers and to detect the tissue injury in rats following subacute deltamethrin treatment. It was found that levels of glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, and catalase in the brain, kidney, and liver, alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and uric acid in serum, hematocrit, mean corpuscular volume (MCV), white blood cells (WBC)s, eosinophils, and basophils were significantly reduced compared with untreated rats. However, when rats were treated with deltamethrin for successive 14 days, alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activities in serum and the levels of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARs) in brain, kidney, and liver, red blood cell distribution width (RDW-CV), total protein, monocytes, and basophils and the ratios of neutrophils to lymphocytes, an aggregated marker of systemic inflammation and systemic immune inflammation indexes, significantly increased compared with the control group. Histologic lesions were observed in the liver, kidney, brain, testis, and epidemies in rats exposed to subacute deltamethrin for 14 days, and most tissues of rats treated with 0.10 LD50 of deltamethrin were more affected than those treated with 0.01 LD50. These findings strongly suggest that subacute exposure to deltamethrin caused significant systemic toxicity through oxidative stress resulting in biochemical and histological changes in the studied tissues. These findings highlight the potential harmful effects of deltamethrin and emphasize the importance of understanding the subacute effects of this compound, particularly in the context of veterinary medicine, public health, and farming.

Oxidative stress and mitochondrial damage in lambda-cyhalothrin toxicity: A comprehensive review of antioxidant mechanisms

Lambda-cyhalothrin, also known as cyhalothrin, is an efficient, broad-spectrum, quick-acting pyrethroid insecticide and acaricide and the most powerful pyrethroid insecticide in the world. However, there is increasing evidence that lambda-cyhalothrin is closely related to a variety of toxicity drawbacks (hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, neurotoxicity and reproductive toxicity, among others) in non-target organisms, and oxidative stress seems to be the main mechanism of toxicity. This manuscript reviews the oxidative and mitochondrial damage induced by lambda-cyhalothrin and the signalling pathways involved in this process, indicating that oxidative stress occupies an important position in lambda-cyhalothrin toxicity. The mechanism of antioxidants to alleviate the toxicity of lambda-cyhalothrin is also discussed. In addition, the metabolites of lambda-cyhalothrin and the major metabolic enzymes involved in metabolic reactions are summarized. This review article reveals a key mechanism of lambda-cyhalothrin toxicity-oxidative damage and suggests that the use of antioxidants seems to be an effective method for preventing toxicity.

Lipid metabolic links between serum pyrethroid levels and the risk of incident type 2 diabetes: A mediation study in the prospective design

Emerging evidence revealed that pyrethroids and circulating lipid metabolites are involved in incident type 2 diabetes (T2D). However, the pyrethroid-associated lipid profile and its potential role in the association of pyrethroids with T2D remain unknown. Metabolome-wide association or mediation analyses were performed among 1006 pairs of T2D cases and matched controls nested within the prospective Dongfeng-Tongji cohort. We identified 59 lipid metabolites significantly associated with serum deltamethrin levels, of which eight were also significantly associated with serum fenvalerate (false discovery rate [FDR] < 0.05). Pathway enrichment analysis showed that deltamethrin-associated lipid metabolites were significantly enriched in the glycerophospholipid metabolism pathway (FDR = 0.02). Furthermore, we also found that several deltamethrin-associated lipid metabolites (i.e., phosphatidylcholine [PC] 32:0, PC 34:4, cholesterol ester 20:0, triacylglycerol 52:5 [18:2]), and glycerophosphoethanolamine-enriched latent variable mediated the association between serum deltamethrin levels and T2D risk, with the mediated proportions being 44.81%, 15.92%, 16.85%, 16.66%, and 22.86%, respectively. Serum pyrethroids, particularly deltamethrin, may lead to an altered circulating lipid profile primarily in the glycerophospholipid metabolism pathway represented by PCs and lysophosphatidylcholines, potentially mediating the association between serum deltamethrin and T2D. The study provides a new perspective in elucidating the potential mechanisms through which pyrethroid exposure might induce T2D.

Mancozeb-induced cytotoxicity in human erythrocytes: enhanced generation of reactive species, hemoglobin oxidation, diminished antioxidant power, membrane damage and morphological changes

Mancozeb is an ethylene bis-dithiocarbamate fungicide extensively used in agriculture to safeguard crops from various fungal diseases. The general population is exposed to mancozeb through consumption of contaminated food or water. Here, we have investigated the effect of mancozeb on isolated human erythrocytes under in vitro conditions. Erythrocytes were treated with different concentrations of mancozeb (0, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100 μM) and incubated for 24 h at 37 °C. Analysis of biochemical parameters and cell morphology showed dose-dependent toxicity of mancozeb in human erythrocytes. Mancozeb treatment caused hemoglobin oxidation and heme degradation. Protein and lipid oxidation were enhanced, while a significant decrease was seen in reduced glutathione and total sulfhydryl content. A significant increase in the generation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species was detected in mancozeb-treated erythrocytes. The antioxidant capacity and the activity of key antioxidant enzymes were greatly diminished, while crucial metabolic pathways were inhibited in erythrocytes. Damage to the erythrocyte membrane on mancozeb treatment was apparent from increased cell lysis and osmotic fragility, along with the impairment of the plasma membrane redox system. Mancozeb also caused morphological alterations and transformed the normal discoid-shaped erythrocytes into echinocytes and stomatocytes. Thus, mancozeb induces oxidative stress in human erythrocytes, impairs the antioxidant defense system, oxidizes cellular components, that will adversely affect erythrocyte structure and function.

Effects of pesticide exposure on oxidative stress and DNA methylation urinary biomarkers in Czech adults and children from the CELSPAC-SPECIMEn cohort

Current-use pesticide (CUP) exposure occurs mainly through diet and environmental application in both agricultural and urban settings. While pesticide exposure has been associated with many adverse health outcomes, the intermediary molecular mechanisms are still not completely elucidated. Among others, their roles in epigenetics (DNA methylation) and DNA damage due to oxidative stress are presumed. Scientific evidence on urinary biomarkers of such body response in general population is limited, especially in children. A total of 440 urine samples (n = 110 parent-child pairs) were collected during the winter and summer seasons in order to describe levels of overall DNA methylation (5-mC, 5-mdC, 5-hmdC, 7-mG, 3-mA) and oxidative stress (8-OHdG) biomarkers and investigate their possible associations with metabolites of pyrethroids (3-PBA, t/c-DCCA), chlorpyrifos (TCPY), and tebuconazole (TEB-OH). Linear mixed-effects models accounting for intraindividual and intrahousehold correlations were utilized. We applied false discovery rate procedure to account for multiplicity and adjusted for potential confounding variables. Higher urinary levels of most biological response biomarkers were measured in winter samples. In adjusted repeated measures models, interquartile range (IQR) increases in pyrethroid metabolites were associated with higher oxidative stress. t/c-DCCA and TCPY were associated with higher urinary levels of cytosine methylation biomarkers (5-mC and/or 5-mdC). The most robust association was observed for tebuconazole metabolite with 3-mA (-15.1% change per IQR increase, 95% CI = -23.6, -5.69) suggesting a role of this pesticide in reduced demethylation processes through possible DNA glycosylase inhibition. Our results indicate an urgent need to extend the range of analyzed environmental chemicals such as azole pesticides (e.g. prothioconazole) in human biomonitoring studies. This is the first study to report urinary DNA methylation biomarkers in children and associations between CUP metabolites and a comprehensive set of biomarkers including methylated and oxidized DNA alterations. Observed associations warrant further large-scale research of these biomarkers and environmental pollutants including CUPs.

Are biopesticides safe for the environment? Effects of pyrethrum extract on the non-target species Daphnia magna

Biopesticides are natural compounds considered more safe and sustainable for the environment. However, it is also important to evaluate the potential risk in non-target organisms. Pyrethrum extract (PE) is a biopesticide, widely used for agriculture, veterinary, and aquaculture. This work aimed to evaluate acute (0.6 - 40.0 µg/L; 96 h; E(L)C₅₀ toxicity) and sub-chronic (0.7 - 1.1 µg/L; 10 d; life-history parameters) effects of PE on Daphnia magna. Moreover, a biomarkers approach using antioxidant and biotransformation capacity, lipid peroxidation (LPO), neurotoxicity, and energy reserves content were evaluated. Acute effects (mortality, changes in swimming behavior, oxidative stress, lipid peroxidation, neurotoxicity) were recorded with the increase in PE concentration. Sub-chronic assay showed an increase in energy reserves content, antioxidant parameters, and LPO demonstrating that PE unbalances oxidative metabolism. This study can conclude that PE potentiates toxic effects in D. magna and demonstrates the vulnerability of a non-target organism to PE that is considered environmentally safe.

Evaluation of biochemical, hematological, and genotoxic parameters in mice exposed to individual and combined ethoprophos and cadmium

Environmental contamination by complex mixtures of pesticides and metals is a major health problem in agriculture and industry. In real life scenarios, we are exposed to mixtures of chemicals rather than single chemicals, and therefore it is critical to assess their toxicity. The current work was conducted to assess the toxic effects of a low dose (2% median lethal dose) of ethoprophos (Etho, 0.16 mg kg^-1 bw), and cadmium (Cd, 0.63 mg kg^-1 bw); each alone or in combination on hematological, biochemical, and genotoxic parameters in male mice for one or four weeks. The tested toxicants resulted in a decline in body and organs weights, the most hematological indices, acetylcholine esterase activity, and the total protein content, while they significantly increased liver and kidney function parameters. Furthermore, they increased the mitotic index (MI), number of abnormal sperms, and chromosomes. In conclusion, Etho and Cd induce deleterious effects on all tested parameters in male mice which reflect more obvious impacts when both combined, particularly after 28 days of exposure. However, further research is needed to confirm toxicokinetic or toxicodynamic interactions between these two toxic compounds in the organisms.

In Vivo and In Silico Investigation of the Anti-Obesity Effects of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum Combined with Chia Seeds, Green Tea, and Chitosan in Alleviating Hyperlipidemia and Inflammation

The increasing prevalence of obesity has become a demanding issue in both high-income and low-income countries. Treating obesity is challenging as the treatment options have many limitations. Recently, diet modification has been commonly applied to control or prevent obesity and its risks. In this study, we investigated novel therapeutic approaches using a combination of a potential probiotic source with prebiotics. Forty-eight adult male Sprague–Dawley rats were selected and divided into seven groups (eight rats per group). The first group was fed a high-fat diet, while the second group was a negative control. The other five groups were orally administered with a probiotic, Lactiplantibacillus plantarum (L. plantarum), and potential prebiotics sources (chia seeds, green tea, and chitosan) either individually or in combination for 45 days. We collected blood samples to analyze the biochemical parameters and dissected organs, including the liver, kidney, and pancreas, to evaluate obesity-related injuries. We observed a more significant decrease in the total body weight by combining these approaches than with individual agents. Moreover, treating the obese rats with this combination decreased serum catalase, superoxide dismutase, and liver malondialdehyde levels. A histopathological examination revealed a reduction in obesity-related injuries in the liver, kidney, and pancreas. Further docking studies indicated the potential role of chia seeds and green tea components in modulating obesity and its related problems. Therefore, we suggest that the daily administration of a pre- and probiotic combination may reduce obesity and its related problems.

Association between serum pyrethroid insecticide levels and incident type 2 diabetes risk: a nested case-control study in Dongfeng-Tongji cohort

Pyrethroid insecticides have been extensively used worldwide, but few studies explored the prospective association between pyrethroid exposure and incident type 2 diabetes (T2D). We conducted a nested case-control study of 2012 paired cases and controls, and measured eight pyrethroid insecticides in the baseline sera. We used conditional logistic regression models to estimate odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals, and constructed multiple-pollutant models to investigate the association of pyrethroid mixture with incident T2D risk. The median concentrations (detection rates) were 3.53 μg/L (92.45%), 0.52 μg/L (99.80%), 1.16 μg/L (90.61%) and 1.43 μg/L (99.95%) for permethrin, cypermethrin, fenvalerate, and deltamethrin, respectively. Compared to participants with serum fenvalerate levels in the first quartile, the multivariable-adjusted ORs of incident T2D were 1.20 (95% CI 0.86-1.67), 1.41 (0.97-2.05), and 2.29 (1.27-4.11) for the second, third and fourth quartile (P trend = 0.01). Spline analysis further confirmed the positive association between serum fenvalerate levels and incident T2D risk (P for overall association = 0.006). Furthermore, mixture models revealed a positive association of pyrethroid mixture with incident T2D risk, with serum fenvalerate ranked as the top contributor (proportion of relative contribution: > 70%). We found that high concentrations of serum pyrethroid insecticides were significantly associated with an increased risk of incident T2D. The elevated risk was largely explained by fenvalerate. Further investigations are urgently needed to confirm our findings and elucidate the underlying mechanisms, given the widespread use of pyrethroids and the global pandemic of diabetes.

Evaluation of hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity induced by Fenpyroximate in subchronic-orally exposed Wistar rats

Backgrounds. Fenpyroximate (FEN) is an acaricide that inhibits the complex I of the mitochondrial respiratory chain. The aim of this work was to explore the hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic effects of FEN on Wistar rats. Methods. The study involved five groups: a control group and four groups treated with FEN at 1, 2, 4, and 8 mg/Kg bw for 28 consecutive days. Histological examination and biochemical analysis of hepatic and renal biomarkers were performed. The malondialdehyde (MDA), protein carbonyl levels, and antioxidant enzymes activities were measured. Comet assay was conducted to explore FEN genotoxicity. Results. FEN induced a disturbance of the hepatic and renal functions as evidenced by an increase in AST, ALT, ALP, creatinine, and uric acid levels and histopathological modifications in the two examined tissues. FEN increased hepatic and renal lipid peroxidation and protein oxidation. The activities of liver and kidney SOD, CAT, GPX, and GST are increased significantly in FEN-treated rats at doses of 2 and 4 mg/kg bw. However, with the dose of 8 mg/kg bw of FEN, these activities are decreased. Moreover, FEN increased DNA damage in a dose-dependent manner. Conclusion. FEN was hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic very likely through induction of oxidative stress.

Challenges of fluoride pollution in environment: Mechanisms and pathological significance of toxicity - A review

Fluoride is an important trace element in the living body. A suitable amount of fluoride has a beneficial effect on the body, but disproportionate fluoride entering the body will affect various organs and systems, especially the liver, kidneys, nervous system, endocrine system, reproductive system, bone, and intestinal system. In recent years, with the rapid development of agriculture and industry, fluoride pollution has become one of the important factors of environmental pollution, and fluoride pollution in any form is becoming a serious problem. Although countries around the world have made great breakthroughs in controlling fluoride pollution, however fluorosis still exists. A large amount of fluoride accumulated in animals will not only produce the toxic effects, but it also causes cell damage and affect the normal physiological activities of the body. There is no systematic description of the damage mechanism of fluoride. Therefore, the study on the toxicity mechanism of fluoride is still in progress. This review summarizes the existing information of several molecular mechanisms of the fluoride toxicity comprehensively, aiming to clarify the toxic mechanism of fluoride on various body systems. We have also summerized the pathological changes of those organ systems after fluoride poisoning in order to provide some ideas and solutions to the reader for the prevention and control of modern fluoride pollution.

Impact of malathion toxicity on the oxidative stress parameters of the black soldier fly Hermetia illucens (Linnaeus, 1758) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae)

The black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) may serve as a promising tool in the animals feed production industry. The input organic wastes may be contaminated by insecticides that affect both the insect’s mass rearing, and the animals feed process. Therefore, in the current study the assessment of oxidative stress parameters of the black soldier fly (BSF) were investigated to quantify the deleterious effect of malathion-contaminated kitchen waste (1:1 vegetable: fruit waste) container on the insect. The different developmental stages of insect (adult and larva) were exposed to different concentrations (0, 0.005, 0.01, 0.015, and 0.02 mg/mL) of malathion. The results showed that the mean value of the reactive oxygen species (ROS), which included hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and superoxide anion radicals (O2^•-) concentrations were lower in larval stage than in adults, in all treated groups (0, 0.005, 0.01, 0.015, and 0.02 mg/mL malathion concentration). Also, the protein carbonyls amount and lipid peroxides levels were decreased in the 0.02 mg/mL Malathion compared to the control values. However, the cluster analysis revealed slight dissimilar patterns for control insects and the highest malathion concentration (0.02 mg/ml). These stage-related differences could occur from the different growth dynamic functions of larvae and adults. The larvae were distinguished by robust growth, and significant oxygen consumption. The results verified that oxidative stress parameters, especially protein carbonyls and α, α-diphenyl-β-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) were promising, cheap, quick and cost-effective applications for determining the macromolecules damage, and antioxidant ability of H. illucens enclosed with malathion exposure. These findings described that malathion application induces macromolecules damage mediated through oxidative stress injury.

Dietary Moringa oleifera Alters Periparturient Plasma and Milk Biochemical Indicators and Promotes Productive Performance in Goats

The purpose of the current study was to explore the supplementing effects of Moringa oleifera leaf powder (MOLP) on plasma and milk biochemical indices and productive/reproductive performance of goats. A total of 30 healthy pregnant goats were randomly distributed (n = 10) into three experimental groups: control (M₀) group (basal diet without MOLP), M_2% group (basal diet + 2% MOLP), and M_3.5% group (basal diet + 3.5% MOLP). The experiment started 2 months before parturition and continued till the first month of lactation. The plasma flavonoids were significantly increased in the M_3.5% group during the entire experiment, whereas the total phenolic contents were enhanced only during the lactation period depending on the supplementation percentage. The amount of vitamin C increased significantly in M_2% and M_3.5% groups as compared to the M₀ group. Supplementation of MOLP improved the plasma total antioxidant capacity by declining malondialdehyde concentration and total oxidant status values. The activities of superoxide dismutase and peroxidase enzymes were modified in M_2% and M_3.5% supplemented groups throughout the experiment, while the catalase activity was significantly influenced only during the lactation stage. The protein and lycopene contents in plasma were significantly improved in the M_3.5% group, whereas the total sugars and carotenoid level was increased in both M_2% and M_3.5% groups. Dietary supplementation with 3.5% MOLP more effectively enhanced protease and amylase activities as compared to 2% supplementation. MOLP also improved the biochemical indices and antioxidant status of colostrum and milk. The milk yield, weight gain of the kids, and reproductive performance were high in M_2% and M_3.5% groups in comparison to the M₀ group. These findings disclose that supplementing the diet with 3.5% MOLP improves antioxidant status, milk yield, and reproductive performance in goats.

Lipidomic response of the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana to pyrethroids

Pyrethroids are chemical insecticides that are widely used to control pests. Entomopathogenic fungi are considered environmentally safe alternatives to these compounds. Pyrethroids and entomopathogenic fungi not only co-exist in the environment but can also be applied together in pest control. They are often found in contact with each other, and thus, it seems important to understand their interactions at the cellular level. In this study, we analyzed whether pyrethroids could influence the phospholipid profile of Beauveria bassiana and whether membrane changes are one of the mechanisms by which these fungi adapt to unfavorable environmental conditions. The results of our study revealed that pyrethroids changed the phospholipid profile and increased the cell membrane permeability of B. bassiana, which enabled them to enter and accumulate within the fungal cells, resulting in oxidative stress. Pyrethroids influenced the amount of neutral lipids, caused a decrease in sodium content, and also temporarily lowered the level of the secondary metabolite oosporein in the studied fungi. These findings indicate that the effect of pyrethroids on entomopathogenic fungi may be more complex than originally thought and that lipidomic studies can aid in fully understanding the influence of these chemicals on the mentioned group of fungi.

Clinical and Correlated Responses among Steroid Hormones and Oxidant/Antioxidant Biomarkers in Pregnant, Non-Pregnant and Lactating CIDR-Pre-Synchronized Dromedaries (Camelus dromedarius)

Overproduction of free radicals is controlled by antioxidant defense mechanisms. These defense mechanisms are achieved by antioxidant enzymes such as catalase (CAT). The current study aimed to assess the changes in steroid hormones, oxidant/antioxidants biomarkers, lipid profiles/liver functions indices, renal function biomarkers and minerals metabolism in non-pregnant, lactating or pregnant one-humped she-camels (Camelus dromedarius) pre-synchronized with controlled internal drug releasing. The study also focused on the correlational relationships between steroid hormones and the oxidant/antioxidant biomarkers, lipid profiles and liver functions indices, renal functions and mineral metabolism in these she-camels. The study was conducted on apparently healthy dromedary she-camels (n = 60) during breeding season. A sexually active camel-bull was introduced to she-camels pre-synchronized with CIDR. Fifty to sixty days after natural mating, she-camels were examined for pregnancy. She-camels were divided into three main groups according to both pregnancy and lactation as following: pregnant (PREG, n = 38) which was kept as control one, non-pregnant and lactating (LACT, n = 8), and non-pregnant and non-lactating she-camels (NPREG, n= 14). Steroid hormones, i.e., progesterone (P₄), estradiol (E₂) and cortisol, oxidant indictors, i.e., malondialdehyde (MDA), antioxidant biomarkers, i.e., superoxide dismutase (SOD), total antioxidant capacity (TAC), CAT and reduced glutathione (GSH), lipid profiles indices, renal functions and related minerals were assessed. The present study confirmed the efficacy of using CIDR for synchronization in she-camels. Significant elevations in serum steroids hormones in PREG compare with LACT and NPREG. The highest concentrations of MDA as lipid peroxidation and oxidative stress indictors and lowest levels of antioxidant biomarkers except for SOD, i.e., TAC, CAT and GSH, were reported in PREG compared with LACT and NPREG. PREG showed the highest liver enzymes activities and lowest total protein values. Remarkable increases in serum concentrations of renal function parameters and phosphorous (P) were observed in PREG when compared with the other two groups. The investigated she-camels revealed significant correlation between steroid hormones and the oxidant biomarkers, antioxidant biomarkers, liver functions, renal functions and minerals metabolism parameters. P₄ showed positive correlations with antioxidant biomarkers, i.e., TAC, CAT and GSH, and serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST) activities, whereas negative correlations were reported between P₄ and renal functions biomarkers, i.e., blood urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine (Cr) and creatinine kinase (CK), and minerals metabolism parameters, i.e., P and magnesium (Mg), in CIDR pre-synchronized she-camels. In contrast, E₂ and cortisol showed negative correlations with antioxidant biomarkers, i.e., TAC, CAT and GSH, lipid profiles/liver functions indices, i.e., AST, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and γ-glutamyl transferase (GGT), CK and Mg, however, positive correlations were demonstrated between E₂ and cortisol, and MDA, Cr and P in investigated she-camels. In conclusion, the present study confirmed the efficacy of using CIDR for synchronization in she-camels. The highest MDA levels as indictors for oxidative stress and the lowest antioxidant levels, i.e., TAC, CAT and GSH, except for SOD in pregnant she-camels, were attributable to physiological oxidative stress as excellent compensatory responses observed in the PREG group to face such a physiologic stage. Moreover, lower P levels in non-pregnant she-camels would be contributed to failure of conception or early embryonic death. The investigated she-camels revealed significant correlations between steroid hormones and the oxidant indicators, antioxidant biomarkers, lipid profile indices and renal functions biomarkers that provided better understanding for physiological stress during pregnancy in camels.

Study on active response of superoxide dismutase and relevant binding interaction with bioaccumulated phthalates and key metabolites in Eisenia fetida

Phthalic acid esters (PAEs) are a group of widespread persistent organic pollutants in the environment. Though the harmful effect of PAEs including activity inhibition of superoxide dismutase (SOD) to arouse oxidative stress were well documented, the deep insights into mechanisms that are relevant with SOD activity are still lacking. By 7d-cultivation of Eisenia fetida in artificially-polluted soil, the different active responses of SOD in earthworm were shown to PAE congeners. Despite the less bioaccumulation and bioavailability, the di-butyl phthalate (DBP) etc. structurally coupled with longer ester-chains appeared more effective to trigger the up-regulation and then the slight decline of SOD activity. Given the remarkable biotransformation especially for short-chain PAEs, the SOD activity response in earthworm should be regarded as joint effect with their metabolites, e.g. monophthalates (MAEs) and phthalic acid (PA). The in vitro SOD activity was shown with the obvious inhibition of 21.31% by DBP, 88.93% by MBP, and 58.57% by PA respectively when the concentrations were elevated up to 0.03 mM. The SOD activity inhibition confirmed the molecular binding with pollutants as an essential event besides the biological regulation for activity. The binding interaction was thermodynamically exothermic, spontaneous and strengthened primarily by Van der Waals force and hydrogen bonds, and was spectrally diagnosed with the conformational changes including diminution of α-helix content and spatial reorientation of fluorophore tryptophan. As coherently illustrated with the larger fluorescence quenching constants (3.65*10⁴-4.47*10⁴/mol) than DBP, the metabolites should be the priority concern due to stronger activity inhibition and toxicological risks.

Glutathione (GSH) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) levels among junior high school students induced by indoor particulate matter 2.5 (PM2.5) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) exposure

BACKGROUND

Indoor air pollution has globally known as the risk factor of acute respiratory infection in young children.  The exposure to indoor particulate matter 2.5 (PM2.5) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) at house or school can be a potential risk to children's health. This study aimed to examine the association between indoor PM2.5 and NO2 with oxidative stress markers in junior high school students.

DESIGN AND METHOD

This study was conducted using a cross sectional study with 75 students collected randomly from four junior high schools in Jakarta.  PM2.5 and NO2 were measured in classrooms and school yards. The schools were categorized based on the exposure level of PM2.5 and NO2 in classrooms. Superoxide dismutase (SOD) and reduced glutathione (GSH) were examined from the blood sample. All students were interviewed with questionnaires to determine upper respiratory tract infection, smoking family members, mosquito repellent usage, and dietary supplement consumption.

RESULTS

Mean concentration of indoor PM2.5 and NO2 were 0.125±0.036 mg m-3 and 36.37±22.33 µg m-3, respectively. The schools which located near to highway showed lower PM2.5 and higher NO2 level indicated the emission of traffic activity. Mean activity of SOD was 96.36±50.94 U mL-1 and mean concentration of GSH was of 0.62±0.09 µg mL-1. Most of the students reported upper respiratory tract infection history, smoking family member, use mosquito repellent at home, and do not consume dietary supplement.

CONCLUSION

The level of oxidative stress markers and the exposure categories of classroom PM2.5 and NO2 was not significantly different, however there were significant correlation with cigarette smoke and mosquito repellent at home. Nevertheless, the exposure of indoor PM2.5 and NO2 increased the risk of the exposure to cigarette smoke and mosquito repellent at home. Further study on the air pollution at school and home is needed to affirm association towards student's health and to design strategic control efforts.

Association between pyrethroid exposure and cardiovascular disease: A national population-based cross-sectional study in the US

OBJECTIVE

Pyrethroids-containing products are widely used as commercial and household insecticides. While animal studies and clinical case reports have shown acute cardiovascular outcomes of pyrethroids exposure, little has been known on the effect of chronic pyrethroid exposure on cardiovascular disease (CVD). We aimed to examine the associations between chronic pyrethroid exposure and CVD in the US adults.

METHODS

Cross-sectional data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1999-2002 and 2007-2012 were analyzed. The exposure to pyrethroids was determined as the urinary level of 3-phenoxybenzoic acid (3-PBA), and CVD was ascertained based on self-reported physician diagnoses. Multivariable logistic regression models were fitted to evaluate associations of pyrethroid exposure with CVD, coronary heart disease (CHD), and stroke.

RESULTS

Included were 6,471 participants with a mean age of 44.77 years (standard error, 0.39) for final analyses. The weighted prevalence of CVD, CHD, and stroke was 6.85%, 4.57% and 2.27%, respectively. With adjustments for major confounders, participants in the highest tertile of urinary 3-PBA had higher odds of CVD (odds ratio, 1.58; 95% confidence interval: 1.12, 2.23) and CHD (OR, 1.75; 95% CI: 1.17, 2.61) compared to those in the lowest tertile. There were linear associations for CVD (P for trend = 0.04) and CHD (P for trend = 0.02). However, no significant association was noted for stroke (1.29; 0.78, 2.16) in the main analyses.

CONCLUSIONS

3-PBA was adversely associated with CVD and CHD in the US adults. Our findings highlight potential cardiovascular risk of chronic exposure to pyrethroids, and should be validated in large prospective studies in different populations in future.

Ameliorating effect of ascorbic acid on fenvalerate induced ultrastructural changes in scales, erythrocytes and gills of Ctenopharyngodon idella (Valenciennes, 1844)

Fenvalerate (type II synthetic pyrethroid), widely used in agricultural practices, find its way into aquatic ecosystem through air, by runoff, or by percolation to groundwater. It is an extremely toxic insecticide for aquatic organisms especially fish. In the present study, the fenvalerate (FEN) induced toxicity and the protective efficacy of ascorbic acid (AA) against FEN in Ctenopharyngodon idella was evaluated by studying the structural alterations in scales, erythrocytes and gills. The fishes were exposed to 1.2 μg/L and 2 μg/L of FEN and orally administered with 1000 mg/kg diet of AA. The fishes were scrutinized on 15^th, 30^th and 60^th day of experiment. Scanning electron microscopic studies (SEM) of FEN-treated fish revealed extensive morphological alterations on the microstructure of scales including deformed focus, uprooted lepidonts and tubercles, hole formation and worn out calcareous material from the surface. FEN intoxication induced severe damage on erythrocytes including formation of dacrocytes, serrated spherocytes, echinocytes with oozed out cytoplasmic content, contracted plasma membrane and appearance of lobopodial projections. Ultrastructural studies in gills declared profound lesions in the form of aneurysm, loss of secondary lamellae and destructed microstructures of pavement cells. On the other hand, supplementation of AA in diet mitigated the impairment provoked by FEN on the scales, erythrocytes and gills due to its antioxidant properties.

Metformin protects red blood cells against rotenone induced oxidative stress and cytotoxicity

CONTEXT

The anti-diabetic medicine metformin has been reported as an anti-ageing drug candidate as it mimics the benefits of caloric restriction and reduces ageing-related oxidative stress in various experimental organisms.

OBJECTIVE

We investigated the possible anti-oxidative role of metformin against rotenone-induced oxidative stress and cytotoxicity in erythrocytes of Wistar rats. Rotenone is a well-known inducer of oxidative stress which leads to a cellular redox imbalance.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We have co-exposed the experimental rats with rotenone (2.5 mg/kg, i.p.) and metformin (300 mg/kg, orally) for 30 days to investigate the protective effects of metformin on various rotenone-induced impaired oxidative stress biomarkers in rat erythrocytes.

RESULTS

We found that a significant alleviation in the levels of rotenone-induced pro-oxidant and anti-oxidant markers following exposure of metformin.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that metformin supplementation shows a protective role in against rotenone-induced redox imbalance and cytotoxicity in rat erythrocytes.

Exposure to pesticides in bats

Bats provide a variety of ecological services that are essential to the integrity of ecosystems. Indiscriminate use of pesticides has been a threat to biodiversity, and the exposure of bats to these xenobiotics is a threat to their populations. This study presents a review of articles regarding the exposure of bats to pesticides published in the period from January 1951 to July 2020, addressing the temporal and geographical distribution of research, the studied species, and the most studied classes of pesticides. The research was concentrated in the 1970s and 1980s, mostly in the Northern Hemisphere, mainly in the USA. Of the total species in the world, only 5% of them have been studied, evaluating predominantly insectivorous species of the Family Vespertilionidae. Insecticides, mainly organochlorines, were the most studied pesticides. Most research was observational, with little information available on the effects of pesticides on natural bat populations. Despite the advances in analytical techniques for detecting contaminants, the number of studies is still insufficient compared to the number of active ingredients used. The effects of pesticides on other guilds and tropical species remain poorly studied. Future research should investigate the effects of pesticides, especially in sublethal doses causing chronic exposure. It is crucial to assess the impact of these substances on other food guilds and investigate how natural populations respond to the exposure to mixtures of pesticides found in the environment.

Cumulative dietary risk assessment of chronic acetylcholinesterase inhibition by residues of pesticides

A retrospective cumulative risk assessment of dietary exposure to pesticide residues was conducted for chronic inhibition of acetylcholinesterase. The pesticides considered in this assessment were identified and characterised in a previous scientific report on the establishment of cumulative assessment groups of pesticides for their effects on the nervous system. The exposure assessments used monitoring data collected by Member States under their official pesticide monitoring programmes in 2016, 2017 and 2018, and individual food consumption data from 10 populations of consumers from different countries and from different age groups. Exposure estimates were obtained by means of a two-dimensional probabilistic model, which was implemented in SAS ® software. The characterisation of cumulative risk was supported by an uncertainty analysis based on expert knowledge elicitation. For each of the 10 populations, it is concluded with varying degrees of certainty that cumulative exposure to pesticides contributing to the chronic inhibition of acetylcholinesterase does not exceed the threshold for regulatory consideration established by risk managers.

The palliative effect of camel milk on hepatic CYP1A1 gene expression and DNA damage induced by fenpropathrin oral intoxication in male rats

The present study investigated the alleviating role of camel milk (CM) in the mitigation of fenpropathrin (FNP) type II pyrethroid induced oxidative stress, alterations of hepatic (CYP1A1) mRNA expression pattern, and DNA damage using the alkaline comet assay (SCGE) in male rats. Sixty male Sprague-Dawley rats were separated into six groups (n = 10): 1st control (C), 2nd corn oil (CO), 3rd (CM): gavaged CM 2ml/rat, 4th (FNP): gavaged FNP 7.09 mg/kg body weight (BW), 5th (FNP pro/co-treated): gavaged CM firstly for 15 days, then CM + FNP by the same mentioned doses and route, 6th (FNP + CM co-treated): gavaged FNP firstly followed by CM by the same mentioned doses and route. Rats were orally gavaged three times per week, day after day for 60 days. FNP exposure significantly reduced serum glutathione (GSH) levels, but significantly increased serum levels of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), malondialdehyde (MDA), protein carbonyl (PCO), and 8hydroxy2deoxyguanosine (8OH2dG). Additionally, FNP exposure significantly up-regulated the mRNA expression levels of hepatic CYP1A1 and increased the SCGE indices in whole blood, liver, and spleen tissues of exposed male rats. Administration of CM significantly regulated the FNP induced oxidative stress, reduced hepatic CYP1A1 mRNA expression levels and values of comet assay indices particularly in the (CM + FNP pro/co-treated) group compared to the (FNP + CM co-treated) group. In conclusion, our results indicate, for the first time, that FNP retains an in vivo genotoxic potential at a dose of (1/10 LD₅₀) and up-regulated hepatic CYP1A1 mRNA expression in male rats. Additionally, CM supplements may improve the genotoxic outcomes, oxidative stress, and altered CYP1A1 mRNA expression induced by FNP particularly in the pro/concurrent-treatment compared to the concurrent treatment alone.

Histological, ultrastructural, and biochemical study on the possible role of Panax ginseng in ameliorating liver injury induced by Lambda cyhalotherin

Background

Lambda-cyhalotherin (LCT) is a pyrithroid type 2 pesticide that is broadly utilized in pest control in public health, animal health, and agriculture. Although claiming that LCT has a low mammalian toxicity, several investigations reported its mammalian hepatotoxicity by mediating oxidative stress causes severe hepatotoxicity and liver damage.

Results

LCT significantly decreased catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and total thiol (T. thiol) and increased lipid peroxidation (LPO). mRNA and protein expression levels of p53 were upregulated, whereas Bcl-2 mRNA and protein expression levels were downregulated in LCT-intoxicated animals. Also, light microscopic and ultrastructure studies for liver tissues of LCT-intoxicated animals showed mononuclear leukocytic infiltration in the parenchyma, congested portal vein with thickened wall, and proliferation of bile duct and hepatocytes with cytoplasmic vacuolations, fatty changes, and collagen fibers. Panax ginseng co-treatment attenuated oxidative stress biomarkers. Both tested doses of Panax ginseng (100 and 200 mg /kg b. wt./day) significantly decreased p53 and elevate Bcl-2 mRNA and protein expression levels and reveals significant amelioration and restoration of normal histology and ultrastructure of liver, but 200 mg/kg b. wt. of Panax ginseng seems to be more potent.

Conclusion

Panax ginseng exhibited ameliorative effect against hepatic oxidative stress, apoptosis, histopathological, and ultrastructural changes induced by LCT.

Treating honey bees with an extremely low frequency electromagnetic field and pesticides: Impact on the rate of disappearance of azoxystrobin and λ-cyhalothrin and the structure of some functional groups of the probabilistic molecules

The purpose of these laboratory tests was to assess the impact of 50 Hz EMF (electromagnetic field) on the disappearance of azoxystrobin (active ingredient (AI) of Amistar 250 SC) and λ-cyhalothrin (AI of Karate Zeon 050 CS) in the body of honey bees (Apis mellifera) and the structure of some functional groups of the probabilistic molecules in their organisms. Amistar 250 SC (an azoxystrobin-based fungicide; ABF) and Karate Zeon 050 CS (a λ-cyhalothrin-based insecticide; CBI) are plant protection products (PPPs) applied to bee-pollinated-crops. Chromatographic methods were used to assess the rate of AI disappearance. EMF affected the rate of disappearance of azoxystrobin and λ-cyhalothrin in bees within 6 h of intoxication. When these substances were used separately their disappearance in the presence of EMF slowed from 12.6% to 10.5% h^-1 and from 9.2% to 4.8% h^-1, respectively, and accelerated when used in a mixture, from 14.1% to 14.7% h^-1 and from 9.3% to 11.5% h^-1 respectively. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy was used to analyze changes in the functional groups of the probabilistic molecules of the tested bees. To obtain the information about the spectra variations we used the Principal Component Analysis. It has been shown, that EMF statistically significantly interferes with amide I and II, symmetric PO₃^2- group from DNA, RNA and phospholipids vibrations. It also increased the number of changes of functional groups of the probabilistic molecules caused by ABF, but at the same time limited the changes in the functional groups studied in bees treated with CBI and a mixture containing both of them. In addition, exposure to EMF in bees treated with fungicide or insecticide, separately, and with both preparations caused differences (p < 0.05) in the secondary structure of proteins compared to controls. The obtained results indicate that EMF may affect the rate of metabolism and the detoxification process of pesticides in bees, depending on the AI of PPPs, applied individually or together. However, further detailed research is required to explain the mechanism of EMF as a detoxification modulator.

Phytoremedial effect of Tinospora cordifolia against arsenic induced toxicity in Charles Foster rats

Arsenic poisoning is one of the most serious health hazards of recent times. It has been estimated that more than 200 million people of about 105 countries in the world are affected due to arsenic poisoning. Except mitigation, there is no such mode by which the population can be prevented from being exposed to arsenic. Tinospora cordifolia (T. cordifolia) is widely used in the folk medicine system for the treatment of various diseases. Hence, the aim of the present study was to investigate the antidote effects of ethanolic extract of T. cordifolia stem against arsenic induced hepato-renal toxicity in rat model. Twenty-four male Charles Foster rats (weighing 160-180 g) were randomly divided into two groups, where six rats were used as control group. Eighteen rats were orally treated with arsenic at the dose of 8 mg/kg body weight for 90 days daily and then further divided into three sub groups (n = 6 each). Sub group I-arsenic treated rats, were sacrificed after treatment; sub group II rats were used as arsenic control and the sub group III rats were administrated with T. cordifolia at the dose of 400 mg/kg body weight/day for 90 days. After the completion of dose duration, all the control and treatment group rats were sacrificed to evaluate the various parameters. Arsenic induced rats had significantly (p < 0.0001) altered biochemical serum levels of SGPT, SGOT, ALP, total bilirubin, urea, uric acid, creatinine and albumin; But, after the administration of T. cordifolia there was significant (p < 0.0001) restoration observed in these liver and kidney function parameters. The T. cordifolia administration also significantly (p < 0.0001) restored the serum MDA levels and arsenic concentration in blood, liver and kidney tissues, as well as significant (p < 0.0001) improvement in haematological variables. In histopathological study, the arsenic treated rats showed degenerative changes in the liver and kidney tissues such as lesions and vacuolizations in hepatocytes and nephrocytes respectively. However, after the administration with T. cordifolia rats, there was considerably significant restoration in liver and kidney tissues. The entire study suggests that arsenic caused severe damage to the liver and kidney at haematological, biochemical and histopathological levels in rats. However, T. cordifolia played the vital role to combat the arsenic induced toxicity in rats. Hence, T. cordifolia might be used as a nutritional supplement to combat the arsenic led toxicity among the exposed population.

Protective Effects of Osthole against Free Radical-Induced Hemolysis of Erythrocytes

Background: Osthole, one of the most active components of Cnidium monnieri, has different pharmacological and biological effects such as boosting the immune system, reducing rheumatoid pain, hepatoprotective, and inhibitory effect on osteoporosis. Furthermore, it showed anti inflammatory, anti-cancer, and antioxidant properties. However, there is little information about the antioxidant effects of osthole using cell-based assays. In the current work, we used in vitro model of 2,2-azobis (2-amidinopropane) dihydrochloride (AAPH)-induced hemolysis of erythrocytes to investigate the protective effects of osthole against oxidative damage of biological membranes. Methods: Erythrocytes were challenged with 2, 2ꞌ-azobis (2-aminopropane) dihydrochloride (AAPH) as a model oxidant in the presence and absence of osthole. The protective effects of osthole on lipid peroxidation, protein carbonyl oxidation, glutathione (GSH) content of erythrocytes were evaluated and compared with control samples. Results: It was found that osthole has protective effects on erythrocyte hemolysis induced by AAPH at different concentrations in a time-dependent manner. Osthole also suppressed lipid and protein oxidation as well as reductions in GSH content in a concentration and timedependent manner. Conclusion: Osthole showed protective effects against free radical-induced hemolysis in rat erythrocytes. Therefore, it can be considered as a supplement for the prevention or treatment of a variety of human health problems associated with oxidative stress. However, further investigations are required to illustrate other possible impacts of osthole on cells.

Nephrotoxicity of cypermethrin in rats. Histopathological aspects

Cypermethrin (CYP) is an important type II pyrethroid pesticide widely used to protect crops against pests and insect infestations. However, its toxicity is a risk to both human health and the surrounding environment. The present study was conducted to investigate the nephrotoxic effect and histopathological changes caused by Cypermethrin in the kidney tissues of adult Wistar rats. In this study, 30 Wistar rats were equally divided into three groups. G1, control animals; G2 and G3 treated with various sub lethal doses of CYP for 30 days as follows: G2, administered low dose (1/100 of LD50) of CYP; G3, administered high dose (1/50 of LD50) of CYP. The damage to different organelles of renal proximal and distal cells was observed using transmission electron microscopy. Histopathological damage in kidney samples was confirmed using morphological and histological measures. The results showed that CYP caused significant histopathological damage to the renal proximal and distal tubules of treated rats. Compared to control samples, CYP caused marked alterations in the dimensions of nucleus, ovoid and filamentous mitochondria of the treated cells. In conclusion, Cypermethrin is found to be toxic to mammals. It caused marked ultrastructural damage to the renal proximal and distal tubules of Wistar rats and the intensity of nephrotoxicity correlated with the dose of oral administration.

Mediation of oxidative stress toxicity induced by pyrethroid pesticides in fish

Organophosphate and organochlorine pesticides are banned in most countries because they cause high toxicity and bioaccumulation in non-target organisms. Pyrethroid pesticides have been applied to agriculture and aquaculture since the 1970s to replace traditional pesticides. However, pyrethroids are approximately 1000 times more toxic to fish than to mammals and birds. Fish-specific organs such as the gills and their late metabolic action against this type of pesticide make fish highly susceptible to the toxicity of pyrethroid pesticides. Oxidative stress plays an important role in the neurological, reproductive, and developmental toxicity caused by pyrethroids. Deltamethrin, cypermethrin, and lambda-cyhalothrin are representative pyrethroid pesticides that induce oxidative stress in tissues such as the gills, liver, and muscles of fish and cause histopathological changes. Although they are observed in low concentrations in aquatic environments such as rivers, lakes, and surface water they induce DNA damage and apoptosis in fish. Pyrethroid pesticides cause ROS-mediated oxidative stress in fish species including carp, tilapia, and trout. They also cause lipid peroxidation and alter the state of DNA, proteins, and lipids in the cells of fish. Moreover, changes in antioxidant enzyme activity following pyrethroid pesticide exposure make fish more susceptible to oxidative stress caused by environmental pollutants. In this review, we examine the occurrence of pyrethroid pesticides in the aquatic environment and oxidative stress-induced toxicity in fish exposed to pyrethroids.

Changes in thyroid hormone levels and related gene expressions in embryo-larval zebrafish exposed to binary combinations of bifenthrin and acetochlor

Bifenthrin (BF) and acetochlor (AT) are widely used as an insecticide and herbicide, respectively, which are introduced to the aquatic environment as a natural result. Although the thyroid active substances may coexist in the environment, their joint effects on fish have not been identified. We examined the joint toxicity of BF and AT in zebrafish (Danio rerio) in this study. An acute lethal toxicity test indicated that the median lethal concentration (LC₅₀) values of BF and AT under 96 h treatment were 0.40 and 4.56 µmol L^-1, respectively. The binary mixture of BF + AT displayed an antagonistic effect on the acute lethal toxicity. After 14 days post fertilization (dpf) with exposure to individual pesticides at sub-lethal concentrations of, no effects were observed on the catalase (CAT) and peroxidase (POD) activities, while the binary mixtures (except for the 7.2 × 10^-3 µmol L^-1 BF + 1.2 × 10^-2 µmol L^-1 AT exposure group) significantly induced the CAT activity. The superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity and triiodothyronine (T3) level were significantly increased in all exposure groups. The thyroxine (T4) level remained unchanged after exposure to individual pesticides, but significantly increased in the 7.2 × 10^-3 µmol L^-1 BF + 1.2 × 10^-2 µmol L^-1 AT group. The expressions of the genes Dio2, TRa, TSHβ and CRH in the thyroid hormone (TH) axis were significantly up-regulated in the 7.2 × 10^-3 µmol L^-1 BF + 0.4 × 10^-2 µmol L^-1 AT group. Our data indicated that the binary mixture of BF + AT significantly altered the antioxidant enzyme activities and gene expressions in the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis and changed the TH levels.

Protective effects of extracts of lichen Dirinaria consimilis (Stirton) D.D. Awasthi in bifenthrin- and diazinon-induced oxidative stress in rat erythrocytes in vitro

The intoxication of insecticides such as bifenthrin and diazinon has been reported to generate free radicals, and thereby alter the antioxidant defense system in erythrocytes. The present study is aimed to investigate the protective effects of acetone (DA) and methanolic (DM) extracts of lichen Dirinaria consimilis against bifenthrin and diazinon toxicity in rats' erythrocytes in vitro. Rats' erythrocytes were exposed to bifenthrin and diazinon, individually and also in combination with DA or DM at 1 ppm for 3 h at 37 ˚C. By using spectrophotometric methods, all the samples were estimated for changes in hemoglobin (Hb) concentration, malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, and enzyme [Superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione S-transferases (GST)] activities. The outcomes showed that both the insecticides were highly toxic to rats' erythrocytes. Among all groups, both the insecticides and DA exposed groups showed very low levels of MDA content, and GST activity in rats' erythrocytes, when compared to the control. Besides, DA groups pretreated with both insecticides showed significant improvement of total Hb concentration, SOD, and CAT activities, with respect to the control. Hence, the present results indicate that the extracts of D. consimilis act as an antioxidant agent that reduces oxidative stress burden in insecticides toxicity.

Hepatoprotective and Antioxidant Capacity of Mallotus repandus Ethyl Acetate Stem Extract against d-Galactosamine-Induced Hepatotoxicity in Rats

Mallotus repandus (M. repandus) is traditionally used to treat muscle pain, itching, fever, rheumatic arthritis, and a variety of liver disorders. The aim of the present work was to evaluate the hepatoprotective activity and the antioxidant potential of the ethyl acetate stem extract of M. repandus (ESMR) against d-galactosamine (d-GalN)-induced hepatopathy, along with a possible mechanism of action in rats. In vivo hepatoprotective activity of ESMR was examined using d-galactosamine (d-GalN)-induced hepatotoxicity in Sprague-Dawley rats. For this purpose, levels of serum diagnostic markers, activity of hepatic antioxidant enzymes, and liver histo-architecture were employed to assess the protective efficacy of ESMR. Furthermore, the total phenolic, flavonoid, and tannin contents were quantitated, and the antioxidant capacity of the extract was evaluated using different methods such as 2,2'-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), nitric oxide (NO), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and hydroxyl radical (OH•) scavenging assays. Intraperitoneal d-GalN injection triggered hepatotoxicity, as shown by the noticeable increase in the serum hepatic marker enzymes, bilirubin content, γ-glutamyl transferase (GGT), total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides (TGs), and malondialdehyde (MDA), whereas glutathione, superoxide dismutase, and catalase levels were significantly lower compared with that of the control. Pretreatment with ESMR reduced the hepatic enzyme levels along with bilirubin, GGT, and MDA compared to the d-GalN-intoxicated group. These results were supported by histopathological studies, where d-galactosamine caused coagulative necrosis, hemorrhage, and inflammation. However, pretreatment with ESMR ameliorated the histo-architectural changes and brought them back to normal. Results also revealed that the total polyphenolic, flavonoid, and tannin content, and total antioxidant capacity of ESMR were 136.30 ± 0.78 mg GAE/g mg, 38.72 ± 0.85 mg QE/g, 75.88 ± 0.54 mg TAE/g, and 123.16 ± 0.24 mg AAE/g, respectively. In addition, ESMR inhibited free radicals with IC50 values of 94.47 ± 0.51, 127.33 ± 0.36, 164.12 ± 0.45, and 254.14 ± 0.35 μg/mL in DPPH, NO, H2O2, and OH• free radical scavenging assays, respectively. These findings highlight the protective role of ESMR against hepatic injury induced by d-GalN, which may be attributed to its higher antioxidant properties, thereby scientifically justifying its traditional use.

Toxic effect of alpha cypermethrin, an environmental pollutant, on myocardial tissue in male wistar rats

α-Cypermethrin (CYP) is a pyrethroid insecticide-like environmental pollutant, widely found in the environment. New research links exposure to high levels of CYP to health damage; however, little is known about the effect of CYP on cardiovascular disease. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate, for the first time, biochemical and cardiovascular changes in male rats resulting from subchronic CYP exposure. The animals were divided into three groups: group 1 served as the control, group 2 (CYP1) received 4 mg/kg of CYP by gavage, and group 3 (CYP2) received 8 mg/kg of CYP by gavage, for 8 weeks each. Results showed that both CYP1 and CYP2 markedly increased plasma concentrations of cardiac markers (LDH, CK-MB, and troponin-T). Moreover, compared to the control group, CYP treatment elevated cardiac oxidative stress, as shown by increased MDA level and decreased activity of SOD, CAT, and GSH-Px. In addition, CYP2 caused a significant increase of 42% the concentration of total cholesterol and more than 75% in triglycerides compared to the control group. Furthermore, DNA fragmentation and collagen deposition were both amplified owing to CYP toxicity. This harmful effect was confirmed by a histological study using H-E and Sirius Red staining. Overall, our results clearly proved the cardiotoxicity caused by α-cypermethrin.

Ginseng aqueous extract ameliorates lambda-cyhalothrin-acetamiprid insecticide mixture for hepatorenal toxicity in rats: Role of oxidative stress-mediated proinflammatory and proapoptotic protein expressions

This study was carried out to evaluate the protective effects of Panax ginseng aqueous extract (GAE) against hepatorenal toxicity induced by lambda-cyhalothrin-acetamiprid insecticide mixture in rats. A total of 32 male albino rats were assigned into four groups. Normal control group received distilled water. Insecticide control group intoxicated with the insecticide at a dose of 2.14 mg/kg b.wt orally day after day for 45 days. GAE control group was treated with GAE at a dose 200 mg/kg b.wt orally. GAE experimental group was administered GAE 1 hour before insecticide administration. Intoxication of rats with the insecticide caused a significant increase in serum aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase activities and urea and creatinine levels as well as malondialdehyde concentration and proteins expression of caspase-3 and induced nitric oxide synthase in hepatic and renal tissues. However, it decreased the serum levels of total protein and globulin and reduced the glutathione content and catalase activity in hepatic and renal tissues. In addition, insecticide induced histopathological alterations in both hepatic and renal tissues. In contrast, GAE modulated insecticide-induced alterations in liver and kidney functions and structures as it ameliorated the effects of insecticide on the above mentioned parameters. These results indicated that GAE was a potent antioxidant agent that could protect rats against insecticide-induced hepatorenal toxicity.

Poloxamer-chitosan-based Naringenin nanoformulation used in brain targeting for the treatment of cerebral ischemia

OBJECTIVE

Here, the aim is to improve the bioavailability of Naringenin (NRG) in brain and to establish the highest remedial benefit from a novel anti-ischemic medicine i.e. NRG.

METHODS

A novel Naringenin-loaded-nanoemulsion (NE)-(in situ)-gel (i.e. thermoresponsive), was formulated with the help of Poloxamer-407 (20.0% w/v). Chitosan (CS, 0.50% w/v) was used to introduce the mucoadhesive property of NE-(in situ)-gel and finally called as NRG-NE-gel + 0.50%CS. A novel UHPLC-ESI-Q-TOF-MS/MS-method was optimized and used for NRG-NE-gel + 0.50%CS to quantify the Pharmacokinetic-(PK)-parameters in plasma as well as brain and to evaluate the cerebral ischemic parameters after MCAO i.e. locomotor activity, grip strength, antioxidant activity, and quantity the infarction volume in neurons with the safety/toxicity of NRG-NE-gel + 0.50%CS after i.n. administration in the rats.

RESULTS

The mucoadhesive potency and gelling temperature of NRG-NE-gel + 0.50%CS were observed 6245.38 dynes/cm2 and 28.3 ± 1.0 °C, respectively. Poloxamer-407 based free micelles size was observed 98.31 ± 1.17 nm with PDI (0.386 ± 0.021). The pH and viscosity of NRG-NE-gel + 0.50%CS were found to be 6.0 ± 0.20 and 2447 ± 24cp (at 35.0 ± 1.0 °C temperature), respectively. An elution time and m/z NRG were observed 1.78 min and 270.97/150.96 with 1.22 min and m/z of 301.01/150.98 for Quercetin (IS) respectively. Inter and intra %precision and %accuracy was validated 1.01-3.37% and 95.10-99.30% with a linear dynamic range (1.00 to 2000.00 ng/ml). AUC0-24 of plasma & brain were observed 995.60 ± 24.59 and 5600.99 ± 144.92 (ng min/ml g) in the rats after the intranasal (i.n.) administration of NRG-NE-gel + 0.50%CS. No toxicological response were not found in terms of mortalities, any-change morphologically i.e. in the microstructure of brain as well as nasal mucosa tissues, and also not found any visual signs in terms of inflammatory or necrosis.

CONCLUSION

Intranasally administered NRG-NE-gel + 0.50%CS enhanced the bioavailability of Naringenin in the brain. In the cerebral ischemic rats, significantly improved the neurobehavioral activity (locomotor & grip strength) followed by antioxidant activity as well as infarction volume. Finally, the toxicity studies carried out and established the safe nature of optimized-NRG-NE-gel + 0.50%CS.

Biochemical and endocrine-disrupting effects in Clarias gariepinus exposed to the synthetic pyrethroids, cypermethrin and deltamethrin

In the present study, we investigated plasma biochemical and steroid hormone responses, together with gonado-histopathological alterations in Clarias gariepinus exposed to sublethal concentrations of two synthetic pyrethroids (cypermethrin and deltamethrin). Fish were exposed to environmentally-relevant concentrations of cypermethrin at 0 (ethanol solvent control), 0.07, 0.014, 0.028, 0.056) and deltamethrin at 0.22, 0.44, 0.88 and 1.76 μg/L, for 7, 14, 21 and 28 days. Plasma enzyme (aspartate transaminase: AST, alanine transaminase: ALT and alkaline phosphatase: ALP) and steroid hormones (estradiol-17β: E2, testosterone: T) levels were analyzed. Gonado-histopathological evaluation shows the presence of ovo-testis (intersex), oocytes atresia, cytoplasmic degeneration and clumping of vitellogenic oocytes in females, while male fish displayed enlargement and degeneration of testicular seminiferous tubules after 28 days exposure to cypermethrin and deltamethrin. Plasma biochemical analysis in pesticides exposed fish revealed that AST, ALT and ALP were significantly increased in a concentration-dependent manner. In addition, we observed respective and apparent concentration- and time-dependent increase and decrease of plasma E2 and T levels, compared to control. Interestingly, the significant increase in E2 levels paralleled gonadal ovo-testis (intersex) condition in exposed fish, indicating endocrine disruptive effects of cypermethrin and deltamethrin that favor the estrogenic pathway, in addition to overt negative consequences on reproductive, biochemical and physiological health of the exposed fish.

Pyrethroid pesticide exposure and hematological cancer: epidemiological, biological and molecular evidence

Pyrethroid insecticides are commonly used worldwide. The chronic effects of these compounds are of concern given that epidemiological studies have suggested an association with hematological cancer, particularly in children. However, the biological evidence at molecular and cellular levels is limited. A review on the molecular and cellular effects of pyrethroids is helpful to guide the study of the biological plausibility of the association of pyrethroids with hematological cancer. We reviewed studies suggesting that pyrethroids are genotoxic, induce genetic rearrangements, alter gene expression and modify DNA. All of these biological modifications could potentially contribute to the carcinogenic process in hematopoietic cells.

Effect of β-cyfluthrin (synthetic pyrethroid) on learning, muscular coordination and oxidative stress in Swiss albino mice

The present study was planned to evaluate neurotoxic effects of β-cyfluthrin in female Swiss albino mice. Two doses of β-cyfluthrin, specifically, one-tenth of median lethal dose (LD₅₀) and one-twentieth of LD₅₀, were selected for the study. Open-field behaviour, exploratory behaviour and emotional status were affected, and animals showed anxiety-like behaviour after β-cyfluthrin administration. Spatial learning was decreased using the Hebb-Wiliams maze. Acetylcholinesterase enzyme activity significantly decreased in the treated animals. The administration of β-cyfluthrin caused increased lipid peroxidation (malondialdehyde) and decreased superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione peroxidase activity in brain tissue. In conclusion, β-cyfluthrin caused neurotoxicity as well as oxidative damage in the brain of Swiss albino mice at the tested dose levels.

Assessment of acute toxicity and biochemical responses to chlorpyrifos, cypermethrin and their combination exposed earthworm, Eudrilus eugeniae

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In the present study, co-exposed administered pesticides induced a higher level of toxicity to Eudrilus eugeniae.

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Statistically significant changes were observed after 48 h exposure of CPF, cypermethrin and combination of the two, reflects the synergistic cumulative impact on the AChE and oxidative stress parameters in dose- dependent manner.

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Significant changes were observed in different body segments (Pre-Clitellar, Clitellar and Post-Clitellar) of earthworm in tissue specific pattern.

Recurrent application of chemical pesticides in the agricultural fields have adverse impact on flora and fauna of soil ecosystem. Earthworms immensely contribute in increasing the fertility of soil. They may act as a bioindicator for the ecotoxicological analysis of pesticide induced soil pollution. Earthworms, Eudrilus eugeniae were exposed to different concentrations of pesticides chlorpyrifos (OP), cypermethrin (a pyrethroid) and their combination for 48 h by paper contact toxicity method. The LC₅₀ for commercial grade of chlorpyrifos, cypermethrin and combined pesticides were determined as 0.165, 0.066 and 0.020 μg/cm², respectively. To assess the sub-lethal effect of these pesticides, E. eugeniae were exposed to 5% and 10% of LC₅₀ of the pesticides for 48 h. Variation in morpho-behavioural changes such as coiling, clitellar swelling, mucus release, bleeding and body fragmentation in earthworms were observed after exposure of both pesticides and their combination. Various biochemical estimations such as specific activity of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione -S-transferase (GST); levels of lipid peroxidation (LPO) and reduced glutathione (GSH) were carried out in different body segments. Significant changes in these stress markers were observed at low and high sub-acute concentration of pesticides exposed earthworm, Eudrilus eugeniae. Such changes indicate potential health risk to E. eugeniae if exposed to the high concentrations of these pesticides accumulated in soil.

Sodium fluoride induced skeletal muscle changes: Degradation of proteins and signaling mechanism

Fluoride is a well-known compound for its usefulness in healing dental caries. Similarly, fluoride is also known for its toxicity to various tissues in animals and humans. It causes skeletal fluorosis leading to osteoporosis of the bones. We hypothesized that when bones are affected by fluoride, the skeletal muscles are also likely to be affected by underlying molecular events involving myogenic differentiation. Murine myoblasts C2C12 were cultured in differentiation media with or without NaF (1 ppm-5 ppm) for four days. The effects of NaF on myoblasts and myotubes when exposed to low (1.5 ppm) and high concentration (5 ppm) were assessed based on the proliferation, alteration in gene expression, ROS production, and production of inflammatory cytokines. Changes based on morphology, multinucleated myotube formation, expression of MyHC1 and signaling pathways were also investigated. Concentrations of NaF tested had no effects on cell viability. NaF at low concentration (1.5 ppm) caused myoblast proliferation and when subjected to myogenic differentiation it induced hypertrophy of the myotubes by activating the IGF-1/AKT pathway. NaF at higher concentration (5 ppm), significantly inhibited myotube formation, increased skeletal muscle catabolism, generated reactive oxygen species (ROS) and inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-6) in C2C12 cells. NaF also enhanced the production of muscle atrophy-related genes, myostatin, and atrogin-1. The data suggest that NaF at low concentration can be used as muscle enhancing factor (hypertrophy), and at higher concentration, it accelerates skeletal muscle atrophy by activating the ubiquitin-proteosome pathway.