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Liu L, Cui H, Huang Y, Yan H, Zhou Y, Wan Y. Molecular docking and in vitro evaluations reveal the role of human cytochrome P450 3A4 in the cross-coupling metabolism of phenolic xenobiotics. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2023; 220:115256. [PMID: 36634892 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2023.115256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2022] [Revised: 12/11/2022] [Accepted: 01/08/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Metabolism generally transforms xenobiotics into more polar and hydrophilic products, facilitating their elimination from the body. Recently, a new metabolic pathway that transforms phenolic xenobiotics into more lipophilic and bioactive dimer products was discovered. To elucidate the role of cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes in mediating this cross-coupling metabolism, we used high-throughput screening to identify the metabolites generated from the coupling of 20 xenobiotics with four endogenous metabolites in liver microsomes. Endogenous vitamin E (VE) was the most reactive metabolite, as VE reacted with seven phenolic xenobiotics containing various structures (e.g., an imidazoline ring or a diphenol group) to generate novel lipophilic ethers such as bakuchiol-O-VE, phentolamine-O-VE, phenylethyl resorcinol-O-VE, 2-propanol-O-VE, and resveratrol-O-VE. Seven recombinant CYP enzymes were successfully expressed and purified in Escherichia coli. Integration of the results of recombinant human CYP incubation and molecular docking identified the central role of CYP3A4 in the cross-coupling metabolic pathway. Structural analysis revealed the π-π interactions, hydrogen bonds, and hydrophobic interactions between reactive xenobiotics and VE in the malleable active sites of CYP3A4. The consistency between the molecular docking results and the in vitro human cytochrome P450 evaluation shows that docking calculations can be used to screen molecules participating in cross-coupling metabolism. The results of this study provide supporting evidence for the overlooked toxicological effects induced by direct reactions between xenobiotics and endogenous metabolites during metabolic processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liu Liu
- Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Hongyang Cui
- Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Yixuan Huang
- Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Hao Yan
- Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Yulan Zhou
- Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Yi Wan
- Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China.
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Grint I, Crea F, Vasiliadou R. The Combination of Electrochemistry and Microfluidic Technology in Drug Metabolism Studies. Chemistry 2022; 11:e202200100. [PMID: 36166688 PMCID: PMC9716038 DOI: 10.1002/open.202200100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2022] [Revised: 08/25/2022] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Drugs are metabolized within the liver (pH 7.4) by phase I and phase II metabolism. During the process, reactive metabolites can be formed that react covalently with biomolecules and induce toxicity. Identifying and detecting reactive metabolites is an important part of drug development. Preclinical and clinical investigations are conducted to assess the toxicity and safety of a new drug candidate. Electrochemistry coupled to mass spectrometry is an ideal complementary technique to the current preclinical studies, a pure instrumental approach without any purification steps and tedious protocols. The combination of microfluidics with electrochemistry towards the mimicry of drug metabolism offers portability, low volume of reagents and faster reaction times. This review explores the development of microfluidic electrochemical cells for mimicking drug metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isobel Grint
- School of Life, Health and Chemical SciencesThe Open UniversityWalton Hall, Karen HillsMilton KeynesMK7 6AAUK
| | - Francesco Crea
- School of Life, Health and Chemical SciencesThe Open UniversityWalton Hall, Karen HillsMilton KeynesMK7 6AAUK
| | - Rafaela Vasiliadou
- School of Life, Health and Chemical SciencesThe Open UniversityWalton Hall, Karen HillsMilton KeynesMK7 6AAUK
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Medaka embryos as a model for metabolism of anabolic steroids. Arch Toxicol 2022; 96:1963-1974. [PMID: 35352155 PMCID: PMC9151555 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-022-03284-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
In anti-doping science, the knowledge of drug metabolism is a prerequisite to identify analytical targets for the detection of misused prohibited substances. As the most obvious way to study xenobiotic metabolism, the administration to human volunteers, faces ethical concerns, there is a need for model systems. In the present study, we investigated whether Oryzias latipes (medaka) embryos might be an alternative, non-animal test model to study human-like metabolism. In the present study, we exposed medaka embryos at the morula stage to the anabolic steroid metandienone (10 µM or 50 µM) for a period of 2 or 8 days. According to the fish embryo toxicity test (OECD test), we assessed the developmental status of the embryos. We further investigated metandienone metabolites by high-performance liquid chromatography- and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Medaka embryos produced three mono-hydroxylated and one reduced metabolite known from human biotransformation. Developmental malformations were observed for the exposition to 50 µM metandienone, while a significant elevation of the heart beat was also present in those individuals exposed to the lower dose for 8 days. The present study demonstrates that the medaka embryo represents a promising model to study human-like metabolism. Moreover, the judgement of developmental parameters of the fish embryos enables for the simultaneous assessment of toxicity.
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Liu L, Cui H, Huang Y, Zhou Y, Hu J, Wan Y. Enzyme-Mediated Reactions of Phenolic Pollutants and Endogenous Metabolites as an Overlooked Metabolic Disruption Pathway. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:3634-3644. [PMID: 35238542 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c08141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
It is generally recognized that phenol-containing molecules mainly undergo phase II metabolic reactions, whereas glucuronide and sulfate are conjugated to form water-soluble products. Here, we report direct reactions of phenolic pollutants (triclosan, alkylphenol, bisphenol A [BPA], and its analogues) and some endogenous metabolites (vitamin E [VE] and estradiol) to generate new lipophilic ether products (e.g., BPA-O-VEs and alkylphenol-O-estradiol). A nontargeted screening strategy was used to identify the products in human liver microsome incubations, and the most abundant products (BPA-O-VEs) were confirmed via in vivo exposure in mice. BPA-O-VEs were frequently detected in sera from the general population at levels comparable to those of glucuronide/sulfate-conjugated BPA. Recombinant human cytochrome P450s were applied to find that CYP3A4 catalyzed the formation of these newly discovered ether metabolites by linking the VE hydroxyl group to the BPA phenolic ring, leading to the significantly reduced antioxidative activities of BPA-O-VEs compared to VEs. The effects of the reaction on the homeostasis of reacted biomolecules were finally assessed by in vitro assay and in vivo mice exposures. The generation of BPA-O-VEs decreased the VE concentrations and increased the reactive oxygen species generation after exposure to BPA at environmentally relevant concentrations. The identified reactions provided an overlooked metabolic disruption pathway for phenolic pollutants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liu Liu
- Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Hongyang Cui
- Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Yixuan Huang
- Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Yulan Zhou
- Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Jianying Hu
- Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Yi Wan
- Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
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Fessner ND, Grimm C, Srdič M, Weber H, Kroutil W, Schwaneberg U, Glieder A. Natural Product Diversification by One‐Step Biocatalysis using Human P450 3A4. ChemCatChem 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/cctc.202101564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nico D. Fessner
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology NAWI Graz Graz University of Technology Petersgasse 14 8010 Graz Austria
| | - Christopher Grimm
- Institute of Chemistry NAWI Graz University of Graz Heinrichstraße 28 8010 Graz Austria
| | - Matic Srdič
- SeSaM-Biotech GmbH Forckenbeckstraße 50 52074 Aachen Germany
- Bisy GmbH Wuenschendorf 292 Hofstätten an der Raab 8200 Hofstaetten Austria
| | - Hansjörg Weber
- Institute of Organic Chemistry NAWI Graz Graz University of Technology Stremayrgasse 9 8010 Graz Austria
| | - Wolfgang Kroutil
- Institute of Chemistry NAWI Graz University of Graz Heinrichstraße 28 8010 Graz Austria
| | - Ulrich Schwaneberg
- Institute of Biotechnology RWTH Aachen University Worringerweg 3 52074 Aachen Germany
| | - Anton Glieder
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology NAWI Graz Graz University of Technology Petersgasse 14 8010 Graz Austria
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Loke S, de la Torre X, Iannone M, La Piana G, Schlörer N, Botrè F, Bureik M, Parr MK. Controlled administration of dehydrochloromethyltestosterone in humans: Urinary excretion and long-term detection of metabolites for anti-doping purpose. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2021; 214:105978. [PMID: 34418529 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.105978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2021] [Revised: 08/13/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Dehydrochloromethyltestosterone (DHCMT) is an anabolic-androgenic steroid that was developed by Jenapharm in the 1960s and was marketed as Oral Turinabol®. It is prohibited in sports at all times; nevertheless, there are several findings by anti-doping laboratories every year. New long-term metabolites have been proposed in 2011/12, which resulted in adverse analytical findings in retests of the Olympic games of 2008 and 2012. However, no controlled administration trial monitoring these long-term metabolites was reported until now. In this study, DHCMT (5 mg, p.o.) was administered to five healthy male volunteers and their urine samples were collected for a total of 60 days. The unconjugated and the glucuronidated fraction were analyzed separately by gas chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. The formation of the described long-term metabolites was verified, and their excretion monitored in detail. Due to interindividual differences there were several varieties in the excretion profiles among the volunteers. The metabolite M3, which has a fully reduced A-ring and modified D-ring structure, was identified by comparison with reference material as 4α-chloro-17β-hydroxymethyl-17α-methyl-18-nor-5α-androstan-13-en-3α-ol. It was found to be suitable as long-term marker for the intake of DHCMT in four of the volunteers. In one of the volunteers, it was detectable for 45 days after single oral dose administration. However, in two of the volunteers M5 (already published as long-term metabolite in the 1990s) showed longer detection windows. In one volunteer M3 was undetectable but another metabolite, M2, was found as the longest detectable metabolite. The last sample clearly identified as positive was collected between 9.9 and 44.9 days. Furthermore, the metabolite epiM4 (partially reduced A-ring and a modified D-ring structure which is epimerized in position 17 compared to M3) was identified in the urine of all volunteers with the help of chemically synthesized reference as 4-chloro-17α-hydroxymethyl-17β-methyl-18-nor-androsta-4,13-dien-3β-ol. It may serve as additional confirmatory metabolite. It is highly recommended to screen for all known metabolites in both fractions, glucuronidated and unconjugated, to improve identification of cheating athletes. This study also offers some deeper insights into the metabolism of DHCMT and of 17α-methyl steroids in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steffen Loke
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institute of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Königin-Luise-Straße 2+4, 14195, Berlin, Germany.
| | | | - Michele Iannone
- Laboratorio Antidoping FMSI, Largo Giulio Onesti 1, Rome, 00197, Italy.
| | - Giuseppe La Piana
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institute of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Königin-Luise-Straße 2+4, 14195, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Nils Schlörer
- Universität zu Köln, NMR facility, Department of Chemistry, Greinstraße 4, 50939, Cologne, Germany.
| | - Francesco Botrè
- Laboratorio Antidoping FMSI, Largo Giulio Onesti 1, Rome, 00197, Italy; REDs - Research and Expertise in antiDoping Sciences, ISSUL - Institute des Sciences du Sport, Université de Lausanne, 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Matthias Bureik
- Tianjin University, School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, 92 Weijin Road, Nankai District, Tianjin, 300072, China.
| | - Maria Kristina Parr
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institute of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Königin-Luise-Straße 2+4, 14195, Berlin, Germany.
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Roberts O, Kinvig H, Owen A, Lamorde M, Siccardi M, Scarsi KK. In vitro assessment of the potential for dolutegravir to affect hepatic clearance of levonorgestrel. HIV Med 2021; 22:898-906. [PMID: 34328253 PMCID: PMC9363158 DOI: 10.1111/hiv.13136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2020] [Accepted: 06/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Objectives: The World Health Organization recommends that all countries adopt dolutegravir-based antiretroviral therapy as the preferred regimen for all individuals living with HIV. Levonorgestrel is a commonly used hormonal contraceptive, which undergoes drug–drug interactions with some antiretrovirals, but the potential interaction between dolutegravir and levonorgestrel has not been examined. We aimed to evaluate cytochrome P450 (CYP)-mediated levonorgestrel metabolism and quantify the effects of dolutegravir on levonorgestrel apparent intrinsic clearance (CLint.app.) and CYP gene expression. Methods: In vitro CYP-mediated CLint.app. of levonorgestrel was quantified using a recombinant human CYP (rhCYP) enzyme system. A primary human hepatocyte model of drug metabolism was used to assess the effects of dolutegravir on (1) levonorgestrel CLint.app., using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, and (2) the expression of specific CYP enzymes, using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. Results: Levonorgestrel clearance was mediated by multiple rhCYPs, including rhCYP3A4. Under control conditions, levonorgestrel CLint.app. was 22.4 ± 5.0 μL/min/106 hepatocytes. Incubation with 43.1 nM of unbound dolutegravir elevated levonorgestrel CLint.app. to 31.4 ± 7.8 μL/min/106 hepatocytes (P = 0.168), while 142.23 nM increased levonorgestrel CLint.app. to 37.0 ± 2.9 μL/min/106 hepatocytes (P = 0.012). Unbound dolutegravir ≥ 431 nM induced expression of CYP3A4 (≥ two-fold) in a dose-dependent manner, while 1.44 μM of unbound dolutegravir induced CYP2B6 expression 2.2 ± 0.3-fold (P = 0.0004). Conclusions: In summary, this in vitro study suggests that dolutegravir has the potential to increase hepatic clearance of levonorgestrel by inducing both CYP3A and non-CYP3A enzymes. The observed in vitro dolutegravir–levonorgestrel drug–drug interaction should be further examined in clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Owain Roberts
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Institute of Systems, Molecular and Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Hannah Kinvig
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Institute of Systems, Molecular and Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Andrew Owen
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Institute of Systems, Molecular and Integrative Biology, Materials Innovation Factory, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Mohammed Lamorde
- Infectious Diseases Institute, College of Health Sciences, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Marco Siccardi
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Institute of Systems, Molecular and Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Kimberly K Scarsi
- College of Pharmacy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
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Sri Laasya T, Thakur S, Poduri R, Joshi G. Current insights toward kidney injury: Decrypting the dual role and mechanism involved of herbal drugs in inducing kidney injury and its treatment. CURRENT RESEARCH IN BIOTECHNOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.crbiot.2020.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
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Martinez-Brito D, Iannone M, Tatangelo MA, Molaioni F, de la Torre X, Botrè F. A further insight into methyltestosterone metabolism: New evidences from in vitro and in vivo experiments. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2020; 34:e8870. [PMID: 32570291 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.8870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2020] [Revised: 05/07/2020] [Accepted: 06/22/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Although the metabolism of methyltestosterone (MT) has been extensively studied since the 1950s using different techniques, the aim of this study was to investigate the hydroxylation in positions C2, C4 and C6 after in vitro experiments and in vivo excretion studies using gas chromatography time-of-flight (GC/TOF) and gas chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (GC/MS/MS). The results could be influenced by the mass spectrometric analyser used. METHODS Incubations were carried out with human liver microsomes and six enzymes belonging to the cytochrome P450 family using MT as a substrate. The trimethylsilyl derivatives of the samples were analysed using GC/TOF and GC/MS/MS once the correct MS/MS transitions had been selected, mainly for 6-hydroxymethyltestosterone (6-OH-MT) to avoid artefact interferences. A urinary excretion study was then performed after the administration of a 10 mg single oral dose of MT to a volunteer. RESULTS The formation of hydroxylated metabolites of MT in the C6, C4 and C2 positions after both in vitro and in vivo experiments was observed. Sample evaluation using GC/TOF showed an interference for 6-OH-MT that could only be resolved in GC/MS/MS by monitoring specific transitions. The transitory detection of these hydroxylated metabolites in urine agrees with previous investigations that had described this metabolic route as being of little significance. CONCLUSIONS In doping analysis, the formation of 4-hydroxymethyltestosterone (oxymesterone) from MT cannot be underestimated. Although it is only detected as a minor and short-term excretion metabolite, it cannot be overlooked as it was found in both in vitro and in vivo experiments. The use of a combination of different mass spectrometric instruments allowed reliable conclusions to be reached, and it was shown that special attention must be given to artefact formation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Francesco Botrè
- Laboratorio Antidoping FMSI, Rome, Italy
- Department of Experimental Medicine, 'Sapienza' University of Rome, Rome, Italy
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Goto T, Tohkin M, Yamazoe Y. Solving the interactions of steroidal ligands with CYP3A4 using a grid-base template system. Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2019; 34:351-364. [PMID: 31563329 DOI: 10.1016/j.dmpk.2019.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2019] [Revised: 05/19/2019] [Accepted: 05/27/2019] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Using over fifty steroidal ligands, CYP3A4 Template system established in our previous study (DMPK 34: 113-125, 2019) has been evaluated for the applicability for prediction of regioselective metabolisms of steroids in the present study. Plural regional interactions near Site of Oxidation of CYP3A4 (Slide-down and Adaptation) are newly defined for steroid ligands in addition to previously characterized Trigger- and IJL-interactions on Template. Interaction of steroids at ring-A with CYP3A4 residue (Front-residue), at the facial side of Ring B of Template, determined the availability of ligand sitting at Rings A and B of Template. Steroids having 3-one-4-ene structures, which are not stacked on Front-residue, thus slide down for their 6-oxidations. Some steroids with 3β-ol structures undergo the further right-side movement (Adaptation) for their 7-oxidations. Similar overpassing phenomena are also expected for steroid 15/16-oxidations and 2/1-oxidations. Allowable width on ligand accommodation was also defined as Width-gauge of Template. Reciprocal comparison of sittings of steroids on Template with experimental data offered idea of CYP3A4-mediated oxidations of steroids through seven distinct types of placements on Template and of the relationship with their usage abundance. The present system would offer practical way for structural identification and verification of CYP3A4-mediated metabolisms of various types of steroids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takahiro Goto
- Essential Medicines and Health Products, Access to Medicines, Vaccines and Pharmaceuticals, World Health Organization, Avenue Appia 20, 1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland; Regulatory Science, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nagoya City University, 3-1, Tanabe-dori, Mizuho-ku, Nagoya, 467-8603, Japan
| | - Masahiro Tohkin
- Regulatory Science, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nagoya City University, 3-1, Tanabe-dori, Mizuho-ku, Nagoya, 467-8603, Japan
| | - Yasushi Yamazoe
- Division of Drug Metabolism and Molecular Toxicology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University, 6-3 Aramaki-Aoba, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8578, Japan; Food Safety Commission, Cabinet Office, Government of Japan, Akasaka Park Bldg. 22F 5-2-20 Akasaka, Minato-ku, Tokyo, 107-6122 Japan; Division of Risk Assessment, National Institute of Health Sciences, Tonomachi 3-25-26, Kawasaki-ku, Kanagawa, 210-9501, Japan.
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Mazzarino M, Khevenhüller-Metsch FL, Fiacco I, Parr MK, de la Torre X, Botrè F. Drug-drug interaction and doping: Effect of non-prohibited drugs on the urinary excretion profile of methandienone. Drug Test Anal 2018; 10:1554-1565. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2017] [Revised: 05/04/2018] [Accepted: 05/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Monica Mazzarino
- Laboratorio Antidoping; Federazione Medico Sportiva Italiana; Rome Italy
| | | | - Ilaria Fiacco
- Laboratorio Antidoping; Federazione Medico Sportiva Italiana; Rome Italy
| | - Maria Kristina Parr
- Department of Biology Chemistry and Pharmacy; Freie Universität Berlin; Germany
| | - Xavier de la Torre
- Laboratorio Antidoping; Federazione Medico Sportiva Italiana; Rome Italy
| | - Francesco Botrè
- Laboratorio Antidoping; Federazione Medico Sportiva Italiana; Rome Italy
- Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale; “Sapienza” Università di Roma; Rome Italy
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Martínez-Rivera FJ, Pérez-Laspiur J, Santiago-Gascot ME, Alemán-Reyes AG, García-Santiago E, Rodríguez-Pérez Y, Calo-Guadalupe C, Otero-Pagán I, Ayala-Pagán RN, Martínez M, Cantres-Rosario YM, Meléndez LM, Barreto-Estrada JL. Differential protein expression profile in the hypothalamic GT1-7 cell line after exposure to anabolic androgenic steroids. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0180409. [PMID: 28719635 PMCID: PMC5515402 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0180409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2016] [Accepted: 06/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The abuse of anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) has been considered a major public health problem during decades. Supraphysiological doses of AAS may lead to a variety of neuroendocrine problems. Precisely, the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis is one of the body systems that is mainly influenced by steroidal hormones. Fluctuations of the hormonal milieu result in alterations of reproductive function, which are made through changes in hypothalamic neurons expressing gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). In fact, previous studies have shown that AAS modulate the activity of these neurons through steroid-sensitive afferents. To increase knowledge about the cellular mechanisms induced by AAS in GnRH neurons, we performed proteomic analyses of the murine hypothalamic GT1-7 cell line after exposure to 17α-methyltestosterone (17α-meT; 1 μM). These cells represent a good model for studying regulatory processes because they exhibit the typical characteristics of GnRH neurons, and respond to compounds that modulate GnRH in vivo. Two-dimensional difference in gel electrophoresis (2D-DIGE) and mass spectrometry analyses identified a total of 17 different proteins that were significantly affected by supraphysiological levels of AAS. Furthermore, pathway analyses showed that modulated proteins were mainly associated to glucose metabolism, drug detoxification, stress response and cell cycle. Validation of many of these proteins, such as GSTM1, ERH, GAPDH, PEBP1 and PDIA6, were confirmed by western blotting. We further demonstrated that AAS exposure decreased expression of estrogen receptors and GnRH, while two important signaling pathway proteins p-ERK, and p-p38, were modulated. Our results suggest that steroids have the capacity to directly affect the neuroendocrine system by modulating key cellular processes for the control of reproductive function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Freddyson J. Martínez-Rivera
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Medical Sciences Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico, United States of America
| | - Juliana Pérez-Laspiur
- Translational Proteomics Center-RCMI, Medical Sciences Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico, United States of America
| | - María E. Santiago-Gascot
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Medical Sciences Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico, United States of America
| | - Abner G. Alemán-Reyes
- Department of Biology, University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras Campus, San Juan, Puerto Rico, United States of America
| | - Emanuel García-Santiago
- Department of Biotechnology, Universidad del Este, Carolina, Puerto Rico, United States of America
| | - Yolanda Rodríguez-Pérez
- Translational Proteomics Center-RCMI, Medical Sciences Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico, United States of America
| | - Cristhian Calo-Guadalupe
- Department of Biotechnology, Universidad del Este, Carolina, Puerto Rico, United States of America
| | - Inelia Otero-Pagán
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Medical Sciences Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico, United States of America
| | - Roxsana N. Ayala-Pagán
- Department of Biology, University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras Campus, San Juan, Puerto Rico, United States of America
| | - Magdiel Martínez
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Medical Sciences Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico, United States of America
| | - Yisel M. Cantres-Rosario
- Department of Microbiology and Medical Zoology, Medical Sciences Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico, United States of America
| | - Loyda M. Meléndez
- Translational Proteomics Center-RCMI, Medical Sciences Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology and Medical Zoology, Medical Sciences Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico, United States of America
| | - Jennifer L. Barreto-Estrada
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Medical Sciences Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico, United States of America
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Yin F, Yu H, Lepp D, Shi X, Yang X, Hu J, Leeson S, Yang C, Nie S, Hou Y, Gong J. Transcriptome Analysis Reveals Regulation of Gene Expression for Lipid Catabolism in Young Broilers by Butyrate Glycerides. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0160751. [PMID: 27508934 PMCID: PMC4979964 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0160751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2016] [Accepted: 07/25/2016] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Butyrate has been shown to potently regulate energy expenditure and lipid metabolism in animals, yet the underlying mechanisms remain to be fully understood. The aim of this study was to investigate the molecular mechanisms of butyrate (in the form of butyrate glycerides, BG)-induced lipid metabolism at the level of gene expression in the jejunum and liver of broilers. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Two animal experiments were included in this study. In Experiment 1, two hundred and forty male broiler chickens were equally allocated into two groups: 1) basal diet (BD), 2) BG diets (BD + BG). Growth performance was compared between treatments for the 41-day trial. In Experiment 2, forty male broiler chickens were equally allocated into two groups. The general experimental design, group and management were the same as described in Experiment 1 except for reduced bird numbers and 21-day duration of the trial. Growth performance, abdominal fat deposition, serum lipid profiles as well as serum and tissue concentrations of key enzymes involved in lipid metabolism were compared between treatments. RNA-seq was employed to identify both differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and treatment specifically expressed genes (TSEGs). Functional clustering of DEGs and TSEGs and signaling pathways associated with lipid metabolism were identified using Ingenuity Pathways Analysis (IPA) and DAVID Bioinformatics Resources 6.7 (DAVID-BR). Quantitative PCR (qPCR) assays were subsequently conducted to further examine the expression of genes in the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR) signaling pathway identified by DAVID-BR. Dietary BG intervention significantly reduced abdominal fat ratio (abdominal fat weight/final body weight) in broilers. The decreased fat deposition in BG-fed chickens was in accordance with serum lipid profiles as well as the level of lipid metabolism-related enzymes in the serum, abdominal adipose, jejunum and liver. RNA-seq analysis indicated that dietary BG intervention induced 79 and 205 characterized DEGs in the jejunum and liver, respectively. In addition, 255 and 165 TSEGs were detected in the liver and jejunum of BG-fed group, while 162 and 211 TSEGs genes were observed in the liver and jejunum of BD-fed birds, respectively. Bioinformatic analysis with both IPA and DAVID-BR further revealed a significant enrichment of DEGs and TSEGs in the biological processes for reducing the synthesis, storage, transportation and secretion of lipids in the jejunum, while those in the liver were for enhancing the oxidation of ingested lipids and fatty acids. In particular, transcriptional regulators of THRSP and EGR-1 as well as several DEGs involved in the PPAR-α signaling pathway were significantly induced by dietary BG intervention for lipid catabolism. CONCLUSIONS Our results demonstrate that BG reduces body fat deposition via regulation of gene expression, which is involved in the biological events relating to the reduction of synthesis, storage, transportation and secretion, and improvement of oxidation of lipids and fatty acids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fugui Yin
- Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Hai Yu
- Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Dion Lepp
- Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Xuejiang Shi
- Next Generation Sequencing Platforms, Clinical Genomics Centre, the UHN/MSH Gene Profiling Facility, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Xiaojian Yang
- Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jielun Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
| | - Steve Leeson
- Department of Animal and Poultry Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Chengbo Yang
- Department of Animal Science, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Shaoping Nie
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
| | - Yongqing Hou
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Joshua Gong
- Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
- * E-mail:
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Houshmand M, Lotfipanah S, Saremi L, Asgari N. Frequency evaluation of the CYP3A4*4 polymorphism in iranian healthy volunteers. ACTA MEDICA INTERNATIONAL 2016. [DOI: 10.5530/ami.2016.2.23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
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15
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Schiffer L, Brixius-Anderko S, Hannemann F, Zapp J, Neunzig J, Thevis M, Bernhardt R. Metabolism of Oral Turinabol by Human Steroid Hormone-Synthesizing Cytochrome P450 Enzymes. Drug Metab Dispos 2015; 44:227-37. [DOI: 10.1124/dmd.115.066829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2015] [Accepted: 12/07/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
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16
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He W, Wu JJ, Ning J, Hou J, Xin H, He YQ, Ge GB, Xu W. Inhibition of human cytochrome P450 enzymes by licochalcone A, a naturally occurring constituent of licorice. Toxicol In Vitro 2015; 29:1569-76. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2015.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2015] [Revised: 06/04/2015] [Accepted: 06/16/2015] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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17
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Dai ZR, Ai CZ, Ge GB, He YQ, Wu JJ, Wang JY, Man HZ, Jia Y, Yang L. A Mechanism-Based Model for the Prediction of the Metabolic Sites of Steroids Mediated by Cytochrome P450 3A4. Int J Mol Sci 2015; 16:14677-94. [PMID: 26133240 PMCID: PMC4519866 DOI: 10.3390/ijms160714677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2015] [Revised: 05/26/2015] [Accepted: 05/27/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Early prediction of xenobiotic metabolism is essential for drug discovery and development. As the most important human drug-metabolizing enzyme, cytochrome P450 3A4 has a large active cavity and metabolizes a broad spectrum of substrates. The poor substrate specificity of CYP3A4 makes it a huge challenge to predict the metabolic site(s) on its substrates. This study aimed to develop a mechanism-based prediction model based on two key parameters, including the binding conformation and the reaction activity of ligands, which could reveal the process of real metabolic reaction(s) and the site(s) of modification. The newly established model was applied to predict the metabolic site(s) of steroids; a class of CYP3A4-preferred substrates. 38 steroids and 12 non-steroids were randomly divided into training and test sets. Two major metabolic reactions, including aliphatic hydroxylation and N-dealkylation, were involved in this study. At least one of the top three predicted metabolic sites was validated by the experimental data. The overall accuracy for the training and test were 82.14% and 86.36%, respectively. In summary, a mechanism-based prediction model was established for the first time, which could be used to predict the metabolic site(s) of CYP3A4 on steroids with high predictive accuracy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zi-Ru Dai
- Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, China.
- Graduate School of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
| | - Chun-Zhi Ai
- Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, China.
| | - Guang-Bo Ge
- Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, China.
| | - Yu-Qi He
- Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, China.
| | - Jing-Jing Wu
- Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, China.
| | - Jia-Yue Wang
- Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, China.
| | - Hui-Zi Man
- Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, China.
| | - Yan Jia
- Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, China.
- Graduate School of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
| | - Ling Yang
- Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, China.
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18
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Niwa T, Murayama N, Imagawa Y, Yamazaki H. Regioselective hydroxylation of steroid hormones by human cytochromes P450. Drug Metab Rev 2015; 47:89-110. [PMID: 25678418 DOI: 10.3109/03602532.2015.1011658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
This article reviews in vitro metabolic activities [including Michaelis constants (Km), maximal velocities (Vmax) and Vmax/Km] and drug-steroid interactions [such as induction and cooperativity (activation)] of cytochromes P450 (P450 or CYP) in human tissues, including liver and adrenal gland, for 14 kinds of endogenous steroid compounds, including allopregnanolone, cholesterol, cortisol, cortisone, dehydroepiandrosterone, estradiol, estrone, pregnenolone, progesterone, testosterone and bile acids (cholic acid). First, we considered the drug-metabolizing P450s. 6β-Hydroxylation of many steroids, including cortisol, cortisone, progesterone and testosterone, was catalyzed primarily by CYP3A4. CYP1A2 and CYP3A4, respectively, are likely the major hepatic enzymes responsible for 2-/4-hydroxylation and 16α-hydroxylation of estradiol and estrone, steroids that can contribute to breast cancer risk. In contrast, CYP1A1 and CYP1B1 predominantly metabolized estrone and estradiol to 2- and 4-catechol estrogens, which are endogenous ultimate carcinogens if formed in the breast. Some metabolic activities of CYP3A4, including dehydroepiandrosterone 7β-/16α-hydroxylation, estrone 2-hydroxylation and testosterone 6β-hydroxylation, were higher than those for polymorphically expressed CYP3A5. Next, we considered typical steroidogenic P450s. CYP17A1, CYP19A1 and CYP27A1 catalyzed steroid synthesis, including hydroxylation at 17α, 19 and 27 positions, respectively. However, it was difficult to predict which hepatic drug-metabolizing P450 or steroidogenic P450 will be mainly responsible for metabolizing each steroid hormone in vivo based on these results. Further research is required on the metabolism of steroid hormones by various P450s and on prediction of their relative contributions to in vivo metabolism. The findings collected here provide fundamental and useful information on the metabolism of steroid compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshiro Niwa
- School of Pharmacy, Shujitsu University , Okayama , Japan and
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19
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Blackwell BR, Brown TR, Broadway PR, Buser MD, Brooks JC, Johnson BJ, Cobb GP, Smith PN. Characterization of trenbolone acetate and estradiol metabolite excretion profiles in implanted steers. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2014; 33:2850-8. [PMID: 25244153 DOI: 10.1002/etc.2757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2014] [Revised: 06/17/2014] [Accepted: 09/15/2014] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Exogenous growth promoters have been used in US beef cattle production for over 50 yr. The environmental fate and transport of steroid growth promoters suggest potential for endocrine-disrupting effects among ecological receptors; however, the initial excretion of steroid metabolites from cattle administered growth promoters has not been well characterized. To better characterize excretion of trenbolone acetate and estrogen metabolites, steers were assigned to 1 of the following treatment groups: control, given no implant, or treatment, administered a combination implant (200 mg trenbolone acetate, 40 mg estradiol). Blood, urine, and fecal samples were collected over the course of 112 d following implantation. Samples were extracted and analyzed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry for trenbolone acetate and estrogen metabolites. In both urine and feces, 17α-trenbolone and 17α-estradiol were the predominant metabolites following implantation. Mean concentrations of 17α-trenbolone and 17α-estradiol in feces of implanted steers were 5.9 ± 0.37 ng/g and 2.7 ± 0.22 ng/g, respectively. A best-fit model is presented to predict 17α-trenbolone and 17α-estradiol excretion from steers receiving implants. The present study provides the first characterization of both trenbolone and estrogen metabolites in excreta from implanted cattle and will help provide estimates of steroid production from feedyards in the United States.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brett R Blackwell
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas, USA
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20
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Knights KM, Rowland A, Miners JO. Renal drug metabolism in humans: the potential for drug-endobiotic interactions involving cytochrome P450 (CYP) and UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT). Br J Clin Pharmacol 2014; 76:587-602. [PMID: 23362865 DOI: 10.1111/bcp.12086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2012] [Accepted: 01/23/2013] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Although knowledge of human renal cytochrome P450 (CYP) and UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) enzymes and their role in xenobiotic and endobiotic metabolism is limited compared with hepatic drug and chemical metabolism, accumulating evidence indicates that human kidney has significant metabolic capacity. Of the drug metabolizing P450s in families 1 to 3, there is definitive evidence for only CYP 2B6 and 3A5 expression in human kidney. CYP 1A1, 1A2, 1B1, 2A6, 2C19, 2D6 and 2E1 are not expressed in human kidney, while data for CYP 2C8, 2C9 and 3A4 expression are equivocal. It is further known that several P450 enzymes involved in the metabolism of arachidonic acid and eicosanoids are expressed in human kidney, CYP 4A11, 4F2, 4F8, 4F11 and 4F12. With the current limited evidence of drug substrates for human renal P450s drug-endobiotic interactions arising from inhibition of renal P450s, particularly effects on arachidonic acid metabolism, appear unlikely. With respect to the UGTs, 1A5, 1A6, 1A7, 1A9, 2B4, 2B7 and 2B17 are expressed in human kidney, whereas UGT 1A1, 1A3, 1A4, 1A8, 1A10, 2B10, 2B11 and 2B15 are not. The most abundantly expressed renal UGTs are 1A9 and 2B7, which play a significant role in the glucuronidation of drugs, arachidonic acid, prostaglandins, leukotrienes and P450 derived arachidonic acid metabolites. Modulation by drug substrates (e.g. NSAIDs) of the intrarenal activity of UGT1A9 and UGT2B7 has the potential to perturb the metabolism of renal mediators including aldosterone, prostaglandins and 20-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid, thus disrupting renal homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen M Knights
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
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21
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Xu M, Ju W, Hao H, Wang G, Li P. Cytochrome P450 2J2: distribution, function, regulation, genetic polymorphisms and clinical significance. Drug Metab Rev 2014; 45:311-52. [PMID: 23865864 DOI: 10.3109/03602532.2013.806537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 2J2 (CYP2J2) is an enzyme mainly found in human extrahepatic tissues, with predominant expression in the cardiovascular systems and lower levels in the intestine, kidney, lung, pancreas, brain, liver, etc. During the past 15 years, CYP2J2 has attracted much attention for its epoxygenase activity in arachidonic acid (AA) metabolism. It converts AA to four epoxyeicosatrienoic acids (EETs) that have various biological effects, especially in the cardiovascular systems. In recent publications, CYP2J2 is shown highly expressed in various human tumor cells, and its EET metabolites are demonstrated to implicate in the pathologic development of human cancers. CYP2J2 is also a human CYP that involved in phase I xenobiotics metabolism. Antihistamine drugs and many other compounds were identified as the substrates of CYP2J2, and studies have demonstrated that these substrates have a broad structural diversity. CYP2J2 is found not readily induced by known P450 inducers; however, its expression could be regulated in some pathological conditions, might through the activator protein-1(AP-1), the AP-1-like element and microRNA let-7b. Several genetic mutations in the CYP2J2 gene have been identified in humans, and some of them have been shown to have potential associations with some diseases. With the increasing awareness of its roles in cancer disease and drug metabolism, studies about CYP2J2 are still going on, and various inhibitors of CYP2J2 have been determined. Further studies are needed to delineate the roles of CYP2J2 in disease pathology, drug development and clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meijuan Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
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22
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Cheong HH, Masilamani J, Chan CYE, Chan SY, Phan TT. Metabolically Functional Hepatocyte-Like Cells from Human Umbilical Cord Lining Epithelial Cells. Assay Drug Dev Technol 2013; 11:130-8. [DOI: 10.1089/adt.2011.444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Han Hui Cheong
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | | | - Chun Yong Eric Chan
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Sui Yung Chan
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Toan Thang Phan
- CellResearch Corporation Pte. Ltd., Singapore
- Department of Surgery, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
- Tissue Engineering Program, Life Sciences Institute, Center for Life Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore
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23
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Parr MK, Zöllner A, Fußhöller G, Opfermann G, Schlörer N, Zorio M, Bureik M, Schänzer W. Unexpected contribution of cytochrome P450 enzymes CYP11B2 and CYP21, as well as CYP3A4 in xenobiotic androgen elimination – Insights from metandienone metabolism. Toxicol Lett 2012; 213:381-91. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2012.07.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2012] [Revised: 07/23/2012] [Accepted: 07/24/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Gauthier J, Poirier D, Ayotte C. Characterization of desoxymethyltestosterone main urinary metabolite produced from cultures of human fresh hepatocytes. Steroids 2012; 77:635-43. [PMID: 22366110 DOI: 10.1016/j.steroids.2012.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2011] [Revised: 02/07/2012] [Accepted: 02/08/2012] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Desoxymethyltestosterone (DMT; 17β-hydroxy-17α-methyl-5α-androst-2-ene) is a designer steroid present in hormonal supplements distributed illegally as such or in combination with other steroids, for self-administration. It figures on the list of substances prohibited in sports and its detection in athlete's urine samples is based upon the presence of the parent compound or the main urinary metabolite, which has not been characterized yet. Following its isolation from cultures of human fresh hepatocytes and S9 fractions of liver homogenates, we were able to identify this metabolite as being 17α-methyl-2β,3α,17β-trihydroxy-5α-androstane. Other minor metabolites were also characterized. The production, isolation, NMR, mass spectral analyses and chemical synthesis are presented.
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25
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Sobolevsky T, Rodchenkov G. Detection and mass spectrometric characterization of novel long-term dehydrochloromethyltestosterone metabolites in human urine. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2012; 128:121-7. [PMID: 22142641 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2011] [Revised: 10/11/2011] [Accepted: 11/02/2011] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The biotransformation of dehydrochloromethyltestosterone (DHCMT, 4-chloro-17β-hydroxy,17α-methylandrosta-1,4-dien-3-one) in man was studied with the aim to discover long-term metabolites valuable for the antidoping analysis. Having applied a high performance liquid chromatography for the fractionation of urinary extract obtained from the pool of several DHCMT positive urines, about 50 metabolites were found. Most of these metabolites were included in the GC-MS/MS screening method, which was subsequently applied to analyze the post-administration and routine doping control samples. As a result of this study, 6 new long-term metabolites were identified tentatively characterized using GC-MS and GC-MS/MS as 4-chloro-17α-methyl-5β-androstan-3α,16,17β-triol (M1), 4-chloro-18-nor-17β-hydroxymethyl,17α-methyl-5β-androsta-1,13-dien-3α-ol (M2), 4-chloro-18-nor-17β-hydroxymethyl,17α-methyl-5β-androst-13-en-3α-ol (M3), its epimer 4-chloro-18-nor-17α-hydroxymethyl,17β-methyl-5β-androst-13-en-3α-ol, 4-chloro-18-nor-17β-hydroxymethyl,17α-methylandrosta-4,13-dien-3α-ol (M4) and its epimer 4-chloro-18-nor-17α-hydroxymethyl,17β-methylandrosta-4,13-dien-3α-ol. The most long-term metabolite M3 was shown to be superior in the majority of cases to the other known DHCMT metabolites, such as 4-chloro-18-nor-17β-hydroxymethyl,17α-methylandrosta-1,4,13-trien-3-one and 4-chloro-3α,6β,17β-trihydroxy-17α-methyl-5β-androst-1-en-16-one.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Sobolevsky
- Moscow Antidoping Centre, Elizavetinsky per. 10, 105005 Moscow, Russia.
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26
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Parr MK, Schänzer W. Detection of the misuse of steroids in doping control. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2010; 121:528-37. [PMID: 20036329 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2009.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2009] [Revised: 12/16/2009] [Accepted: 12/20/2009] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The list of prohibited substances of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) classifies the administration of several steroids in sports as doping. Their analysis is generally performed using urine specimen as matrix. Lots of the steroids are extensively metabolised in the human body. Thus, knowledge of urinary excretion is extremely important for the sensitive detection of steroid misuse in doping control. The methods routinely used in steroid screening mainly focus on substances, that are excreted unconjugated or as glucuronides. Common procedures include deconjugation using a beta-glucuronidase enzyme. Following extraction and concentration the analytes are submitted to LC-MS(/MS) analysis and/or GC-MS(/MS) analyses. Besides the classical steroids, more and more products appear on the market for "dietary supplements" containing steroids that have never been marketed as approved drugs, mostly without proper labelling of the contents. To cover the whole range of potential products comprehensive screening tools have to be utilised in addition to the classical methods. Endogenous steroids, e.g. testosterone, represent a special group of compounds. As classical chemical methodology is incapable of discriminating synthetic hormones from the biosynthesised congeners, the method of steroid profiling is used for screening purpose. Additionally, based on isotope signatures a discrimination of synthetic and natural hormones can be achieved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Kristina Parr
- Institute of Biochemistry, German Sport University Cologne, Am Sportpark Muengersdorf 6, 50933 Cologne, Germany.
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27
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Parr MK, Flenker U, Schänzer W. Sports-related issues and biochemistry of natural and synthetic anabolic substances. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2010; 39:45-57, viii. [PMID: 20122449 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecl.2009.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Testosterone is the principal male sex hormone. As with all natural steroids, it is biosynthesized from cholesterol. Phase I metabolism employs some very specific enzymes and pathways. Phase II metabolism and excretion follow more general patterns. The effects of testosterone are twofold: anabolic and androgenic. Because of its anabolic effects, testosterone is frequently abused in sports. Because of its endogenous nature, testosterone doping is difficult to detect. The standard procedure is based on the evaluation of the urinary steroid profile. Conspicuous samples then are submitted to compound-specific (13)C/(12)C analysis. Synthetic and endogenous steroids differ in this measure. Numerous xenobiotic compounds have been derived from testosterone. The modifications typically aim at a reduction of the androgenic properties while maintaining the anabolic potential. Most of these compounds have been withdrawn from the legal market. However, they are found to be illicitly added to otherwise inefficient nutritional supplements. These products represent a major problem to doping control. Recently, clinical trials with selective androgen receptor modulators have been started.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria K Parr
- Institute of Biochemistry, German Sport University Cologne (DSHS), Cologne, Germany
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Zöllner A, Parr MK, Drăgan CA, Dräs S, Schlörer N, Peters FT, Maurer HH, Schänzer W, Bureik M. CYP21-catalyzed production of the long-term urinary metandienone metabolite 17β-hydroxymethyl-17α-methyl-18-norandrosta-1,4,13-trien-3-one: a contribution to the fight against doping. Biol Chem 2010; 391:119-27. [DOI: 10.1515/bc.2010.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
AbstractAnabolic-androgenic steroids are some of the most frequently misused drugs in human sports. Recently, a previously unknown urinary metabolite of metandienone, 17β-hydroxymethyl-17α-methyl-18-norandrosta-1,4,13-trien-3-one (20OH-NorMD), was discovered via LC-MS/MS and GC-MS. This metabolite was reported to be detected in urine samples up to 19 days after administration of metandienone. However, so far it was not possible to obtain purified reference material of this metabolite and to confirm its structure via NMR. Eleven recombinant strains of the fission yeastSchizosaccharomyces pombethat express different human hepatic or steroidogenic cytochrome P450 enzymes were screened for production of this metabolite in a whole-cell biotransformation reaction. 17,17-Dimethyl-18-norandrosta-1,4,13-trien-3-one, chemically derived from metandienone, was used as substrate for the bioconversion, because it could be converted to the final product in a single hydroxylation step. The obtained results demonstrate that CYP21 and to a lesser extent also CYP3A4 expressing strains can catalyze this steroid hydroxylation. Subsequent 5 l-scale fermentation resulted in the production and purification of 10 mg of metabolite and its unequivocal structure determination via NMR. The synthesis of this urinary metandienone metabolite viaS. pombe-based whole-cell biotransformation now allows its use as a reference substance in doping control assays.
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Lootens L, Meuleman P, Pozo OJ, Van Eenoo P, Leroux-Roels G, Delbeke FT. uPA+/+-SCID mouse with humanized liver as a model for in vivo metabolism of exogenous steroids: methandienone as a case study. Clin Chem 2009; 55:1783-93. [PMID: 19643840 DOI: 10.1373/clinchem.2008.119396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Adequate detection of designer steroids in the urine of athletes is still a challenge in doping control analysis and requires knowledge of steroid metabolism. In this study we investigated whether uPA(+/+)-SCID mice carrying functional primary human hepatocytes in their liver would provide a suitable alternative small animal model for the investigation of human steroid metabolism in vivo. METHODS A quantitative method based on liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was developed and validated for the urinary detection of 7 known methandienone metabolites. Application of this method to urine samples from humanized mice after methandienone administration allowed for comparison with data from in vivo human samples and with reported methandienone data from in vitro hepatocyte cultures. RESULTS The LC-MS/MS method validation in mouse and human urine indicated good linearity, precision, and recovery. Using this method we quantified 6 of 7 known human methandienone metabolites in the urine of chimeric mice, whereas in control nonchimeric mice we detected only 2 metabolites. These results correlated very well with methandienone metabolism in humans. In addition, we detected 4 isomers of methandienone metabolites in both human and chimeric mouse urine. One of these isomers has never been reported before. CONCLUSIONS The results of this proof-of-concept study indicate that the human liver-uPA(+/+)-SCID mouse appears to be a suitable small animal model for the investigation of human-type metabolism of anabolic steroids and possibly also for other types of drugs and medications.
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Asha S, Vidyavathi M. Role of Human Liver Microsomes in In Vitro Metabolism of Drugs—A Review. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 2009; 160:1699-722. [DOI: 10.1007/s12010-009-8689-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2009] [Accepted: 06/05/2009] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
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Zhang YY, Yang L. Interactions between human cytochrome P450 enzymes and steroids: physiological and pharmacological implications. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2009; 5:621-9. [DOI: 10.1517/17425250902967648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Prasad PV, Arumugam R, Willman M, Ge RS, Sitruk-Ware R, Kumar N. Distribution, metabolism and excretion of a synthetic androgen 7alpha-methyl-19-nortestosterone, a potential male-contraceptive. Steroids 2009; 74:121-31. [PMID: 18992267 DOI: 10.1016/j.steroids.2008.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2008] [Revised: 08/29/2008] [Accepted: 09/29/2008] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
A synthetic androgen 7alpha-Methyl-19-nortestosterone (MENT) has a potential for therapeutic use in 'androgen replacement therapy' for hypogonadal men or as a hormonal male-contraceptive in normal men. Its tissue distribution, excretion and metabolic enzyme(s) have not been reported. Therefore, the present study tested the distribution and excretion of MENT in Sprague-Dawley rats castrated 24h prior to the injection of tritium-labeled MENT ((3)H-MENT). Rats were euthanized at different time intervals after dosing, and the amount of radioactivity in various tissues/organs was measured following combustion in a Packard oxidizer. The radioactivity (% injected dose) was highest in the duodenal contents in the first 30min of injection. Specific uptake of the steroid was observed in target tissues such as ventral prostate and seminal vesicles at 6h, while in other tissues radioactivity equilibrated with blood. Liver and duodenum maintained high radioactivity throughout, as these organs were actively involved in the metabolism and excretion of most drugs. The excretion of (3)H-MENT was investigated after subcutaneous injection of (3)H-MENT into male rats housed in metabolic cages. Urine and feces were collected at different time intervals (up to 72h) following injection. Results showed that the radioactivity was excreted via feces and urine in equal amounts by 30h. Aiming to identify enzyme(s) involved in the MENT metabolism, we performed in vitro metabolism of (3)H-MENT using rat and human liver microsomes, cytosol and recombinant cytochrome P(450) (CYP) isozymes. The metabolites were separated by thin-layer chromatography (TLC). Three putative metabolites (in accordance with the report of Agarwal and Monder [Agarwal AK, Monder C. In vitro metabolism of 7alpha-methyl-19-nortestosterone by rat liver, prostate, and epididymis. Endocrinology 1988;123:2187-93]), [i] 3-hydroxylated MENT by both rat and human liver cytosol; [ii] 16alpha-hydroxylated MENT (a polar metabolite) by both rat and human hepatic microsomes; and [iii] 7alpha-methyl-19-norandrostenedione (a non-polar metabolite) by human hepatic microsomes, were obtained. By employing chemical inhibitors and specific anti-CYP antibodies, (3)H-MENT was found to be metabolized specifically by rat CYP 2C11 and 3-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3-HSD) enzymes whereas in humans it was accomplished by CYP 3A4, 17beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (17beta-HSD) and 3-HSD enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pramod Vishwanath Prasad
- Center for Biomedical Research, The Population Council, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, NY 10065, USA.
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Thevis M, Schänzer W. Mass spectrometry in sports drug testing: Structure characterization and analytical assays. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2007; 26:79-107. [PMID: 16888758 DOI: 10.1002/mas.20107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Owing to the sensitive, selective, and unambiguous nature of mass spectrometric analyses, chromatographic techniques interfaced to various kinds of mass spectrometers have become the most frequently employed strategy in the fight against doping. To obtain utmost confidence in analytical assays, mass spectrometric characterization of target analytes and typical dissociation pathways have been utilized as basis for the development of reliable and robust screening as well as confirmation procedures. Methods for qualitative and/or quantitative determinations of prohibited low and high molecular weight drugs have been established in doping control laboratories preferably employing gas or liquid chromatography combined with electron, chemical, or atmospheric pressure ionization followed by analyses using quadrupole, ion trap, linear ion trap, or hyphenated techniques. The versatility of modern mass spectrometers enable specific as well as comprehensive measurements allowing sports drug testing laboratories to determine the misuse of therapeutics such as anabolic-androgenic steroids, stimulants, masking agents or so-called designer drugs in athletes' blood or urine specimens, and a selection of recent developments is summarized in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Thevis
- Institute of Biochemistry and Center for Preventive Doping Research, German Sport University Cologne, Carl-Diem Weg 6, 50933 Cologne, Germany.
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Lévesque JF, Gaudreault M, Aubin Y, Chauret N. Discovery, biosynthesis, and structure elucidation of new metabolites of norandrostenedione using in vitro systems. Steroids 2005; 70:305-17. [PMID: 15784285 DOI: 10.1016/j.steroids.2004.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2004] [Revised: 12/07/2004] [Accepted: 12/16/2004] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The aim of our study was to demonstrate the positive impact that in vitro systems could have on the synthesis and characterization of unknown metabolites of banned doping agents. Using norandrostenedione (estr-4-en-3,17-dione), we were able to identify and characterize by GC/MS and LC/UV/MS several new hydroxylated metabolites formed in human hepatocyte incubations. The site of hydroxylation of M1, M2, M3, and M5 was demonstrated to be at C-6beta position by incubating estr-4-en-6beta-ol-3,17-dione (M4), which is the direct 6beta-hydroxylated metabolite of norandrostenedione. The structure of M5 was confirmed to be estr-4-en-6beta,17beta-diol-3-one (6beta-hydroxynortestosterone) using a commercially available authentic standard. For the other metabolites, M1, M2, and M3, no standards were available. Due to limited access to fresh human liver tissues, in vitro incubation conditions in rat liver subcellular fractions and hepatocytes were optimized as an alternative to produce sufficient quantities of the unknown metabolites for MS and/or NMR characterization. The structure of M1 was assigned to 5alpha-estran-3alpha,6beta-diol-17-one (6beta-hydroxynorandrosterone) and M3 to 5alpha-estran-3beta,6beta-diol-17-one (6beta-hydroxynorepiandrosterone) based on NMR data. M2 is proposed to be 5beta-estran-3alpha,6beta-diol-17-one (6beta-hydroxynoretiocholanolone) based on GC/MS fragmentation of the TMS-enol bis-TMS-ether derivative. The in vitro approach reported here, in addition to urinary excretion studies in humans, could contribute significantly to the discovery, the synthesis, and structure elucidation of new markers of doping agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-François Lévesque
- Merck Frosst Centre for Therapeutic Research, P.O. Box 1005, Pointe-Claire/Dorval, Que., Canada H9R 4P8.
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Choi MH, Skipper PL, Wishnok JS, Tannenbaum SR. CHARACTERIZATION OF TESTOSTERONE 11β-HYDROXYLATION CATALYZED BY HUMAN LIVER MICROSOMAL CYTOCHROMES P450. Drug Metab Dispos 2005; 33:714-8. [PMID: 15764715 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.104.003327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
A combination of accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry has been used to clarify some new aspects of testosterone metabolism. The main pathway of testosterone oxidative metabolism by human liver microsomes is the formation of 1beta-, 2alpha-/beta-, 6beta-, 15beta-, and 16beta-hydroxytestosterones, mainly catalyzed by cytochromes P450 2C9, 2C19, and 3A4. We now report the first determination that 11beta-hydroxytestosterone (11beta-OHT) can also be formed by human liver microsomal fractions. The structures of five hydroxylated metabolites of testosterone (2beta-, 6beta-, 11beta-, 15beta-, and 16beta-OHT) and the C-17 oxidative metabolite androstenedione were determined by liquid chromatography with UV detection at 240 nm and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Corresponding results were obtained by high-performance liquid chromatography-AMS analysis of incubations of [4-14C]testosterone with human liver microsomes. 6beta-Hydroxylation was always the dominant metabolic pathway, but 2beta-, 15beta-, and 16beta-OHT, and androstenedione were also formed. The previously undetected hydroxytestosterone, 11beta-OHT, was found to be a minor metabolite formed by human liver microsomal enzymes. It was formed more readily by CYP3A4 than by either CYP2C9 or CYP2C19. 11beta-Hydroxylation was inhibited by ketoconazole (IC50 = 30 nM) at concentrations similar to the IC50 (36 nM) for 6beta-hydroxylation Therefore, CYP3A4 could be mainly responsible for testosterone 11beta-hydroxylation in the human liver. These findings identify human hepatic biotransformation of testosterone to 11beta-OHT as a previously unrecognized extra-adrenal metabolic pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Man Ho Choi
- Biological Engineering Division, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
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Kang MJ, Lisurek M, Bernhardt R, Hartmann RW. Use of high-performance liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization collision-induced dissociation mass spectrometry for structural identification of monohydroxylated progesterones. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2004; 18:2795-2800. [PMID: 15508138 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.1694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
For the structural identification of monohydroxylated progesterones synthesized by microorganisms, a method was developed using a combination of high-performance liquid chromatography and electrospray ionization collision-induced dissociation mass spectrometry (HPLC/ESI-CIDMS). The retention times and MS/MS spectra of 11 different standards at 30 eV were collected and compared. The identification of D-ring-hydroxylated progesterones (15beta-, 16alpha-, 17alpha- and 21-OH-P) using ESI-CIDMS was not possible. However, they were separated chromatographically using a 65:35 mixture of water and acetonitrile containing 0.5% acetic acid. The other hydroxylated progesterones (2alpha-, 6beta-, 7beta-, 9alpha-, 11alpha-, 11beta-, and 19-OH-P) could be identified by comparison of eight fragments. The complete separation of 11 standards was achieved chromatographically. The developed assay was evaluated by the identification of monohydroxylated progesterones produced by CYP106A2 from Bacillus megaterium ATCC 13368.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min-Jung Kang
- Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Saarland University, PO Box 151150, D-66041 Saarbrücken, Germany
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Kuuranne T, Kurkela M, Thevis M, Schänzer W, Finel M, Kostiainen R. Glucuronidation of anabolic androgenic steroids by recombinant human UDP-glucuronosyltransferases. Drug Metab Dispos 2003; 31:1117-24. [PMID: 12920167 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.31.9.1117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
A multidimensional study on the glucuronidation of anabolic androgenic steroids and their phase I metabolites by 11 recombinant human UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs) was carried out using liquid chromatographic-tandem mass spectrometric analyses. Large differences between the enzymes with respect to the conjugation profiles of the 11 tested aglycones were detected. Two UGTs, 1A6 and 1A7, did not exhibit measurable activity toward any of the aglycones that were examined in this study. Regioselectivity was demonstrated by UGTs 1A8, 1A9, and 2B15 that preferentially catalyzed hydroxyl glucuronidation at the 17beta-position. Most of the other enzymes glucuronidated hydroxyl groups at both the 3alpha- and the 17beta-positions. Clear stereoselectivity was observed in glucuronidation of diastereomeric nandrolone metabolites (5alpha-estran-3alpha-ol-17-one and 5beta-estran-3alpha-ol-17-one), whereas such specificity was not seen when analogous methyltestosterone metabolites were assayed. UGTs 1A1, 1A3, 1A4, 1A8, 1A9, 1A10, 2B4, 2B7, and 2B15 readily glucuronidated 5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol, but none of them exhibited methyltestosterone glucuronidation activity. In agreement with the latter observations, we found that the methyltestosterone glucuronidation activity of human liver microsomes is extremely low, whereas in induced rat liver microsomes it was significantly higher. The homology among UGTs 1A7 to 1A10 at the level of amino acid sequence is very high, and it was thus surprising to find large differences in their activity toward this set of aglycones. Furthermore, the high activity of UGT1A8 and 1A10 toward some of the substrates indicates that extrahepatic enzymes might play a role in the metabolism of anabolic androgenic steroids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiia Kuuranne
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Helsinki, Finland
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Song J, Wadhwa L, Bejjani BA, O'Brien WE. Determination of 3-keto-4-ene steroids and their hydroxylated metabolites catalyzed by recombinant human cytochrome P450 1B1 enzyme using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry with trimethylsilyl derivatization. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2003; 791:127-35. [PMID: 12798173 DOI: 10.1016/s1570-0232(03)00228-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
A protocol utilizing gas chromatography with selected ion monitoring mass spectrometric detection (GC-SIM-MS) using a simplified trimethylsilyl (TMS) derivatization protocol was developed and validated for the determination of hydroxylated metabolites of 3-keto-4-ene steroids such as testosterone, progesterone and androstenedione. Hydroxylated metabolites catalyzed by human CYP1B1 were extracted with methylene chloride and derivatized with BSTFA-10% TMCS. To get an optimal derivatizing condition, the effect of various incubation times and temperatures was evaluated. When the incubation temperature and time in the presence of the TMS derivatizing agent were increased, the 3-keto group became derivatized with TMS to form a 3-TMS derivative. To minimize the formation of the TMS ether on the 3-keto group, a reaction condition of 56 degrees C for 10 min was used for the routine measurement of the steroids and their hydroxylated metabolite. Performance studies including linearity of calibration curves, extraction efficiency and precision were performed. Linearity of the calibration curves was satisfactory from 0.125 to 5 microM for most compounds except 21-hydroxyprogesterone and 16alpha-hydroxyandrostenedione which deviated from linearity at the lower concentrations. Mean percentage extraction recoveries were greater than 80% for all compounds. Most compounds showed good precisions with C.V.s of within-day precision of less than 5% and C.V.s of between-day precision of less than 10%. The selected ion chromatograms from the recombinant human CYP1B1 incubations with testosterone, progesterone and androstenedione showed evidence of 6beta-, 16alpha-, 2alpha-, and 15alpha-hydroxytestosterone, 6alpha- and 16alpha-hydroxyprogesterone and 6alpha- and 16alpha-hydroxyandrostenedione, respectively. There was no significant interference associated with Escherichia coli membrane extracts in detecting hydroxylated metabolites. This procedure provides a rapid and sensitive method for the evaluation of steroid hydroxylation by CYP isoenzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junghan Song
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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Brandon EFA, Raap CD, Meijerman I, Beijnen JH, Schellens JHM. An update on in vitro test methods in human hepatic drug biotransformation research: pros and cons. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2003; 189:233-46. [PMID: 12791308 DOI: 10.1016/s0041-008x(03)00128-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 403] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The liver is the predominant organ in which biotransformation of foreign compounds takes place, although other organs may also be involved in drug biotransformation. Ideally, an in vitro model for drug biotransformation should accurately resemble biotransformation in vivo in the liver. Several in vitro human liver models have been developed in the past few decades, including supersomes, microsomes, cytosol, S9 fraction, cell lines, transgenic cell lines, primary hepatocytes, liver slices, and perfused liver. A general advantage of these models is a reduced complexity of the study system. On the other hand, there are several more or less serious specific drawbacks for each model, which prevents their widespread use and acceptance by the regulatory authorities as an alternative for in vivo screening. This review describes the practical aspects of selected in vitro human liver models with comparisons between the methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther F A Brandon
- Division of Drug Toxicology, Department of Biomedical Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, The Netherlands.
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Lévesque JF, Gaudreault M, Houle R, Chauret N. Evaluation of human hepatocyte incubation as a new tool for metabolism study of androstenedione and norandrostenedione in a doping control perspective. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2002; 780:145-53. [PMID: 12383490 DOI: 10.1016/s1570-0232(02)00444-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Human hepatocyte incubations were used to study the metabolism of precursors of testosterone and nortestosterone and to evaluate qualitatively the correlation between in vitro and published in vivo urinary metabolic profiles. Both phase I and phase II biotransformations were observed in vitro: oxidoreduction at C-3 and C-17, reduction at C-4,5, hydroxylation at C-6 beta and C-16, glucuronidation and sulfation. All major metabolites detected in urine following oral administration of androstenedione and norandrostenedione were present in human hepatocyte incubations. The good correlation between in vitro and in vivo metabolic profiles indicates that hepatocyte incubations can be a useful tool to identify and characterize metabolites that could be potential urinary markers for detection of steroid abuse by athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-François Lévesque
- Merck Frosst Centre for Therapeutic Research, P O Box 1005, Pointe-Claire-Dorval, H9R 4P8, Québec, Canada.
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Abstract
This chapter is an update of the data on substrates, reactions, inducers, and inhibitors of human CYP enzymes published previously by Rendic and DiCarlo (1), now covering selection of the literature through 2001 in the reference section. The data are presented in a tabular form (Table 1) to provide a framework for predicting and interpreting the new P450 metabolic data. The data are formatted in an Excel format as most suitable for off-line searching and management of the Web-database. The data are presented as stated by the author(s) and in the case when several references are cited the data are presented according to the latest published information. The searchable database is available either as an Excel file (for information contact the author), or as a Web-searchable database (Human P450 Metabolism Database, www.gentest.com) enabling the readers easy and quick approach to the latest updates on human CYP metabolic reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Slobodan Rendic
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Zagreb, Croatia.
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Fitzpatrick JL, Ripp SL, Smith NB, Pierce WM, Prough RA. Metabolism of DHEA by cytochromes P450 in rat and human liver microsomal fractions. Arch Biochem Biophys 2001; 389:278-87. [PMID: 11339818 DOI: 10.1006/abbi.2001.2341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Administration of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) to rodents produces many unique biological responses, some of which may be due to metabolism of DHEA to more biologically active products. In the current study, DHEA metabolism was studied using human and rat liver microsomal fractions. In both species, DHEA was extensively metabolized to multiple products; formation of these products was potently inhibited in both species by miconazole, demonstrating a principal role for cytochrome P450. In the rat, use of P450 form-selective inhibitors suggested the participation of P4501A and 3A forms in DHEA metabolism. Human liver samples displayed interindividual differences in that one of five subjects metabolized DHEA to a much greater extent than the others. This difference correlated with the level of P4503A activity present in the human liver samples. For one subject, troleandomycin inhibited hepatic microsomal metabolism of DHEA by 78%, compared to 81% inhibition by miconazole, suggesting the importance of P4503A in these reactions. Form-selective inhibitors of P4502D6 and P4502E1 had a modest inhibitory effect, suggesting that these forms may also contribute to metabolism of DHEA in humans. Metabolites identified by LC-MS in both species included 16alpha-hydroxy-DHEA, 7alpha-hydroxy-DHEA, and 7-oxo-DHEA. While 16alpha-hydroxy-DHEA appeared to be the major metabolite produced in rat, the major metabolite produced in humans was a mono-hydroxylated DHEA species, whose position of hydroxylation is unknown.
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Affiliation(s)
- J L Fitzpatrick
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, Kentucky 40292, USA
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