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Thevis M, Görgens C, Guddat S, Thomas A, Geyer H. Mass spectrometry in sports drug testing-Analytical approaches and the athletes' exposome. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2024; 34:e14228. [PMID: 36539355 DOI: 10.1111/sms.14228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2022] [Revised: 08/02/2022] [Accepted: 08/12/2022] [Indexed: 01/26/2024]
Abstract
Test methods in anti-doping, most of which rely on the most modern mass spectrometric instrumentation, undergo continuous optimization in order to accommodate growing demands as to comprehensiveness, sensitivity, retrospectivity, cost-effectiveness, turnaround times, etc. While developing and improving analytical approaches is vital for appropriate sports drug testing programs, the combination of today's excellent analytical potential and the inevitable exposure of humans to complex environmental factors, specifically chemicals and drugs at the lowest levels, has necessitated dedicated research, particularly into the elite athlete's exposome. Being subjected to routine doping controls, athletes frequently undergo blood and/or urine tests for a plethora of drugs, chemicals, corresponding metabolic products, and various biomarkers. Due to the applicable anti-doping regulations, the presence of prohibited substances in an athlete's organism can constitute an anti-doping rule violation with severe consequences for the individual's career (in contrast to the general population), and frequently the question of whether the analytical data can assist in differentiating scenarios of 'doping' from 'contamination through inadvertent exposure' is raised. Hence, investigations into the athlete's exposome and how to distinguish between deliberate drug use and potential exposure scenarios have become a central topic of anti-doping research, aiming at supporting and consolidating the balance between essential analytical performance characteristics of doping control test methods and the mandate of protecting the clean athlete by exploiting new strategies in sampling and analyzing specimens for sports drug-testing purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Thevis
- Center for Preventive Doping Research - Institute of Biochemistry, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany
- European Monitoring Center for Emerging Doping Agents, Cologne, Germany
| | - Christian Görgens
- Center for Preventive Doping Research - Institute of Biochemistry, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Sven Guddat
- Center for Preventive Doping Research - Institute of Biochemistry, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Andreas Thomas
- Center for Preventive Doping Research - Institute of Biochemistry, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Hans Geyer
- Center for Preventive Doping Research - Institute of Biochemistry, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany
- European Monitoring Center for Emerging Doping Agents, Cologne, Germany
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2
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Identification par LC-MS/MS de la testostérone acétate dans la crinière d’un cheval de course. TOXICOLOGIE ANALYTIQUE ET CLINIQUE 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxac.2022.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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3
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Kintz P, Gheddar L, Raul JS. Simultaneous testing for anabolic steroids in human hair specimens collected from various anatomic locations has several advantages when compared with the standard head hair analysis. Drug Test Anal 2021; 13:1445-1451. [PMID: 33634609 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2021] [Revised: 02/23/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Since the late 90s, hair testing for anabolic steroids in humans has found numerous forensic, clinical, and anti-doping applications. In most cases, analyses were performed on head hair, collected in the vertex regions. However, for various reasons (shaved subject, bald subject, religious belief, cosmetic treatment and aesthetic reason), hair collectors can face the lack of head hair, and therefore, body hair can be the unique alternative choice. Although there is no possibility to perform segmental analyses with body hair, their use has two major advantages: (1) In most cases, anabolic steroids are more concentrated in body hair when compared with head hair, which allows detecting abuse at lower frequency and for lower dosages; and (2) the window of drug detection is generally much longer in body hair when compared with head hair, particularly in male athlete presenting short head hair. To document the relevance of simultaneous collection of head and body hair, the authors present eight authentic cases of anabolic steroids abuse, including clostebol (one case), drostanolone (one case), metandienone (one case), 19-norandrostenedione (one case), stanozolol (two cases) and trenbolone (three cases). In all cases, body hair concentrations were higher than head hair concentrations. Even in three cases, no steroid was identified in head hair, although present in body hair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pascal Kintz
- X-Pertise Consulting, Mittelhausbergen, France.,Laboratory of Toxicology, Institut de medecine légale, Strasbourg, France
| | - Laurie Gheddar
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Institut de medecine légale, Strasbourg, France
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Gheddar L, Raul JS, Kintz P. Testing for Stanozolol, Using UPLC–MS-MS and Confirmation by UPLC–q-TOF-MS, in Hair Specimens Collected from Five Different Anatomical Regions. J Anal Toxicol 2020; 44:834-839. [DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkaa023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Abstract
An athlete challenged the result from an in-competition doping test which returned with an adverse analytical finding for stanozolol, claiming it was due to supplement contamination. Her lawyer asked the laboratory to analyze several hair specimens simultaneously collected from five different anatomical regions, head, arm, leg, pubis and armpit, to document the pattern of drug exposure. A specific UPLC–MS-MS method was developed. After decontamination with dichloromethane, stanozolol was extracted from hair in the presence of stanozolol-d3 used as internal standard, under alkaline conditions, with diethyl ether. Linearity was observed for concentrations ranging from 5 pg/mg to 10 ng/mg. The method has been validated according to linearity, precision and matrix effect. Concentrations of stanozolol in head hair, pubic hair, arm hair, leg hair and axillary hair were 73, 454, 238, 244 and 7,100 pg/mg, respectively. The concentration of stanozolol in head hair is in accordance with data published in the literature. When comparing the concentrations, body hair concentrations were higher than the concentration found in head hair. These results are consistent with a better incorporation rate of stanozolol in body hair when compared to head hair. The simultaneous positive concentrations in different hair types confirm the adverse analytical finding in urine of the top athlete, as the measured concentrations do not support the theory of contamination. For the first time, an anabolic agent was simultaneously tested in hair collected from five different anatomical regions from the same subject, with a large distribution of concentrations, due to anatomical variations, and these findings will help interpretation in further doping cases when documented with hair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurie Gheddar
- Institut de Médecine Légale, 11 rue Humann, Strasbourg 67000, France
| | | | - Pascal Kintz
- Institut de Médecine Légale, 11 rue Humann, Strasbourg 67000, France
- X-Pertise Consulting, 42 rue Principale, 67206 Mittelhausbergen, France
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5
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Kintz P, Gheddar L, Ameline A, Arbouche N, Raul J. Hair testing for doping agents. What is known and what remains to do. Drug Test Anal 2020; 12:316-322. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2019] [Revised: 01/09/2020] [Accepted: 01/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pascal Kintz
- X‐Pertise Consulting 42 rue principale F‐67206 Mittelhausbergen France
- Institut de médecine légale 11 rue Humann F‐67000 Strasbourg France
| | - Laurie Gheddar
- Institut de médecine légale 11 rue Humann F‐67000 Strasbourg France
| | - Alice Ameline
- Institut de médecine légale 11 rue Humann F‐67000 Strasbourg France
| | - Nadia Arbouche
- Institut de médecine légale 11 rue Humann F‐67000 Strasbourg France
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Usman M, Naseer A, Baig Y, Jamshaid T, Shahwar M, Khurshuid S. Forensic toxicological analysis of hair: a review. EGYPTIAN JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES 2019. [DOI: 10.1186/s41935-019-0119-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
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Favretto D, Snenghi R, Pertile R, El Mazloum R, Tucci M, Visentin S, Vogliardi S. Hair analysis to discriminate voluntary doping vs inadvertent ingestion of the aromatase inhibitor letrozole. Drug Test Anal 2018; 11:762-771. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2018] [Revised: 11/26/2018] [Accepted: 11/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Donata Favretto
- University Hospital of Padova Padova Italy
- Department of Cardiac Thoracic and Vascular Sciences and Public HealthUniversity of Padova Padova Italy
| | | | | | - Rafi El Mazloum
- Department of Cardiac Thoracic and Vascular Sciences and Public HealthUniversity of Padova Padova Italy
| | - Marianna Tucci
- Department of Cardiac Thoracic and Vascular Sciences and Public HealthUniversity of Padova Padova Italy
| | - Sindi Visentin
- University Hospital of Padova Padova Italy
- Department of Cardiac Thoracic and Vascular Sciences and Public HealthUniversity of Padova Padova Italy
| | - Susanna Vogliardi
- Department of Cardiac Thoracic and Vascular Sciences and Public HealthUniversity of Padova Padova Italy
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8
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Salomone A, Gerace E, Di Corcia D, Alladio E, Vincenti M, Kintz P. Hair analysis can provide additional information in doping and forensic cases involving clostebol. Drug Test Anal 2018; 11:95-101. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2018] [Revised: 07/09/2018] [Accepted: 07/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Salomone
- Centro Regionale Antidoping “A. Bertinaria” - Laboratorio Regionale di Tossicologia; Orbassano (TO) Italy
| | - Enrico Gerace
- Centro Regionale Antidoping “A. Bertinaria” - Laboratorio Regionale di Tossicologia; Orbassano (TO) Italy
| | - Daniele Di Corcia
- Centro Regionale Antidoping “A. Bertinaria” - Laboratorio Regionale di Tossicologia; Orbassano (TO) Italy
| | - Eugenio Alladio
- Centro Regionale Antidoping “A. Bertinaria” - Laboratorio Regionale di Tossicologia; Orbassano (TO) Italy
- Dipartimento di Chimica; Università degli Studi di Torino; Turin Italy
| | - Marco Vincenti
- Centro Regionale Antidoping “A. Bertinaria” - Laboratorio Regionale di Tossicologia; Orbassano (TO) Italy
- Dipartimento di Chimica; Università degli Studi di Torino; Turin Italy
| | - Pascal Kintz
- X-Pertise Consulting; Oberhausbergen France
- Institut de Médecine légale; Strasbourg France
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Malekzad H, Zangabad PS, Mohammadi H, Sadroddini M, Jafari Z, Mahlooji N, Abbaspour S, Gholami S, Ghanbarpoor M, Pashazadeh R, Beyzavi A, Karimi M, Hamblin MR. Noble metal nanostructures in optical biosensors: Basics, and their introduction to anti-doping detection. Trends Analyt Chem 2018; 100:116-135. [PMID: 29731530 PMCID: PMC5933885 DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2017.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Nanotechnology has illustrated significant potentials in biomolecular-sensing applications; particularly its introduction to anti-doping detection is of great importance. Illicit recreational drugs, substances that can be potentially abused, and drugs with dosage limitations according to the prohibited lists announced by the World Antidoping Agency (WADA) are becoming of increasing interest to forensic chemists. In this review, the theoretical principles of optical biosensors based on noble metal nanoparticles, and the transduction mechanism of commonly-applied plasmonic biosensors are covered. We review different classes of recently-developed plasmonic biosensors for analytic determination and quantification of illicit drugs in anti-doping applications. The important classes of illicit drugs include anabolic steroids, opioids, stimulants, and peptide hormones. The main emphasis is on the advantages that noble metal nano-particles bring to optical biosensors for signal enhancement and the development of highly sensitive (label-free) biosensors. In the near future, such optical biosensors may be an invaluable substitute for conventional anti-doping detection methods such as chromatography-based approaches, and may even be commercialized for routine anti-doping tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hedieh Malekzad
- Advanced Nanobiotechnology and Nanomedicine Research Group (ANNRG), Iran
| | - Parham Sahandi Zangabad
- Research Center for Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology (RCPN), Tabriz University of Medical Science (TUOMS), Tabriz, Iran
- Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- Bio-Nano-Interfaces: Convergence of Sciences (BNICS), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran
- Nanomedicine Research Association (NRA), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran
- Department of Medical Nanotechnology, Faculty of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hadi Mohammadi
- Young Researchers and Elite Club, Kermanshah Branch, Islamic Azad University, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Mohsen Sadroddini
- Polymer Engineering Department, Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Zahra Jafari
- Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Agriculture and Food Science, Ayatollah Amoli Branch, Islamic Azad University, Amol, Iran
| | - Niloofar Mahlooji
- Department of Chemistry, Semnan University, Semnan 35351-19111, Iran
| | - Somaye Abbaspour
- School of Science and Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, International Campus, Iran
| | | | | | - Rahim Pashazadeh
- Advanced Nanobiotechnology and Nanomedicine Research Group (ANNRG), Iran
| | - Ali Beyzavi
- Koch Institute of MIT, 500 Main Street, Cambridge MA, USA
| | - Mahdi Karimi
- Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- Department of Medical Nanotechnology, Faculty of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- Research Center for Science and Technology in Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- Applied Biotechnology Research Center, Teheran Medical Sciences Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran Iran
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Michael R Hamblin
- Applied Biotechnology Research Center, Teheran Medical Sciences Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran Iran
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Department of Dermatology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
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10
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Kintz P. A new series of hair test results involving anabolic steroids. TOXICOLOGIE ANALYTIQUE ET CLINIQUE 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxac.2017.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Thevis M, Krug O, Geyer H, Schänzer W. Expanding analytical options in sports drug testing: Mass spectrometric detection of prohibited substances in exhaled breath. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2017; 31:1290-1296. [PMID: 28508503 PMCID: PMC5519941 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.7903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2017] [Revised: 05/08/2017] [Accepted: 05/08/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Continuously refining and advancing the strategies and methods employed in sports drug testing is critical for efficient doping controls. Besides improving and expanding the spectrum of target analytes, alternative test matrices have warranted in-depth evaluation as they commonly allow for minimal-/non-invasive and non-intrusive sample collection. In this study, the potential of exhaled breath (EB) as doping control specimen was assessed. METHODS EB collection devices employing a non-woven electret-based air filter unit were used to generate test specimens, simulating a potential future application in doping controls. A multi-analyte sports drug testing approach configured for a subset of 12 model compounds that represent specific classes of substances prohibited in sports (anabolic agents, hormone and metabolic modulators, stimulants, and beta-blockers) was established using unispray liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS) and applied to spiked and elimination study EB samples. The test method was characterized concerning specificity, assay imprecision, and limits of detection. RESULTS The EB collection device allowed for retaining and extracting all selected model compounds from the EB aerosol. Following elution and concentration, LC/MS/MS analysis enabled detection limits between 5 and 100 pg/filter and imprecisions ranging from 3% to 20% for the 12 selected model compounds. By means of EB samples from patients and participants of administration studies, the elimination of relevant compounds and, thus, their traceability in EB for doping control purposes, was investigated. Besides stimulants such as methylhexaneamine and pseudoephedrine, also the anabolic-androgenic steroid dehydrochloromethyltestosterone, the metabolic modulator meldonium, and the beta-blocker bisoprolol was detected in exhaled breath. CONCLUSIONS The EB aerosol has provided a promising proof-of-concept suggesting the expansion of this testing strategy as a complement to currently utilized sports drug testing programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Thevis
- Center for Preventive Doping Research – Institute of BiochemistryGerman Sport University CologneAm Sportpark Müngersdorf 650933CologneGermany
- European Monitoring Center for Emerging Doping Agents (EuMoCEDA)Cologne/Bonn
| | - Oliver Krug
- Center for Preventive Doping Research – Institute of BiochemistryGerman Sport University CologneAm Sportpark Müngersdorf 650933CologneGermany
- European Monitoring Center for Emerging Doping Agents (EuMoCEDA)Cologne/Bonn
| | - Hans Geyer
- Center for Preventive Doping Research – Institute of BiochemistryGerman Sport University CologneAm Sportpark Müngersdorf 650933CologneGermany
- European Monitoring Center for Emerging Doping Agents (EuMoCEDA)Cologne/Bonn
| | - Wilhelm Schänzer
- Center for Preventive Doping Research – Institute of BiochemistryGerman Sport University CologneAm Sportpark Müngersdorf 650933CologneGermany
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Pizzato EC, Filonzi M, Rosa HSD, de Bairros AV. Pretreatment of different biological matrices for exogenous testosterone analysis: a review. Toxicol Mech Methods 2017; 27:641-656. [DOI: 10.1080/15376516.2017.1351015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Marcelo Filonzi
- Setor de Química Especial, Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, São Paulo, Brazil
- Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Hemerson Silva da Rosa
- Laboratório de Desenvolvimento e Controle de Qualidade, Universidade Federal do Pampa, Uruguaiana, Brazil
| | - André Valle de Bairros
- Laboratório de Desenvolvimento e Controle de Qualidade, Universidade Federal do Pampa, Uruguaiana, Brazil
- Núcleo Aplicado a Toxicologia, Departamento de Análises Clínicas e Toxicológicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Brazil
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13
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Fabresse N, Grassin-Delyle S, Etting I, Alvarez JC. Detection and quantification of 12 anabolic steroids and analogs in human whole blood and 20 in hair using LC-HRMS/MS: application to real cases. Int J Legal Med 2017; 131:989-999. [DOI: 10.1007/s00414-017-1552-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2016] [Accepted: 01/31/2017] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
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Kroshko T, Kapronczai L, Cattet MR, Macbeth BJ, Stenhouse GB, Obbard ME, Janz DM. Comparison of methanol and isopropanol as wash solvents for determination of hair cortisol concentration in grizzly bears and polar bears. MethodsX 2017; 4:68-75. [PMID: 28203534 PMCID: PMC5295503 DOI: 10.1016/j.mex.2017.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2016] [Accepted: 01/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Methodological differences among laboratories are recognized as significant sources of variation in quantification of hair cortisol concentration (HCC). An important step in processing hair, particularly when collected from wildlife, is the choice of solvent used to remove or "wash" external hair shaft cortisol prior to quantification of HCC. The present study systematically compared methanol and isopropanol as wash solvents for their efficiency at removing external cortisol without extracting internal hair shaft cortisol in samples collected from free-ranging grizzly bears and polar bears. Cortisol concentrations in solvents and hair were determined in each of one to eight washes of hair with each solvent independently. •There were no significant decreases in internal hair shaft cortisol among all eight washes for either solvent, although methanol removed detectable hair surface cortisol after one wash in grizzly bear hair whereas hair surface cortisol was detected in all eight isopropanol washes.•There were no significant differences in polar bear HCC washed one to eight times with either solvent, but grizzly bear HCC was significantly greater in hair washed with isopropanol compared to methanol.•There were significant differences in HCC quantified using different commercial ELISA kits commonly used for HCC determinations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Kroshko
- Toxicology Centre, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 5B3, Canada
| | - Luciene Kapronczai
- Toxicology Centre, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 5B3, Canada
| | - Marc R.L. Cattet
- RGL Recovery Wildlife Health & Veterinary Services, Saskatoon, SK, S7H 4A6, Canada
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 5B4, Canada
| | - Bryan J. Macbeth
- Department of Ecosystem and Public Health, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, T2N 4Z6, Canada
| | | | - Martyn E. Obbard
- Wildlife Research and Monitoring Section, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry, Trent University, Peterborough, ON, K9J 7B8, Canada
| | - David M. Janz
- Department of Veterinary Biomedical Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, 52 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 5B4, Canada
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Boumba VA, Ziavrou KS, Vougiouklakis T. Hair as a Biological Indicator of Drug Use, Drug Abuse or Chronic Exposure to Environmental Toxicants. Int J Toxicol 2016; 25:143-63. [PMID: 16717031 DOI: 10.1080/10915810600683028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
In recent years hair has become a fundamental biological specimen, alternative to the usual samples blood and urine, for drug testing in the fields of forensic toxicology, clinical toxicology and clinical chemistry. Moreover, hair-testing is now extensively used in workplace testing, as well as, on legal cases, historical research etc. This article reviews methodological and practical issues related to the application of hair as a biological indicator of drug use/abuse or of chronic exposure to environmental toxicants. Hair structure and the mechanisms of drug incorporation into it are commented. The usual preparation and extraction methods as well as the analytical techniques of hair samples are presented and commented on. The outcomes of hair analysis have been reviewed for the following categories: drugs of abuse (opiates, cocaine and related, amphetamines, cannabinoids), benzodiazepines, prescribed drugs, pesticides and organic pollutants, doping agents and other drugs or substances. Finally, the specific purpose of the hair testing is discussed along with the interpretation of hair analysis results regarding the limitations of the applied procedures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vassiliki A Boumba
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Medical School, University of Ioannina, Greece
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Thevis M, Geyer H, Tretzel L, Schänzer W. Sports drug testing using complementary matrices: Advantages and limitations. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2016; 130:220-230. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2016.03.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2016] [Accepted: 03/27/2016] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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Kintz P, Vayssette F, Deveaux M. Compendium of results from hair tested for anabolics. TOXICOLOGIE ANALYTIQUE ET CLINIQUE 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxac.2014.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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18
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Abstract
Alternative matrices are steadily gaining recognition as biological samples for toxicological analyses. Hair presents many advantages over traditional matrices, such as urine and blood, since it provides retrospective information regarding drug exposure, can distinguish between chronic and acute or recent drug use by segmental analysis, is easy to obtain, and has considerable stability for long periods of time. For this reason, it has been employed in a wide variety of contexts, namely to evaluate workplace drug exposure, drug-facilitated sexual assault, pre-natal drug exposure, anti-doping control, pharmacological monitoring and alcohol abuse. In this article, issues concerning hair structure, collection, storage and analysis are reviewed. The mechanisms of drug incorporation into hair are briefly discussed. Analytical techniques for simultaneous drug quantification in hair are addressed. Finally, representative examples of drug quantification using hair are summarized, emphasizing its potentialities and limitations as an alternative biological matrix for toxicological analyses.
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Strano-Rossi S, Castrignanò E, Anzillotti L, Odoardi S, De-Giorgio F, Bermejo A, Pascali VL. Screening for exogenous androgen anabolic steroids in human hair by liquid chromatography/orbitrap-high resolution mass spectrometry. Anal Chim Acta 2013; 793:61-71. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2013.07.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2013] [Revised: 06/19/2013] [Accepted: 07/09/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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20
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Vincenti M, Salomone A, Gerace E, Pirro V. Application of mass spectrometry to hair analysis for forensic toxicological investigations. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2013; 32:312-32. [PMID: 23165962 DOI: 10.1002/mas.21364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2012] [Revised: 08/22/2012] [Accepted: 08/22/2012] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
The increasing role of hair analysis in forensic toxicological investigations principally owes to recent improvements of mass spectrometric instrumentation. Research achievements during the last 6 years in this distinctive application area of analytical toxicology are reviewed. The earlier state of the art of hair analysis was comprehensively covered by a dedicated book (Kintz, 2007a. Analytical and practical aspects of drug testing in hair. Boca Raton: CRC Press and Taylor & Francis, 382 p) that represents key reference of the present overview. Whereas the traditional organization of analytical methods in forensic toxicology divided target substances into quite homogeneous groups of drugs, with similar structures and chemical properties, the current approach often takes advantage of the rapid expansion of multiclass and multiresidue analytical procedures; the latter is made possible by the fast operation and extreme sensitivity of modern mass spectrometers. This change in the strategy of toxicological analysis is reflected in the presentation of the recent literature material, which is mostly based on a fit-for-purpose logic. Thus, general screening of unknown substances is applied in diverse forensic contexts than drugs of abuse testing, and different instrumentation (triple quadrupoles, time-of-flight analyzers, linear and orbital traps) is utilized to optimally cope with the scope. Other key issues of modern toxicology, such as cost reduction and high sample throughput, are discussed with reference to procedural and instrumental alternatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Vincenti
- Centro Regionale Antidoping e di Tossicologia A. Bertinaria, Orbassano, Turin, Italy.
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Gosetti F, Mazzucco E, Gennaro MC, Marengo E. Ultra high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry determination and profiling of prohibited steroids in human biological matrices. A review. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2013; 927:22-36. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2012.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2012] [Revised: 12/03/2012] [Accepted: 12/04/2012] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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Deshmukh NI, Zachar G, Petróczi A, Székely AD, Barker J, Naughton DP. Determination of stanozolol and 3'-hydroxystanozolol in rat hair, urine and serum using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Chem Cent J 2012; 6:162. [PMID: 23259549 PMCID: PMC3542005 DOI: 10.1186/1752-153x-6-162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2012] [Accepted: 12/18/2012] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Anabolic androgenic steroids, such as stanozolol, are typically misused by athletes during preparation for competition. Out-of-competition testing presents a unique challenge in the current anti-doping detection system owing to logistic reasons. Analysing hair for the presence of a prohibited drug offers a feasible solution for covering the wider window in out-of-competition testing. To assist in vivo studies aiming to establish a relationship between drug levels detected in hair, urine and blood, sensitive methods for the determination of stanozolol and its major metabolite 3′-hydroxystanozolol were developed in pigmented hair, urine and serum, using brown Norway rats as a model system and liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Results For method development, spiked drug free rat hair, blood and urine samples were used. The newly developed method was then applied to hair, urine and serum samples from five brown Norway rats after treatment (intraperitoneal) with stanozolol for six consecutive days at 5.0 mg/kg/day. The assay for each matrix was linear within the quantification range with determination coefficient (r2) values above 0.995. The respective assay was capable of detecting 0.125 pg/mg stanozolol and 0.25 pg/mg 3′-hydroxystanozolol with 50 mg hair; 0.063 ng/mL stanozolol and 0.125 ng/mL 3′-hydroxystanozolol with 100 μL of urine or serum. The accuracy, precision and extraction recoveries of the assays were satisfactory for the detection of both compounds in all three matrices. The average concentrations of stanozolol and 3′-hydroxystanozolol, were as follows: hair = 70.18 ± 22.32 pg/mg and 13.01 ± 3.43 pg/mg; urine = 4.34 ± 6.54 ng/mL and 9.39 ± 7.42 ng/mL; serum = 7.75 ± 3.58 ng/mL and 7.16 ± 1.97 ng/mL, respectively. Conclusions The developed methods are sensitive, specific and reproducible for the determination of stanozolol and 3′-hydroxystanozolol in rat hair, urine and serum. These methods can be used for in vivo studies further investigating stanozolol metabolism, but also could be extended for doping testing. Owing to the complementary nature of these tests, with urine and serum giving information on recent drug use and hair providing retrospective information on habitual use, it is suggested that blood or urine tests could accompany hair analysis and thus avoid false doping results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nawed Ik Deshmukh
- School of Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University, Penrhyn Road, Kingston upon Thames, Surrey, KT1 2EE, UK.
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Abstract
Alternative specimens (e.g., hair and saliva) are well established in forensic toxicology and provide significant benefits as noninvasive, inexpensive alternatives to blood with access to improved long-term retrospection. Based on these experiences, the question of potential applications and limitations of alternative specimens in doping control arose. Compounds prohibited at all times (e.g., clenbuterol, β2 agonists, estrogen-receptor modulators) may be successfully tested and clearly interpreted in alternative specimens. In contrast, prohibition of certain compounds in sport are limited to time ranges (e.g., stimulants are only prohibited in-competition), dosages or administration routes (e.g., systemic uptake of glucocorticosteroids). This cannot be properly differentiated by semiquantitative tests (e.g., hair analyses), but may be distinguished in saliva. Similarly, proof of external administration of endogenous steroids (e.g., testosterone) only seems to be achievable by quantitative analysis of saliva. Moreover, the retrospective monitoring of the relevance of social drugs or upcoming (unapproved) substances represents promising applications of hair tests in doping control.
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Schönfelder M, Hofmann H, Anielski P, Thieme D, Oberhoffer R, Michna H. Gene expression profiling in human whole blood samples after controlled testosterone application and exercise. Drug Test Anal 2011; 3:652-60. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Martin Schönfelder
- Institute of Public Health Research; Technische Universität München; Germany
| | - Hande Hofmann
- Institute of Public Health Research; Technische Universität München; Germany
| | - Patricia Anielski
- Institute of Doping Analysis and Sports Biochemistry; Kreischa; Germany
| | - Detlef Thieme
- Institute of Doping Analysis and Sports Biochemistry; Kreischa; Germany
| | - Renate Oberhoffer
- Institute of Public Health Research; Technische Universität München; Germany
| | - Horst Michna
- Institute of Public Health Research; Technische Universität München; Germany
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Hair: a complementary source of bioanalytical information in forensic toxicology. Bioanalysis 2011; 3:67-79. [PMID: 21175368 DOI: 10.4155/bio.10.171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Hair has been used for years in the assessment and documentation of human exposure to drugs, as it presents characteristics that make it extremely valuable for this purpose, namely the fact that sample collection is performed in a noninvasive manner, under close supervision, the possibility of collecting a specimen reflecting a similar timeline in the case of claims or suspicion of a leak in the chain of custody, and the increased window of detection for the drugs. For these reasons, testing for drugs in hair provides unique and useful information in several fields of toxicology, from which the most prominent is the possibility of studying individual drug use histories by means of segmental analysis. This paper will review the unique role of hair as a complementary sample in documenting human exposure to drugs in the fields of clinical and forensic toxicology and workplace drug testing.
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Regal P, Nebot C, Vázquez B, Cepeda A, Fente C. Determination of the hormonal growth promoter 17α-methyltestosterone in food-producing animals: Bovine hair analysis by HPLC–MS/MS. Meat Sci 2010; 84:196-201. [DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2009.08.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2009] [Revised: 08/17/2009] [Accepted: 08/21/2009] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Shen M, Yan H, Xiang P, Shen B. Simultaneous Determination of Anabolic Androgenic Steroids and Their Esters in Hair by LC–MS–MS. Chromatographia 2009. [DOI: 10.1365/s10337-009-1314-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Shen M, Xiang P, Yan H, Shen B, Wang M. Analysis of anabolic steroids in hair: time courses in guinea pigs. Steroids 2009; 74:773-8. [PMID: 19397917 DOI: 10.1016/j.steroids.2009.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2008] [Revised: 04/08/2009] [Accepted: 04/16/2009] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Sensitive, specific, and reproducible methods for the quantitative determination of eight anabolic steroids in guinea pig hair have been developed using LC/MS/MS and GC/MS/MS. Methyltestosterone, stanozolol, methandienone, nandrolone, trenbolone, boldenone, methenolone and DHEA were administered intraperitoneally in guinea pigs. After the first injection, black hair segments were collected on shaved areas of skin. The analysis of these segments revealed the distribution of anabolic steroids in the guinea pig hair. The major components in hair are the parent anabolic steroids. The time courses of the concentrations of the steroids in hair (except methenolone, which does not deposit in hair) demonstrated that the peak concentrations were reached on days 2-4, except stanozolol, which peaked on day 10 after administration. The concentrations in hair appeared to be related to the physicochemical properties of the drug compound and to the dosage. These studies on the distribution of drugs in the hair shaft and on the time course of their concentration changes provide information relevant to the optimal time and method of collecting hair samples. Such studies also provide basic data that will be useful in the application of hair analysis in the control of doping and in the interpretation of results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Shen
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Institute of Forensic Sciences, Ministry of Justice, Shanghai Key laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai, PR China.
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29
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Pozo OJ, Deventer K, Van Eenoo P, Rubens R, Delbeke FT. Quantification of testosterone undecanoate in human hair by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Biomed Chromatogr 2009; 23:873-80. [DOI: 10.1002/bmc.1199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Reiter M, Pfaffl MW, Schönfelder M, Meyer HHD. Gene expression in hair follicle dermal papilla cells after treatment with stanozolol. Biomark Insights 2008; 4:1-8. [PMID: 19652758 PMCID: PMC2716680 DOI: 10.4137/bmi.s1173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Doping with anabolic agents is a topic in sports where strength is crucial, e.g. sprinting, weight lifting and many more. Testosterone and its functional analogs are the drugs of choice taken as pills, creams, tape or injections to increase muscle mass and body performance, and to reduce body fat. Stanozolol (17β-hydroxy-17α-methyl-5α-androst-2-eno[3,2c]pyrazol) is a testosterone analogue with the same anabolic effect like testosterone but its ring structure makes it possible to take it orally. Therefore, stanozolol is one of the most frequently used anabolic steroids. Common verification methods for anabolic drugs exist, identifying the chemicals in tissues, like hair or blood samples. The idea of this feasibility study was to search for specific gene expression regulations induced by stanozolol to identify the possible influence of the synthetically hormone on different metabolic pathways. Finding biomarkers for anabolic drugs could be supportive of the existing methods and an additional proof for illegal drug abuse. In two separate cell cultures, human HFDPC (hair follicle dermal papilla cells) from a female and a male donor were treated with stanozolol. In the female cell culture treatment concentrations of 0 nM (control), 1 nM, 10 nM and 100 nM were chosen. Cells were taken 0 h, 6 h, 24 h and 48 h after stimulation and totalRNA was extracted. Learning from the results of the pilot experiment, the male cell culture was treated in 10 nM and 100 nM concentrations and taken after 0 h, 6 h, 24 h and 72 h. Using quantitative real-time RT-PCR expression of characteristics of different target genes were analysed. Totally 13 genes were selected according to their functionality by screening the actual literature and composed to functional groups: factors of apoptosis regulation were Fas Ligand (FasL), its receptor (FasR), Caspase 8 and Bcl-2. Androgen receptor (AR) and both estrogen receptors (ERα, ERβ) were summarized in the steroid receptor group. The growth factor group included the insulin like growth factor receptor (IGF1R) and growth hormone receptor (GHR). Fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) and keratinocyte growth factor (FGF7) were summarized in the hair cycle factor group. 5α-Steroidreductases (SRD5A1, SRD5A2) represented the enzyme group. Three reference genes were taken for relative quantification: ubiquitin (UBQ), glycerinaldehyde-3-phsophate-dehydrogenase (GAPDH), and β-actin (ACTB). In cell culture 1 AR, FasR, FGF2 showed significant regulations within one treatment time, significant gene expressions over time were analysed for Caspase 8. In cell culture 2 AR, FasR and SRD5A2 were significantly regulated within one treatment time. In this feasibility study first biomarker for a screening pattern of anabolic agents could be identified providing the rationality to investigate modified, metabolic pathways in the whole hair follicle.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Reiter
- Physiology Weihenstephan Technische Universität München Weihenstephaner Berg 3, D-85354 Freising Germany
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31
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Anielski P. Hair analysis of anabolic steroids in connection with doping control-results from horse samples. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2008; 43:1001-1008. [PMID: 18563854 DOI: 10.1002/jms.1446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Doping control of anabolic substances is normally carried out with urine samples taken from athletes and horses. Investigation of alternative specimens, e.g. hair samples, is restricted to special cases, but can also be worthwhile, in addition to urine analysis. Moreover, hair material is preferred in cases of limited availability or complicated collection of urine samples, e.g. from horses. In this work, possible ways of interpretation of analytical results in hair samples are discussed and illustrated by practical experiences. The results demonstrate the applicability of hair analysis to detect anabolic steroids and also to obtain further information about previous abuse. Moreover, the process of incorporation of steroids into hairs is described and the consequences on interpretation are discussed, e.g. on the retrospective estimation of the application date. The chosen examples deal with the detection of the anabolic agent testosterone propionate. Hair samples of an application study, as well as a control sample taken from a racing horse, were referred to. Hair material was investigated by a screening procedure including testosterone, nandrolone and several esters (testosterone propionate, phenylpropionate, decanoate, undecanoate, cypionate; nandrolone decanoate, dodecanoate and phenylpropionate; limits of detection (LODs) between 0.1 and 5.0 pg/mg). Confirmation of testosterone propionate (LOD 0.1 pg/mg) was carried out by an optimised sample preparation. Trimethylsilyl (TMS) and tert-butyl dimethylsilyl derivatives were detected by gas chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry (GC-HRMS) and gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS).
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Affiliation(s)
- P Anielski
- Institute of Doping Analysis and Sports Biochemistry, Dresdner Strasse 12, D-01731 Kreischa, Germany.
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Gambelunghe C, Sommavilla M, Ferranti C, Rossi R, Aroni K, Manes N, Bacci M. Analysis of anabolic steroids in hair by GC/MS/MS. Biomed Chromatogr 2007; 21:369-75. [PMID: 17294499 DOI: 10.1002/bmc.763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
A simple and sensitive gas chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (GC/MS/MS) method is described for the detection of anabolic steroids, usually found in keratin matrix at very low concentrations. Hair samples from seven athletes who spontaneously reported their abuse of anabolic steroids, and in a single case cocaine, were analyzed for methyltestosterone, nandrolone, boldenone, fluoxymesterolone, cocaine and its metabolite benzoylecgonine. Anabolic steroids were determinate by digestion of hair samples in 1 m NaOH for 15 min at 95 degrees C. After cooling, samples were purificated by solid-phase and liquid-liquid extraction, then anabolic steroids were converted to their trimethylsilyl derivative and finally analyzed by GC/MS/MS. For detection of cocaine and benzoylecgonine, hair samples were extracted with methanol in an ultrasonic bath for 2 h at 56 degrees C then overnight in a thermostatic bath at the same temperature. After the incubation, methanol was evaporated to dryness, and benzoylecgonine was converted to its trimethylsilyl derivative prior of GC/MS/MS analysis. Results obtained are in agreement with the athletes' reports, confirming that hair is a valid biological matrix to establish long-term intake of drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Gambelunghe
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Division of Legal and Sports Medicine, University of Perugia, Italy.
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Davenport MD, Tiefenbacher S, Lutz CK, Novak MA, Meyer JS. Analysis of endogenous cortisol concentrations in the hair of rhesus macaques. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2006; 147:255-61. [PMID: 16483573 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2006.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 447] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2005] [Revised: 12/27/2005] [Accepted: 01/05/2006] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Short-term changes in activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) system are routinely assessed by measuring glucocorticoid or metabolite concentrations in plasma, saliva, urine, or feces. However, there are no current methods for determining long-term (i.e., weeks or months) activity of this system. Herein, we describe the development and validation of a simple procedure for measuring cortisol concentrations in the hair of rhesus macaques. This procedure involves two brief isopropanol washes of the hair strands to remove surface contaminants, subsequent powdering of the washed and dried hair, a 24-h methanol extraction followed by evaporation of the solvent and reconstitution of the extract in assay buffer, and finally analysis of the extracted cortisol by a sensitive and specific enzyme immunoassay. Our results confirm the specificity of the procedure for cortisol, show that proximal and distal segments of hair do not differ in their cortisol concentration, and demonstrate that a significant and prolonged stressful experience produces a significant increase in hair cortisol. This new procedure should be valuable for assessing baseline HPA activity in nonhuman primates (and, with appropriate validation, in other species as well) over relatively long periods of time, and also for monitoring chronic stress that might be associated with various experimental manipulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew D Davenport
- Division of Behavioral Biology, New England Primate Research Center, Harvard Medical School, 1 Pine Hill Drive, Southborough, MA 01772, USA
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Abstract
Given the limitations of self-reports on drug use, testing for drugs of abuse is important for most clinical and forensic toxicological situations, both for assessing the reality of the intoxication and for evaluation of the level of drug impairment. It is generally accepted that chemical testing of biological fluids is the most objective means of diagnosis of drug use. The presence of a drug analyte in a biological specimen can be used to document exposure. The standard in drug testing is the immunoassay screen, followed by the gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric confirmation conducted on a urine sample. In recent years, remarkable advances in sensitive analytical techniques have enabled the analysis of drugs in unconventional biological specimens such as hair. The advantages of this sample over traditional media, like urine and blood, are obvious: collection is noninvasive, relatively easy to perform, and in forensic situations it may be achieved under close supervision of law enforcement officers to prevent adulteration or substitution. The window of drug detection is dramatically extended to weeks, months or even years when testing hair. It seems that the value of alternative specimen analysis for the identification of drug users is steadily gaining recognition. This can be seen from its growing use in preemployment screening, in forensic sciences, in clinical applications and for doping control. Hair analysis may be a useful adjunct to conventional drug testing in urine. Methods for evading urinalysis do not affect hair analysis. The aim of this review is to document toxicological applications of hair analysis in drug detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pascal Kintz
- Laboratoire ChemTox, 3 rue Gruninger, F-67400 Illkirch, France.
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Gratacós-Cubarsí M, Castellari M, Valero A, García-Regueiro JA. Hair analysis for veterinary drug monitoring in livestock production. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2006; 834:14-25. [PMID: 16564753 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2006.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2005] [Revised: 02/24/2006] [Accepted: 03/02/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
This review summarizes the basic information and applications concerning the use of hair analysis for the detection of misuse of therapeutic and anabolic agents in livestock animals. Hair biology, hair-shaft structure and the mechanisms of drug incorporation are described, considering the different factors which can affect the deposition. Sampling and extraction methods are reviewed with special attention to the particularities of this matrix, while the use of different analytical techniques is discussed, taking into account the concentration and the sensitivity required for drug detection. Advantages, drawbacks, promising prospects and possible applications of this technique in the future are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Gratacós-Cubarsí
- Institute for Food and Agricultural Research and Technology, Meat Technology Centre, IRTA-CTC -- Food Chemistry Unit, Granja Camps i Armet s/n, Monells 17121, Girona, Spain
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Pragst F, Balikova MA. State of the art in hair analysis for detection of drug and alcohol abuse. Clin Chim Acta 2006; 370:17-49. [PMID: 16624267 DOI: 10.1016/j.cca.2006.02.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 745] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2005] [Revised: 01/11/2006] [Accepted: 02/08/2006] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Hair differs from other materials used for toxicological analysis because of its unique ability to serve as a long-term storage of foreign substances with respect to the temporal appearance in blood. Over the last 20 years, hair testing has gained increasing attention and recognition for the retrospective investigation of chronic drug abuse as well as intentional or unintentional poisoning. In this paper, we review the physiological basics of hair growth, mechanisms of substance incorporation, analytical methods, result interpretation and practical applications of hair analysis for drugs and other organic substances. Improved chromatographic-mass spectrometric techniques with increased selectivity and sensitivity and new methods of sample preparation have improved detection limits from the ng/mg range to below pg/mg. These technical advances have substantially enhanced the ability to detect numerous drugs and other poisons in hair. For example, it was possible to detect previous administration of a single very low dose in drug-facilitated crimes. In addition to its potential application in large scale workplace drug testing and driving ability examination, hair analysis is also used for detection of gestational drug exposure, cases of criminal liability of drug addicts, diagnosis of chronic intoxication and in postmortem toxicology. Hair has only limited relevance in therapy compliance control. Fatty acid ethyl esters and ethyl glucuronide in hair have proven to be suitable markers for alcohol abuse. Hair analysis for drugs is, however, not a simple routine procedure and needs substantial guidelines throughout the testing process, i.e., from sample collection to results interpretation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fritz Pragst
- Institute of Legal Medicine, University Hospital Charité, Hittorfstr. 18, D-14195 Berlin, Germany.
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Gratacós-Cubarsí M, Castellari M, García-Regueiro JA. Detection of sulphamethazine residues in cattle and pig hair by HPLC–DAD. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2006; 832:121-6. [PMID: 16442352 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2006.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2005] [Revised: 01/03/2006] [Accepted: 01/08/2006] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
An HPLC method with diode array detection (DAD) is proposed for the detection of sulphamethazine (SMZ) residues in pig and cattle hair. Hair samples were extracted under alkaline conditions (NH4OH 0.2M for calf samples and NaOH 0.1M for piglet samples) and purified with a dual solid-phase extraction (SPE) cartridge system (reverse phase/strong-cation exchange). Recovery of SMZ in fortified samples varied from 70 to 85%, with a limit of quantification of 0.155 ng/mg. Residues of SMZ (7.2-59.2 ng/mg) were detected both in calf and piglet hairs after a therapeutic treatment with SMZ, while no interfering peak was observed in samples from untreated animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Gratacós-Cubarsí
- IRTA-CTC, Food Chemistry Unit, Granja Camps i Armet s/n, 17121 Monells (Girona), Spain
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Balíková M. HAIR ANALYSIS FOR DRUGS OF ABUSE. PLAUSIBILITY OF INTERPRETATION. Biomed Pap Med Fac Univ Palacky Olomouc Czech Repub 2005. [DOI: 10.5507/bp.2005.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
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Anielski P, Thieme D, Schlupp A, Grosse J, Ellendorff F, Mueller RK. Detection of testosterone, nandrolone and precursors in horse hair. Anal Bioanal Chem 2005; 383:903-8. [PMID: 16261327 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-005-0104-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2005] [Revised: 08/26/2005] [Accepted: 08/31/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Growing interest among several horse-breeder associations has initiated the development of a screening procedure to test for anabolic agents in hair, which has the advantage over blood and urine specimens of allowing long-term detection. An analytical method was established to monitor in tails or manes several anabolic substances available as veterinary medicines or as so-called nutritional supplements (clenbuterol, different esters or prohormones of nandrolone and testosterone). The analytical procedure to detect steroids in hair samples consists of the following steps: decontamination of the hair strand or segment with methanol/water (1:1), milling, extraction of the hair material in an ultrasonic bath using methanol, purification by liquid-liquid extraction (n-pentane/methanol, 25:1) and HPLC cleanup, derivatisation of the relevant LC fractions with MSTFA, and measurement using GC-MS/MS technique. The first objective of our study was the detection of exogenous nandrolone (nortestosterone, NT) in the horse hair; therefore nandrolone-associated compounds [nandrolone dodecanoate administered intramuscularly (i.m.) and a mixture of 4-estrenediol and 4-estrenedione, transdermal] were administered to four geldings. The highest concentrations of NT following i.m. treatment were measured after 10 days in a 2-cm hair segment (up to 18 pg/mg); NT was detectable for up to 120 days and in some cases up to 330 days in tail hair (limit of detection 0.3 pg/mg). Following transdermal application, nandrolone as well as the administered prohormones were identified in tail and mane until the latest sampling at 3 months. Furthermore, untreated stallions (128) were investigated to estimate the range of endogenous levels of NT and testosterone (T) in hair. Maximum values of 3 pg/mg (NT) and 1 pg/mg (T) were quantified originating from endogenous formation in the male horse. Additionally, a possible relationship between steroid concentrations in hair specimens and the age of stallions was appraised. NT and T were not detected in hair samples of control geldings. Following nandrolone treatment of geldings, highest values in hair exceeded the endogenous amount detected in untreated stallions. Therefore comparison of concentrations measured in control samples with the estimated endogenous levels could give a clue to exogenous application in cases of abnormally high amounts of NT or T. The possibility of the evaluation of threshold values is discussed as a means to verify an exogenous administration of NT and T in hair samples. Furthermore, the detection of a synthetic substance in hair, e. g. the parent steroid ester by itself, would be unequivocal proof of an exogenous origin of NT or T and the previous medication of the stallion.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Anielski
- Institute of Doping Analysis and Sports Biochemistry, Dresdner Str. 12, 01731 Kreischa, Germany.
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Hooijerink H, Lommen A, Mulder P, van Rhijn J, Nielen M. Liquid chromatography–electrospray ionisation-mass spectrometry based method for the determination of estradiol benzoate in hair of cattle. Anal Chim Acta 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2004.07.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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41
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Multiresidue analysis of anabolic compounds in bovine hair by gas chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Anal Chim Acta 2004. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2003.11.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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42
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Abstract
AbstractMorphological, serological and chemical examination of human hair for medical purposes was initiated some decades ago. In the 1960s and 1970s, hair analysis was used to evaluate exposure to toxic heavy metals. At this time, examination of hair for organic substances, especially drugs, was not possible because analytical methods were not sensitive enough. Since the early 1980s, the development of highly sensitive and specific assay methods such as radioimmunoassay or gas chromatography/mass spectrometry has permitted the analysis of organic substances trapped in hair. This, theoretically, offered the possibility of revealing an individual’s recent history of drug exposure beginning at sampling day and dating back over a period of weeks or months. The present review aims to summarise the various applications that have been published.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marion Villain
- Laboratoire de Toxicologie, Institut de Médecine Légale, Strasbourg, France
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Zamboni G, Camilot M, Francia G, Lauriola S, Arslanoglu I, Isguven P, Tatò L. Thyroxine hair content in congenital hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 2003; 16:379-82. [PMID: 12705362 DOI: 10.1515/jpem.2003.16.3.379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Using the determination of thyroxine (T4) hair content, we studied 16 hypothyroid newborns diagnosed by means of our regional screening program, and five hypothyroid infants, undetected at birth, at diagnosis and after 3 months of substitutive therapy (8-10 microg/kg/day L-thyroxine in newborns; 15 microg/kg/day in infants), and 13 hyperthyroid adults. Hair T4 content was similar at diagnosis in hypothyroid newborns (2.6 +/- 2.3 pg/mg hair) and in infants undetected at birth (2.4 +/- 1.7 microg/mg hair), but very high only in the latter after therapy (23.2 +/- 3.9 microg/mg hair). Untreated hyperthyroid adults surprisingly evidenced lower hair T4 (0.4 +/- 0.2 microg/mg hair) than controls (1.5 +/- 0.3 microg/mg hair). We suggest these findings are due to differential tissue storage of thyroid hormone, related to the different blood T4 concentration. Therefore, T4 hair assay could be a non-invasive method to further assess thyroid status.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Zamboni
- Pediatric Clinic, University of Verona, Italy.
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Abstract
It is generally accepted that chemical testing of biological fluids is the most objective means of diagnosis of drug use. The presence of a drug analyte in a biological specimen can be used to document exposure. The standard in drug testing is the immunoassay screen, followed by the gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric confirmation conducted on a urine sample. In recent years, remarkable advances in sensitive analytical techniques have enabled the analysis of drugs in unconventional biological specimens such as hair. The advantages of this sample over traditional media like urine and blood are obvious: collection is almost noninvasive, relatively easy to perform, and in forensic situations it may be achieved under close supervision of law enforcement officers to prevent adulteration or substitution. Moreover, the window of drug detection is dramatically extended to weeks, months or even years. The aim of this review is to document the current detection of anabolic steroids in hair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pascal Kintz
- Institut de Médecine Légale, 11 rue Humann, F-67000 Strasbourg, France.
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46
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Abstract
It is generally accepted that chemical testing of biologic fluids is the most objective means of diagnosis of drug use. The presence of a drug analyte in a biologic specimen can be used to document exposure. The standard for drug testing in toxicology is an immunoassay screen conducted on a urine sample, followed by confirmation by gas chromatography with mass spectrometric detection. In recent years, remarkable advances in sensitive analytic techniques have enabled the analysis of drugs in unconventional biologic specimens such as saliva or hair. The aim of this review is to document the current status of drugs of abuse testing in saliva and some doping agents in hair. The influence on drug concentration of the procedure of saliva sampling is described. Screening procedures along with specific methods are reviewed for the determination of amphetamines, cannabis, cocaine, and opiates in saliva. Before an extensive review on the detection of anabolics, corticosteroids, and beta-adrenergic stimulants in hair, the place of this specimen in doping control is discussed, with a focus on the potential problems of this new technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pascal Kintz
- Institut de Médecine Légale, 11 rue Humann, F-67000 Strasbourg, France
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Kintz P, Cirimele V, Dumestre-Toulet V, Villain M, Ludes B. Doping control for methenolone using hair analysis by gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2002; 766:161-7. [PMID: 11820291 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-4347(01)00425-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
A sensitive, specific and reproducible method for the quantitative determination of methenolone in human hair has been developed. The sample preparation involved a decontamination step of the hair with methylene chloride. The hair sample (about 100 mg) was solubilized in 1 ml 1 M NaOH, 15 min at 95 degrees C, in presence of 1 ng testosterone-d3 used as internal standard. The homogenate was neutralized and extracted using consecutively a solid-phase (Isolute C18 eluted with methanol) and a liquid-liquid (pentane) extraction. The residue was derivatized by adding 50 microl MSTFA-NH4I-2-mercaptoethanol (1000:2:5, v/v/v), then incubated for 20 ml at 60 degrees C. A 1.5-microl aliquot of the derivatized extract was injected into the column (HP5-MS capillary column, 5% phenyl-95% methylsiloxane, 30 m x 0.25 mm I.D., 0.25 microm film thickness) of a Hewlett-Packard (Palo Alto, CA, USA) gas chromatograph (6890 Series). Methenolone was detected by its parent ion at m/z 446 and daughter ions at m/z 208 and 195 through a Finnigan TSQ 700 MS-MS system. The assay was capable of detecting 1 pg/mg of methenolone when approximately 100 mg hair material was processed. Linearity was observed for methenolone concentrations ranging from 2 to 100 pg/mg with a correlation coefficients of 0.965-0.981. Intra-day and between-day precisions at 2, 10 and 25 pg/mg were 10.9-14.1% and 13.7-16.8%, respectively, with an extraction recovery of 97.6%. The analysis of a strand of hair obtained from two bodybuilders, revealed the presence of methenolone at the concentrations of 7.3 and 8.8 pg/mg.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Kintz
- Institut de Médecine Légale, Strasbourg, France.
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Kintz P, Cirimele V, Dumestre-Toulet V, Ludes B. Doping control for nandrolone using hair analysis. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2001; 24:1125-30. [PMID: 11248508 DOI: 10.1016/s0731-7085(00)00570-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A sensitive, specific and reproducible method for the quantitative determination of nandrolone in human hair has been developed. The sample preparation involved a decontamination step of the hair with methylene chloride. The hair sample (about 100 mg) was solubilized in 1 ml NaOH IN, 15 min at 95 degrees C, in presence of 10 ng nandrolone-d(3) used as an internal standard. The homogenate was neutralized and extracted using consecutively a solid phase (Isolute C18) and a liquid--liquid (pentane) extraction. The residue was derivatized by adding 50 microl MSTFA/NH4I/2-mercaptoethanol (1000:2:5; v/v/v), then incubated for 20 min at 60 degrees C. A 4-microl aliquot of the derivatized extract was injected into the column (HP5-MS capillary column, 5% phenyl--95% methylsiloxane, 30 m x 0.25 mm i.d. x 0.25 mm film thickness) of a Hewlett Packard (Palo Alto, CA) gas chromatograph (6890 Series) via a Hewlett Packard (7673) autosampler. The assay was capable of detecting 0.5 pg of nandrolone per mg of hair when approximately 100 mg of hair were processed. Linearity was observed for nandrolone concentrations ranging from 1 to 50 pg/mg with a correlation coefficient of 0.997. Intra-day and between-day precisions at 10 pg/mg were 11.2 and 15.1%, respectively, with an extraction recovery of 81.7%. The analysis of three strands of hair, obtained from three bodybuilders, revealed the presence of nandrolone at the concentration of 1, 3.5 and 7.5 pg/mg.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Kintz
- Institut de Médecine Légale, Universite Louis Pasteur, 11 rue Humann, F-67000 Strasbourg, France.
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