1
|
Böhme R, Daniel C, Ferrazzi F, Angeloni M, Ekici AB, Winkler TH, Hilgers KF, Wellmann U, Voll RE, Amann K. Cardiovascular changes in the NZB/W F1 mouse model of lupus nephritis. Front Cardiovasc Med 2023; 10:1182193. [PMID: 37554366 PMCID: PMC10405627 DOI: 10.3389/fcvm.2023.1182193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2023] [Accepted: 07/04/2023] [Indexed: 08/10/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), an autoimmune disease, have a higher risk of cardiovascular (CV) disease and death. In addition, up to 40%-50% of SLE patients develop lupus nephritis (LN) and chronic kidney disease, which is an additional CV risk factor. Thus, the individual contributions of LN and other SLE-specific factors to CV events are unclear. METHODS In this study, we investigated the effect of LN on the development of CV changes using the female NZBxNZW F1 (NZB/W) mouse model of lupus-like disease, with female NZW mice as controls. Standard serologic, morphologic, immunohistologic, and molecular analyses were performed. In a separate group of NZB/W mice, systolic blood pressure (BP) was measured during the course of the disease using tail plethysmography. RESULTS Our data show marked CV changes in NZB/W mice, i.e., increased heart weight, hypertrophy of the left ventricle (LV) and septum, and increased wall thickness of the intramyocardial arteries and the aorta, which correlated with the progression of renal damage, but not with the age of the mice. In addition, systolic BP was increased in NZB/W mice only when kidney damage progressed and proteinuria was present. Pathway analysis based on gene expression data revealed a significant upregulation of the response to interferon beta in NZB/W mice with moderate kidney injury compared with NZB mice. Furthermore, IFI202b and IL-6 mRNA expression is correlated with CV changes. Multiple linear regression analysis demonstrated serum urea as a surrogate marker of kidney function and IFI202b expression as an independent predictor for LV wall thickness. In addition, deposition of complement factors CFD and C3c in hearts from NZB/W mice was seen, which correlated with the severity of kidney disease. CONCLUSIONS Thus, we postulate that the pathogenesis of CV disease in SLE is affected by renal impairment, i.e., LN, but it can also be partly influenced by lupus-specific cardiac expression of pro-inflammatory factors and complement deposition.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Romy Böhme
- Department of Nephropathology, Friedrich–Alexander–Universität (FAU) Erlangen–Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Christoph Daniel
- Department of Nephropathology, Friedrich–Alexander–Universität (FAU) Erlangen–Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Fulvia Ferrazzi
- Department of Nephropathology, Friedrich–Alexander–Universität (FAU) Erlangen–Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
- Institute of Pathology, Friedrich–Alexander–Universität (FAU) Erlangen–Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Miriam Angeloni
- Institute of Pathology, Friedrich–Alexander–Universität (FAU) Erlangen–Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Arif Bülent Ekici
- Institute of Human Genetics, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich–Alexander–Universität Erlangen–Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Thomas H. Winkler
- Divison of Genetics, Department of Biology, Nikolaus–Fiebiger–Center of Molecular Medicine, Friedrich–Alexander–Universität (FAU) Erlangen–Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Karl-Friedrich Hilgers
- Department of Nephrology and Hypertension, Friedrich–Alexander–Universität (FAU) Erlangen–Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Ute Wellmann
- Divison of Genetics, Department of Biology, Nikolaus–Fiebiger–Center of Molecular Medicine, Friedrich–Alexander–Universität (FAU) Erlangen–Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Reinhard E. Voll
- Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Medical Center–University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Kerstin Amann
- Department of Nephropathology, Friedrich–Alexander–Universität (FAU) Erlangen–Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Abstract
Laboratory animal models are beneficial when they recapitulate all or just some of the clinical and immunological manifestations of the disease. Various animals such as cats, rats, dogs, hamsters, guinea pigs, rabbits, horses, minks, pigs, and primates have been described lupus-like phenotype. However, a mouse has remained the preferable animal for scientific investigations as a result of their reduced lifespan, easy reproduction, markedly low costs, public acceptance, ease of genetic management, and the probability to stay under standardized conditions. It is highly challenging to establish a mouse model with all features of lupus because of the difficulty and the heterogeneity of the clinical features in systemic lupus erythematous (SLE). Additionally, due to the multiple differences between the mouse and human immune system, the direct translation usually fails. Each mouse model has specific characteristics and shares many subsets of aspects with the disease observed in humans, which gives researchers a tool to select their particular needs. Over 50 years, many mice models have been developed and used to dissect the pathogenesis of lupus, also to test novel drugs and therapies. In general, mice models that contribute considerably in SLE understanding can be divided into four groups: Spontaneous models, induced models, genetically modified models, along with humanizing mouse models that are the link between the mouse and human immune system. In this updated review, we will present what has been learned from different lupus mice models and how these models have contributed to a better understanding of lupus pathogenesis and treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alya Halkom
- Department of Dermatology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenomics, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Haijing Wu
- Department of Dermatology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenomics, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Qianjin Lu
- Department of Dermatology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenomics, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Zhan Y, Kong I, Chopin M, Macri C, Zhang JG, Xie J, Nutt SL, O'Keeffe M, Hawkins ED, Morand EF, Lew AM. Plasmacytoid dendritic cells from parent strains of the NZB/W F1 lupus mouse contribute different characteristics to autoimmune propensity. Immunol Cell Biol 2020; 98:203-214. [PMID: 31916630 DOI: 10.1111/imcb.12313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2019] [Revised: 01/06/2020] [Accepted: 01/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The NZB/W F1 (F1) mice develop severe disease that is similar to human systemic lupus erythematosus. By contrast, each parent strain, NZB or NZW, has limited autoimmunity, suggesting traits of both strains contribute to pathogenesis. Although many of the contributing genes have been identified, the contributing cellular abnormality associated with each parent strain remains unresolved. Given that plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) are key to the pathogenesis of lupus, we investigated the properties of pDCs from NZB and NZW mice. We found that NZB mouse had higher numbers of pDCs, with much of the increase being contributed by a more abundant CD8+ pDC subset. This was associated with prolonged survival and stronger proliferation of CD4+ T cells. By contrast, NZW pDCs had heightened capacity to produce interferon-α (IFNα) and IFNλ, and promoted stronger B-cell proliferation upon CpG stimulation. Thus, our data reveal the different functional and numerical characteristics of pDCs from NZW and NZB mouse.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yifan Zhan
- The Walter & Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Isabella Kong
- The Walter & Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Michael Chopin
- The Walter & Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Christophe Macri
- Infection and Immunity Program, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
| | - Jian-Guo Zhang
- The Walter & Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Jiaying Xie
- College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, Tianjin, China
| | - Stephen L Nutt
- The Walter & Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Meredith O'Keeffe
- Infection and Immunity Program, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
| | - Edwin D Hawkins
- The Walter & Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Eric F Morand
- Centre for Inflammatory Diseases, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Andrew M Lew
- The Walter & Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Mountz JD, Hsu HC, Ballesteros-Tato A. Dysregulation of T Follicular Helper Cells in Lupus. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 202:1649-1658. [PMID: 30833421 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1801150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2018] [Accepted: 09/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Although multiple and overlapping mechanisms are ultimately responsible for the immunopathology observed in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus, autoreactive Abs secreted by autoreactive plasma cells (PCs) are considered to play a critical role in disease progression and immunopathology. Given that PCs derive from the germinal centers (GC), long-term dysregulated GC reactions are often associated with the development of spontaneous autoantibody responses and immunopathology in systemic lupus erythematosus patients. In this review, we summarize the emerging evidence concerning the roles of T follicular helper cells in regulating pathogenic GC and autoreactive PC responses in lupus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John D Mountz
- Division of Clinical Immunology and Rheumatology, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294; and .,Birmingham Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Birmingham, AL 35233
| | - Hui-Chen Hsu
- Division of Clinical Immunology and Rheumatology, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294; and
| | - Andre Ballesteros-Tato
- Division of Clinical Immunology and Rheumatology, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294; and
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Radaelli E, Santagostino SF, Sellers RS, Brayton CF. Immune Relevant and Immune Deficient Mice: Options and Opportunities in Translational Research. ILAR J 2019; 59:211-246. [PMID: 31197363 PMCID: PMC7114723 DOI: 10.1093/ilar/ily026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2017] [Revised: 12/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
In 1989 ILAR published a list and description of immunodeficient rodents used in research. Since then, advances in understanding of molecular mechanisms; recognition of genetic, epigenetic microbial, and other influences on immunity; and capabilities in manipulating genomes and microbiomes have increased options and opportunities for selecting mice and designing studies to answer important mechanistic and therapeutic questions. Despite numerous scientific breakthroughs that have benefitted from research in mice, there is debate about the relevance and predictive or translational value of research in mice. Reproducibility of results obtained from mice and other research models also is a well-publicized concern. This review summarizes resources to inform the selection and use of immune relevant mouse strains and stocks, aiming to improve the utility, validity, and reproducibility of research in mice. Immune sufficient genetic variations, immune relevant spontaneous mutations, immunodeficient and autoimmune phenotypes, and selected induced conditions are emphasized.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Enrico Radaelli
- Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Sara F Santagostino
- Department of Safety Assessment, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, California
| | | | - Cory F Brayton
- Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Syrett CM, Sindhava V, Sierra I, Dubin AH, Atchison M, Anguera MC. Diversity of Epigenetic Features of the Inactive X-Chromosome in NK Cells, Dendritic Cells, and Macrophages. Front Immunol 2019; 9:3087. [PMID: 30671059 PMCID: PMC6331414 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.03087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2018] [Accepted: 12/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
In females, the long non-coding RNA Xist drives X-chromosome Inactivation (XCI) to equalize X-linked gene dosage between sexes. Unlike other somatic cells, dynamic regulation of Xist RNA and heterochromatin marks on the inactive X (Xi) in female lymphocytes results in biallelic expression of some X-linked genes, including Tlr7, Cxcr3, and Cd40l, implicated in sex-biased autoimmune diseases. We now find that while Xist RNA is dispersed across the nucleus in NK cells and dendritic cells (DCs) and partially co-localizes with H3K27me3 in bone marrow-derived macrophages, it is virtually absent in plasmacytoid DCs (p-DCs). Moreover, H3K27me3 foci are present in only 10–20% of cells and we observed biallelic expression of Tlr7 in p-DCs from wildtype mice and NZB/W F1 mice. Unlike in humans, mouse p-DCs do not exhibit sex differences with interferon alpha production, and interferon signature gene expression in p-DCs is similar between males and females. Despite the absence of Xist RNA from the Xi, female p-DCs maintain dosage compensation of six immunity-related X-linked genes. Thus, immune cells use diverse mechanisms to maintain XCI which could contribute to sex-linked autoimmune diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Camille M Syrett
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Vishal Sindhava
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Isabel Sierra
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Aimee H Dubin
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Michael Atchison
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Montserrat C Anguera
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Brightbill HD, Suto E, Blaquiere N, Ramamoorthi N, Sujatha-Bhaskar S, Gogol EB, Castanedo GM, Jackson BT, Kwon YC, Haller S, Lesch J, Bents K, Everett C, Kohli PB, Linge S, Christian L, Barrett K, Jaochico A, Berezhkovskiy LM, Fan PW, Modrusan Z, Veliz K, Townsend MJ, DeVoss J, Johnson AR, Godemann R, Lee WP, Austin CD, McKenzie BS, Hackney JA, Crawford JJ, Staben ST, Alaoui Ismaili MH, Wu LC, Ghilardi N. NF-κB inducing kinase is a therapeutic target for systemic lupus erythematosus. Nat Commun 2018; 9:179. [PMID: 29330524 PMCID: PMC5766581 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-017-02672-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2017] [Accepted: 12/18/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
NF-κB-inducing kinase (NIK) mediates non-canonical NF-κB signaling downstream of multiple TNF family members, including BAFF, TWEAK, CD40, and OX40, which are implicated in the pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Here, we show that experimental lupus in NZB/W F1 mice can be treated with a highly selective and potent NIK small molecule inhibitor. Both in vitro as well as in vivo, NIK inhibition recapitulates the pharmacological effects of BAFF blockade, which is clinically efficacious in SLE. Furthermore, NIK inhibition also affects T cell parameters in the spleen and proinflammatory gene expression in the kidney, which may be attributable to inhibition of OX40 and TWEAK signaling, respectively. As a consequence, NIK inhibition results in improved survival, reduced renal pathology, and lower proteinuria scores. Collectively, our data suggest that NIK inhibition is a potential therapeutic approach for SLE.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hans D Brightbill
- Department of Immunology Discovery, Genentech, 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA-94080, USA
| | - Eric Suto
- Department of Translational Immunology, Genentech, 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA-94080, USA
| | - Nicole Blaquiere
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, Genentech, 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA-94080, USA
| | - Nandhini Ramamoorthi
- Department of Biomarker Discovery, Genentech, 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA-94080, USA
| | - Swathi Sujatha-Bhaskar
- Department of Immunology Discovery, Genentech, 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA-94080, USA
| | - Emily B Gogol
- Department of Immunology Discovery, Genentech, 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA-94080, USA
| | - Georgette M Castanedo
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, Genentech, 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA-94080, USA
| | - Benjamin T Jackson
- Department of Immunology Discovery, Genentech, 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA-94080, USA
| | - Youngsu C Kwon
- Department of Translational Immunology, Genentech, 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA-94080, USA
| | - Susan Haller
- Department of Pathology, Genentech, 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA-94080, USA
| | - Justin Lesch
- Department of Translational Immunology, Genentech, 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA-94080, USA
| | - Karin Bents
- Evotec, Inc., Essener Bogen 7, Hamburg, 22419, Germany
| | - Christine Everett
- Department of Biochemical and Cellular Pharmacology, Genentech, 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA-94080, USA
| | - Pawan Bir Kohli
- Department of Biochemical and Cellular Pharmacology, Genentech, 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA-94080, USA
| | - Sandra Linge
- Evotec, Inc., Essener Bogen 7, Hamburg, 22419, Germany
| | - Laura Christian
- Department of Immunology Discovery, Genentech, 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA-94080, USA
| | - Kathy Barrett
- Department of Biochemical and Cellular Pharmacology, Genentech, 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA-94080, USA
| | - Allan Jaochico
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Genentech, 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA-94080, USA
| | - Leonid M Berezhkovskiy
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Genentech, 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA-94080, USA
| | - Peter W Fan
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Genentech, 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA-94080, USA
| | - Zora Modrusan
- Department of Molecular Biology, Genentech, 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA-94080, USA
| | - Kelli Veliz
- Department of Laboratory Animal Resources, Genentech, 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA-94080, USA
| | - Michael J Townsend
- Department of Biomarker Discovery, Genentech, 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA-94080, USA
| | - Jason DeVoss
- Department of Translational Immunology, Genentech, 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA-94080, USA
| | - Adam R Johnson
- Department of Biochemical and Cellular Pharmacology, Genentech, 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA-94080, USA
| | | | - Wyne P Lee
- Department of Translational Immunology, Genentech, 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA-94080, USA
| | - Cary D Austin
- Department of Pathology, Genentech, 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA-94080, USA
| | - Brent S McKenzie
- Department of Translational Immunology, Genentech, 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA-94080, USA
| | - Jason A Hackney
- Department of Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, Genentech, 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA-94080, USA
| | - James J Crawford
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, Genentech, 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA-94080, USA
| | - Steven T Staben
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, Genentech, 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA-94080, USA
| | - Moulay H Alaoui Ismaili
- Department of Biochemical and Cellular Pharmacology, Genentech, 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA-94080, USA
| | - Lawren C Wu
- Department of Immunology Discovery, Genentech, 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA-94080, USA
| | - Nico Ghilardi
- Department of Immunology Discovery, Genentech, 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA-94080, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Chronic kidney disease-associated cardiovascular disease: scope and limitations of animal models. Cardiovasc Endocrinol 2017; 6:120-127. [PMID: 31646129 DOI: 10.1097/xce.0000000000000132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2017] [Accepted: 08/21/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a heterogeneous range of disorders affecting up to 11% of the world's population. The majority of patients with CKD die of cardiovascular disease (CVD) before progressing to end-stage renal disease. CKD patients have an increased risk of atherosclerotic disease as well as a unique cardiovascular phenotype. There remains no clear aetiology for these issues and a better understanding of the pathophysiology of CKD-associated CVD is urgently needed. Although nonanimal studies can provide insights into the nature of disease, the whole-organism nature of CKD-associated CVD means that high-quality animal models, at least for the immediate future, are likely to remain a key tool in improving our understanding in this area. We will discuss the methods used to induce renal impairment in rodents and the methods available to assess cardiovascular phenotype and in each case describe the applicability to humans.
Collapse
|
9
|
Label Free Detection of Sensitive Mid-Infrared Biomarkers of Glomerulonephritis in Urine Using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy. Sci Rep 2017; 7:4601. [PMID: 28676642 PMCID: PMC5496858 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-04774-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2016] [Accepted: 05/22/2017] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
More reliable biomarkers using near-patient technologies are needed to improve early diagnosis and intervention for patients with renal disease. Infrared (IR) vibrational spectroscopy/microspectroscopy is an established analytical method that was first used in biomedical research over 20 years ago. With the advances in instrumentation, computational and mathematical techniques, this technology has now been applied to a variety of diseases; however, applications in nephrology are just beginning to emerge. In the present study, we used attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy to analyze urine samples collected from rodent models of inflammatory glomerulonephritis (GN) as well as from patients with crescentic GN, with the aim of identifying potential renal biomarkers; several characteristic mid-IR spectral markers were identified in urine samples. Specifically, a 1545 cm−1 band increased in intensity with the progression and severity of GN in rats, mice and humans. Furthermore, its intensity declined significantly in response to corticosteroid treatment in nephritic rats. In conclusion, our results suggest that specific urinary FTIR biomarkers may provide a rapid, sensitive and novel non-invasive means of diagnosing inflammatory forms of GN, and for real-time monitoring of progress, and response to treatment.
Collapse
|
10
|
Vlachou K, Mintzas K, Glymenaki M, Ioannou M, Papadaki G, Bertsias GK, Sidiropoulos P, Boumpas DT, Verginis P. Elimination of Granulocytic Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells in Lupus-Prone Mice Linked to Reactive Oxygen Species-Dependent Extracellular Trap Formation. Arthritis Rheumatol 2016; 68:449-61. [DOI: 10.1002/art.39441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2015] [Accepted: 09/15/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Katerina Vlachou
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Foundation for Research and Technology, Heraklion, Greece, Laboratory of Autoimmunity and Inflammation, University of Crete Medical School, Heraklion, Greece, and Biomedical Research Foundation of the Academy of Athens; Athens Greece
| | - Konstantinos Mintzas
- Maria Glymenaki, MSc, Prodromos Sidiropoulos, MD, PhD: Laboratory of Autoimmunity and Inflammation, University of Crete Medical School; Heraklion Greece
| | - Maria Glymenaki
- Maria Glymenaki, MSc, Prodromos Sidiropoulos, MD, PhD: Laboratory of Autoimmunity and Inflammation, University of Crete Medical School; Heraklion Greece
| | - Marianna Ioannou
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Foundation for Research and Technology and Laboratory of Autoimmunity and Inflammation, University of Crete Medical School; Heraklion Greece
| | - Garyfalia Papadaki
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Foundation for Research and Technology and Laboratory of Autoimmunity and Inflammation, University of Crete Medical School; Heraklion Greece
| | - George K. Bertsias
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Foundation for Research and Technology and Laboratory of Autoimmunity and Inflammation, University of Crete Medical School; Heraklion Greece
| | - Prodromos Sidiropoulos
- Maria Glymenaki, MSc, Prodromos Sidiropoulos, MD, PhD: Laboratory of Autoimmunity and Inflammation, University of Crete Medical School; Heraklion Greece
| | - Dimitrios T. Boumpas
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Foundation for Research and Technology, Heraklion, Greece, University of Athens Medical School, Athens, Greece, and Biomedical Research Foundation of the Academy of Athens; Athens Greece
| | - Panayotis Verginis
- Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany, and Biomedical Research Foundation of the Academy of Athens; Athens Greece
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Müller J, Lunz B, Schwab I, Acs A, Nimmerjahn F, Daniel C, Nitschke L. Siglec-G Deficiency Leads to Autoimmunity in Aging C57BL/6 Mice. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2015; 195:51-60. [PMID: 25987743 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1403139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2014] [Accepted: 04/20/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Siglec-G, a member of the sialic acid-binding Ig-like lectin (Siglec) family, is expressed on B cell and dendritic cell surfaces. It acts as an inhibitory coreceptor and modulates B cell activation, especially on B1 cells, as Siglec-G-deficient mice show mainly a B1 cell-restricted phenotype resulting in increased B1 cell numbers. Although higher B1 cell numbers are discussed to be associated with autoimmunity, loss of Siglec-G does not result in autoimmune disease in BALB/c mice. However, there is evidence from Siglec-G × CD22 double-deficient mice and Siglec-G(-/-) mice on an autoimmune-prone MRL/lpr background that Siglec-G is important to maintain tolerance in B cells. In this study, we analyzed the role of Siglec-G in induction and maintenance of B cell tolerance on C57BL/6 background and in the FcγRIIb-deficient background. We find that aging Siglec-G-deficient and Siglec-G × FcγRIIb double-deficient mice develop an autoimmune phenotype with elevated autoantibody levels and mild glomerulonephritis. Aging Siglec-G-deficient mice have elevated numbers of plasma cells and germinal center B cells, as well as a higher number of activated CD4 T cells, which likely all contribute to autoantibody production. Additional loss of the inhibitory receptor FcγRIIb in Siglec-G(-/-) mice does not result in exacerbation of disease. These results indicate that Siglec-G is important to maintain tolerance in B cells and prevent autoimmunity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Müller
- Division of Genetics, Department of Biology, University of Erlangen, 91058 Erlangen, Germany; and
| | - Benjamin Lunz
- Division of Genetics, Department of Biology, University of Erlangen, 91058 Erlangen, Germany; and
| | - Inessa Schwab
- Division of Genetics, Department of Biology, University of Erlangen, 91058 Erlangen, Germany; and
| | - Andreas Acs
- Division of Genetics, Department of Biology, University of Erlangen, 91058 Erlangen, Germany; and
| | - Falk Nimmerjahn
- Division of Genetics, Department of Biology, University of Erlangen, 91058 Erlangen, Germany; and
| | - Christoph Daniel
- Department of Nephropathology, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Lars Nitschke
- Division of Genetics, Department of Biology, University of Erlangen, 91058 Erlangen, Germany; and
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Crampton SP, Morawski PA, Bolland S. Linking susceptibility genes and pathogenesis mechanisms using mouse models of systemic lupus erythematosus. Dis Model Mech 2015; 7:1033-46. [PMID: 25147296 PMCID: PMC4142724 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.016451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) represents a challenging autoimmune disease from a clinical perspective because of its varied forms of presentation. Although broad-spectrum steroids remain the standard treatment for SLE, they have many side effects and only provide temporary relief from the symptoms of the disease. Thus, gaining a deeper understanding of the genetic traits and biological pathways that confer susceptibility to SLE will help in the design of more targeted and effective therapeutics. Both human genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and investigations using a variety of mouse models of SLE have been valuable for the identification of the genes and pathways involved in pathogenesis. In this Review, we link human susceptibility genes for SLE with biological pathways characterized in mouse models of lupus, and discuss how the mechanistic insights gained could advance drug discovery for the disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Steve P Crampton
- Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergic and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20852, USA
| | - Peter A Morawski
- Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergic and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20852, USA
| | - Silvia Bolland
- Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergic and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20852, USA
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Chance, genetics, and the heterogeneity of disease and pathogenesis in systemic lupus erythematosus. Semin Immunopathol 2014; 36:495-517. [PMID: 25102991 DOI: 10.1007/s00281-014-0440-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2014] [Accepted: 06/30/2014] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a remarkably complex and heterogeneous systemic autoimmune disease. Disease complexity within individuals and heterogeneity among individuals, even genetically identical individuals, is driven by stochastic execution of a complex inherited program. Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have progressively improved understanding of which genes are most critical to the potential for SLE and provided illuminating insight about the immune mechanisms that are engaged in SLE. What initiates expression of the genetic program to cause SLE within an individual and how that program is initiated remains poorly understood. If we extrapolate from all of the different experimental mouse models for SLE, we can begin to appreciate why SLE is so heterogeneous and consequently why prediction of disease outcome is so difficult. In this review, we critically evaluate extrinsic versus intrinsic cellular functions in the clearance and elimination of cellular debris and how dysfunction in that system may promote autoimmunity to nuclear antigens. We also examine several mouse models genetically prone to SLE either because of natural inheritance or inheritance of induced mutations to illustrate how different immune mechanisms may initiate autoimmunity and affect disease pathogenesis. Finally, we describe the heterogeneity of disease manifestations in SLE and discuss the mechanisms of disease pathogenesis with emphasis on glomerulonephritis. Particular attention is given to discussion of how anti-DNA autoantibody initiates experimental lupus nephritis (LN) in mice.
Collapse
|
14
|
Bender AT, Wu Y, Cao Q, Ding Y, Oestreicher J, Genest M, Akare S, Ishizaka ST, Mackey MF. Assessment of the translational value of mouse lupus models using clinically relevant biomarkers. Transl Res 2014; 163:515-32. [PMID: 24462761 DOI: 10.1016/j.trsl.2014.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2013] [Revised: 12/17/2013] [Accepted: 01/03/2014] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Lupus is an autoimmune disease with a poorly understood etiology that manifests with a diverse pathology. This heterogeneity has been a challenge to clinical drug development efforts. A related difficulty is the uncertain translational power of animal models used for evaluating potential drug targets and candidate therapeutics, because it is unlikely that any 1 preclinical model will recapitulate the spectrum of human disease. Therefore, multiple models, along with an understanding of the immune mechanisms that drive them, are necessary if we are to use them to identify valid drug targets and evaluate candidate therapies successfully. To this end, we have characterized several different mouse lupus models and report their differences with respect to biomarkers and symptoms that are representative of the human disease. We compared the pristane-induced mouse lupus disease model using 3 different strains (DBA/1, SJL, BALB/c), and the spontaneous NZB x NZW F1(NZB/W) mouse model. We show that the models differ significantly in their autoantibody profiles, disease manifestations such as nephritis and arthritis, and expression of type I interferon-regulated genes. Similar to the NZB/W model, pristane-induced disease in SJL mice manifests with nephritis and proteinuria, whereas the pristane-treated DBA/1 mice develop arthritis and an interferon-driven gene signature that closely resembles that in human patients. The elucidation of each model's strengths and the identification of translatable biomarkers yields insight for basic lupus research and drug development, and should assist in the proper selection of models for evaluating candidate targets and therapeutic strategies.
Collapse
|
15
|
|
16
|
Affiliation(s)
- Mayami Sengupta
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610 USA
| | - Laurence Morel
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610 USA
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
From genome-wide association studies to etiology: probing autoimmunity genes by RNAi. Trends Mol Med 2011; 17:634-40. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molmed.2011.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2011] [Revised: 06/08/2011] [Accepted: 06/13/2011] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
|
18
|
Fu SM, Deshmukh US, Gaskin F. Pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus revisited 2011: end organ resistance to damage, autoantibody initiation and diversification, and HLA-DR. J Autoimmun 2011; 37:104-12. [PMID: 21632208 PMCID: PMC3173577 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaut.2011.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2011] [Accepted: 05/03/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a multi-system disorder resulting from interaction of susceptibility genes and environmental factors. SLE has protean clinical presentations at the initial diagnosis and relapses. SLE-related autoantibodies have unique patterns of diversification to linked proteins such as the snRNP particle and the diversification takes years before clinical diagnosis. There are both clinical and experimental evidence to indicate that separate genes contribute to autoimmunity and end organ damage and these genes are independent and interactive. Among the numerous susceptibility genes, HLA-D complex is dominant. Results from the authors' laboratories led us to postulate a unified hypothesis for SLE pathogenesis. This hypothesis states that SLE-autoantibodies are initiated by environmental T cell epitope mimics of the SLE-related autoantigens in hosts with susceptible HLA-D alleles. These autoantibodies diversify over a period of years due the accumulation of cross-reactive T cells. This process ultimately leads to the generation of organ specific autoantibodies and autoreactive effector T cells due to the polyreactive nature of T and B cell receptors from hosts with susceptibility genes to end organ damage, resulting in protean clinical presentations. This hypothesis accounts for most of the features unique to SLE and has clinical implications as to how patients should be treated.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shu Man Fu
- Division of Clinical Rheumatology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908-0412, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Tchepeleva SN, Thurman JM, Ruff K, Perkins SJ, Morel L, Boackle SA. An allelic variant of Crry in the murine Sle1c lupus susceptibility interval is not impaired in its ability to regulate complement activation. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2010; 185:2331-9. [PMID: 20660348 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1000783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The Sle1c subinterval on distal murine chromosome 1 confers loss of tolerance to chromatin. Cr2, which encodes complement receptors 1 and 2 (CR1/CR2; CD35/CD21), is a strong candidate gene for lupus susceptibility within this interval based on structural and functional alterations in its protein products. CR1-related protein/gene Y (Crry) lies 10 kb from Cr2 and encodes a ubiquitously expressed complement regulatory protein that could also play a role in the pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus. Crry derived from B6.Sle1c congenic mice migrated at a higher m.w. by SDS-PAGE compared with B6 Crry, as a result of differential glycosylation. A single-nucleotide polymorphism in the first short consensus repeat of Sle1c Crry introduced a novel N-linked glycosylation site likely responsible for this structural alteration. Five additional single-nucleotide polymorphisms in the signal peptide and short consensus repeat 1 of Sle1c Crry were identified. However, the cellular expression of B6 and B6.Sle1c Crry and their ability to regulate the classical pathway of complement were not significantly different. Although soluble Sle1c Crry regulated the alternative pathway of complement more efficiently than B6 Crry, as a membrane protein, it regulated the alternative pathway equivalently to B6 Crry. These data fail to provide evidence for a functional effect of the structural alterations in Sle1c Crry and suggest that the role of Cr2 in the Sle1c autoimmune phenotypes can be isolated in recombinant congenic mice containing both genes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Svetlana N Tchepeleva
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Abstract
Chronic kidney diseases result from recurrent or progressive injuries in glomeruli, tubules, interstitium and/or vasculature. In order to study pathogenesis, mechanisms and effects of interventions, many animal models have been developed, including spontaneous, genetic and induced models. However, these models do not exactly simulate human diseases, and most of them are strain, gender or age dependent. We review key information on various rodent models of chronic kidney diseases.
Collapse
|
21
|
Mayadas TN, Tsokos GC, Tsuboi N. Mechanisms of immune complex-mediated neutrophil recruitment and tissue injury. Circulation 2009; 120:2012-24. [PMID: 19917895 DOI: 10.1161/circulationaha.108.771170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 149] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tanya N Mayadas
- Center for Excellence in Vascular Biology, Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
Abstract
Signalling through the B cell antigen receptor (BCR) is required for peripheral B lymphocyte maturation, maintenance, activation and silencing. In mature B cells, the antigen receptor normally consists of two isotypes, membrane IgM and IgD (mIgM, mIgD). Although the signals initiated from both isotypes differ in kinetics and intensity, in vivo, the BCR of either isotype seems to be able to compensate for the loss of the other, reflected by the mild phenotypes of mice deficient for mIgM or mIgD. Thus, it is still unclear why mature B cells need expression of mIgD in addition to mIgM. In the current review we suggest that the view that IgD has a simply definable function centred around the basic signalling function should be replaced by the assumption that IgD fine tunes humoral responses, modulates B cell selection and homeostasis and thus shapes the B cell repertoire, defining IgD to be a key modulator of the humoral immune response.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Roland Geisberger
- University of Salzburg, Department of Molecular Biology, Salzburg, Austria
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
23
|
Sharabi A, Zinger H, Zborowsky M, Sthoeger ZM, Mozes E. A peptide based on the complementarity-determining region 1 of an autoantibody ameliorates lupus by up-regulating CD4+CD25+ cells and TGF-beta. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006; 103:8810-5. [PMID: 16735466 PMCID: PMC1482660 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0603201103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2006] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Systemic lupus erythematosus is an autoimmune disease characterized by autoantibodies and systemic clinical manifestations. A peptide, designated hCDR1, based on the complementarity-determining region (CDR) 1 of an autoantibody, ameliorated the serological and clinical manifestations of lupus in both spontaneous and induced murine models of lupus. The objectives of the present study were to determine the mechanism(s) underlying the beneficial effects induced by hCDR1. Adoptive transfer of hCDR1-treated cells to systemic lupus erythematosus-afflicted (NZBxNZW)F1 female mice down-regulated all disease manifestations. hCDR1 treatment up-regulated (by 30-40%) CD4+CD25+ cells in association with CD45RBlow, cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen 4, and Foxp3 expression. Depletion of the CD25+ cells diminished significantly the therapeutic effects of hCDR1, whereas administration of the enriched CD4+CD25+ cell population was beneficial to the diseased mice. Amelioration of disease manifestations was associated with down-regulation of the pathogenic cytokines (e.g., IFN-gamma and IL-10) and up-regulation of the immunosuppressive cytokine TGF-beta, which substantially contributed to the suppressed autoreactivity. TGF-beta was secreted by CD4+ cells that were affected by hCDR1-induced immunoregulatory cells. The hCDR1-induced CD4+CD25+ cells suppressed autoreactive CD4+ cells, resulting in reduced rates of activation-induced apoptosis. Thus, hCDR1 ameliorates lupus through the induction of CD4+CD25+ cells that suppress activation of the autoreactive cells and trigger the up-regulation of TGF-beta.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amir Sharabi
- *Department of Immunology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel; and
| | - Heidy Zinger
- *Department of Immunology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel; and
| | - Maya Zborowsky
- *Department of Immunology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel; and
| | - Zev M. Sthoeger
- Department of Medicine B, Kaplan Hospital, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Edna Mozes
- *Department of Immunology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel; and
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Luger D, Dayan M, Zinger H, Liu JP, Mozes E. A peptide based on the complementarity determining region 1 of a human monoclonal autoantibody ameliorates spontaneous and induced lupus manifestations in correlation with cytokine immunomodulation. J Clin Immunol 2005; 24:579-90. [PMID: 15622442 DOI: 10.1007/s10875-004-6245-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
A peptide based on the sequence of the complementarity determining region (CDR) 1 of a human monoclonal anti-DNA autoantibody that bears the 16/6 idiotype (16/6Id) was synthesized as a potential candidate for the treatment of SLE patients. The peptide, designated hCDR1, did not induce experimental SLE upon active immunization of mice. The ability of the peptide to treat an already established lupus that was either induced in BALB/c mice or developed spontaneously in (NZB x NZW)F1 mice was tested. Ten weekly injections of hCDR1 (200, 50 microg/mouse) given subcutaneously mitigated disease manifestations (e.g., leukopenia, proteinuria and kidney damage) and resulted in a prominent reduction in the dsDNA specific antibody titers. Furthermore, treatment with hCDR1 resulted in reduced secretion and expression of the "pathogenic" cytokines [i.e., INFgamma, IL-1beta, TNFalpha (in the induced model) and IL-10], whereas the immunosuppressive cytokine TGFbeta was up-regulated. Thus, the significant ameliorating effects of hCDR1 are manifested at least partially via the immunomodulation of the cytokine profile. These results suggest that hCDR1 is a potential candidate for a novel treatment of SLE patients.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dror Luger
- Department of Immunology, The Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
25
|
Chen Y, Cuda C, Morel L. Genetic Determination of T Cell Help in Loss of Tolerance to Nuclear Antigens. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2005; 174:7692-702. [PMID: 15944270 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.174.12.7692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Sle1 is a major lupus susceptibility locus in NZM2410 lupus model that is associated with a loss of tolerance to nuclear Ags. At least three genes, Sle1a, Sle1b, and Sle1c contribute to Sle1, and their relative role in lupus pathogenesis is unknown. We show here that Sle1-expressing CD4(+) T cells present an activated phenotype associated with increased proliferation and cytokine production. In addition, Sle1 CD4(+) T cells provide help to anti-chromatin B cells to produce anti-nuclear antibodies, whether or not these B cells express Sle1. The Sle1a locus alone accounts for all these Sle1 phenotypes, implying that a specific genetic defect in Sle1a is necessary and sufficient to produce autoreactive T cells. However, Sle1c induces intermediate T cell activation and only provides help to Sle1-expressing anti-chromatin-producing B cells, demonstrating the synergic interactions between Sle1c T and Sle1 B cells. Moreover, Sle1a and Sle1c were associated with a significantly reduced level of CD4(+)CD25(+) regulatory T cells that precedes autoantibody production, suggesting a causal relationship with the generation of autoreactive T cells. Our study identifies for the first time that a specific genetic defect is responsible for lupus pathogenesis by inducing autoreactive T cells to break self-tolerance and that this genetic defect is also associated with a decreased number of regulatory T cells.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antibodies, Antinuclear/biosynthesis
- Antigens, Nuclear/immunology
- Apoptosis/genetics
- Apoptosis/immunology
- B-Lymphocytes/immunology
- Cell Proliferation
- Cells, Cultured
- Chromatin/immunology
- Chromosome Mapping
- Cytokines/biosynthesis
- Epitopes, T-Lymphocyte/immunology
- Female
- Genetic Predisposition to Disease
- Histones/immunology
- Immune Tolerance/genetics
- Immunoglobulin G/biosynthesis
- Lupus Erythematosus, Systemic/genetics
- Lupus Erythematosus, Systemic/immunology
- Lymphocyte Activation/genetics
- Male
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- T-Lymphocytes, Helper-Inducer/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Helper-Inducer/metabolism
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/pathology
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yifang Chen
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
26
|
Zoja C, Morigi M, Benigni A, Remuzzi G. Genetics of rare diseases of the kidney: learning from mouse models. Cytogenet Genome Res 2005; 105:479-84. [PMID: 15237237 DOI: 10.1159/000078222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2003] [Accepted: 11/03/2003] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- C Zoja
- Mario Negri Institute for Pharmacological Research, Bergamo, Italy
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
27
|
Riemekasten G, Langnickel D, Enghard P, Undeutsch R, Humrich J, Ebling FM, Hocher B, Humaljoki T, Neumayer H, Burmester GR, Hahn BH, Radbruch A, Hiepe F. Intravenous Injection of a D1 Protein of the Smith Proteins Postpones Murine Lupus and Induces Type 1 Regulatory T Cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2004; 173:5835-42. [PMID: 15494537 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.173.9.5835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
T cells that recognize nucleoproteins are required for the production of anti-dsDNA Abs involved in lupus development. SmD1 83-119 (a D1 protein of the Smith (Sm) proteins, part of small nuclear ribonucleoprotein) was recently shown to provide T cell help to anti-dsDNA Abs in the NZB/NZW model of lupus. Using this model in the present study, we showed that high dose tolerance to SmD1 (600-1000 microg i.v. of SmD1(83-119) peptide/mo) delays the production of autoantibodies, postpones the onset of lupus nephritis as confirmed by histology, and prolongs survival. Tolerance to SmD1 83-119 was adoptively transferred by CD90+ T cells, which also reduce T cell help for autoreactive B cells in vitro. One week after SmD1 83-119 tolerance induction in prenephritic mice, we detected cytokine changes in cultures of CD90+ T and B220+ B cells with decreased IFN-gamma and IL-4 expression and an increase in TGFbeta. Increased frequencies of regulatory IFN-gamma+ and IL10+ CD4+ T cells were later detected. Such regulatory IL-10+/IFN-gamma+ type 1 regulatory T cells prevented autoantibody generation and anti-CD3-induced proliferation of naive T cells. In conclusion, these results indicate that SmD1 83-119 peptide may play a dominant role in the activation of helper and regulatory T cells that influence autoantibody generation and murine lupus.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Animals
- Antibodies, Antinuclear/biosynthesis
- Antibodies, Antinuclear/metabolism
- Autoantigens/administration & dosage
- Autoantigens/immunology
- Cells, Cultured
- Cytokines/antagonists & inhibitors
- Cytokines/biosynthesis
- Dose-Response Relationship, Immunologic
- Female
- Growth Inhibitors/administration & dosage
- Growth Inhibitors/immunology
- Immune Tolerance
- Injections, Intravenous
- Lupus Nephritis/immunology
- Lupus Nephritis/prevention & control
- Lymphocyte Activation/immunology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred NZB
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Peptide Fragments/administration & dosage
- Peptide Fragments/immunology
- Resting Phase, Cell Cycle/immunology
- Ribonucleoproteins, Small Nuclear/administration & dosage
- Ribonucleoproteins, Small Nuclear/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Helper-Inducer/cytology
- T-Lymphocytes, Helper-Inducer/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Helper-Inducer/transplantation
- Th1 Cells/cytology
- Th1 Cells/immunology
- Th1 Cells/transplantation
- snRNP Core Proteins
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela Riemekasten
- Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Charité University Hospital, Berlin, Germany.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
28
|
Jacob M, Napirei M, Ricken A, Dixkens C, Mannherz HG. Histopathology of lupus-like nephritis in Dnase1-deficient mice in comparison to NZB/W F1 mice. Lupus 2003; 11:514-27. [PMID: 12220106 DOI: 10.1191/0961203302lu242oa] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Deoxyribonuclease 1 (Dnase1)-deficient mice develop symptoms of Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Here we analysed the renal histopathology of these animals in comparison to F1 hybrids of New Zealand black and white mice (NZB/W F1), an established model of SLE. Animals were divided into three groups according to the presence of anti-nuclear antibodies (ANA) and renal lesions. Groups 1a-1c were healthy, whereas group 2 and 3 were classified as lupus-prone and affected. Subendothelial and/or mesangial immune complex deposits, mesangial and endocapillary proliferation, haematoxylin bodies and platelet aggregation were detected in both mouse strains but were more severe in the NZB/W F1 mice. The lupus nephritis was classified as a proliferating (WHO type III or IV), which appeared to be preceded by a mesangial form (WHO type II). Subclassification of the ANA revealed a high prevalence of anti-nucleosome antibodies in Dnase1-deficient mice, whereas NZB/W F1 mice developed autoantibodies against a broad range of chromatin constituents. Mapping of the murine Dnase1 gene locus to chromosome 16A1-3 did not coincide with one of the reported susceptibility loci in the NZB/W F1 model, although a reduced Dnasel serum and urine activity has been described previously in these mice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M Jacob
- Abteilung für Anatomie und Embryologie, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Germany
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
29
|
Sobel ES, Morel L, Baert R, Mohan C, Schiffenbauer J, Wakeland EK. Genetic dissection of systemic lupus erythematosus pathogenesis: evidence for functional expression of Sle3/5 by non-T cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2002; 169:4025-32. [PMID: 12244205 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.169.7.4025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
On the non-autoimmune C57BL/6 (B6) background, the chromosome 7-derived lupus susceptibility loci Sle3 and Sle5 have been shown to mediate an elevated CD4:CD8 ratio with an increase in activated CD4(+) T cells, decreased susceptibility to apoptosis, and a break in humoral tolerance. Development of subcongenic strains has subsequently shown that the elevated CD4:CD8 ratio is due to Sle3 but that both loci contribute to the development of autoantibodies. To elucidate the functional expression patterns of these loci, adoptive transfer experiments were conducted. All possible combinations of bone marrow reconstitution, including syngenic, were conducted between the congenic B6 and B6.Sle3/5 strains. It was found that the Sle3/5 locus was functionally expressed by bone marrow-derived cells, but not by host cells, and that the elevated CD4:CD8 phenotype could be reconstituted in radiation chimeras. Using Ly5-marked congenic strains and B6 host mice, additional experiments surprisingly demonstrated that the elevated CD4:CD8 ratio was neither an intrinsic property of the T cells nor of single positive thymocytes. Allotype-marked chimeras indicated that autoantibody production by B cells was also an extrinsic property, as shown by the fact that B cells without the Sle3/5 interval contributed to autoantibody production. These experiments strongly suggest that a gene within the B6.Sle3/5 interval was expressed by a bone marrow-derived, nonlymphocyte population in the thymus and periphery and was affecting T cell selection and/or survival.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- Adoptive Transfer
- Animals
- Antibodies, Antinuclear/biosynthesis
- Antigens, CD/biosynthesis
- Antigens, CD/genetics
- Antigens, Differentiation, T-Lymphocyte/biosynthesis
- Antigens, Differentiation, T-Lymphocyte/genetics
- Antigens, Ly/genetics
- B-Lymphocyte Subsets/immunology
- Bone Marrow Cells/immunology
- Bone Marrow Cells/metabolism
- Bone Marrow Cells/pathology
- Bone Marrow Transplantation/pathology
- CD4-CD8 Ratio
- CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes/pathology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/pathology
- Cell Lineage/genetics
- Cell Lineage/immunology
- Chromatin/immunology
- Gene Expression Regulation/immunology
- Genetic Markers
- Genetic Predisposition to Disease
- Immunoglobulin Allotypes/genetics
- Immunoglobulin Heavy Chains/genetics
- Lectins, C-Type
- Lupus Erythematosus, Systemic/genetics
- Lupus Erythematosus, Systemic/immunology
- Lupus Erythematosus, Systemic/pathology
- Lymphocyte Activation/genetics
- Mice
- Mice, Congenic
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Inbred NZB
- Radiation Chimera/immunology
- Species Specificity
- Spleen/immunology
- Spleen/pathology
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/immunology
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/pathology
- Thy-1 Antigens/analysis
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eric S Sobel
- Department of Medicine and Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
30
|
Su K, Wu J, Edberg JC, McKenzie SE, Kimberly RP. Genomic organization of classical human low-affinity Fcgamma receptor genes. Genes Immun 2002; 3 Suppl 1:S51-6. [PMID: 12215903 DOI: 10.1038/sj.gene.6363879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2001] [Revised: 02/25/2002] [Accepted: 02/25/2002] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The classical low-affinity Fcgamma receptor genes (FcgammaRIIA, B, C and FcgammaRIIIA, B) are located on chromosome 1q23, a region that shows strong linkage with human systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) in several genome-wide scans, and family-based association between FcgammaRIIIA and SLE is now established. High homology among the Fcgamma receptor genes, however, has hampered further study of this region. We have used a human bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) library to determine the order and orientation of these Fcgamma receptor genes and have sequenced the very highly homologous 5' region (including 3.4 kb of the promoter and the 8 kb from exon 1 to exon 3) of the FcgammaRIIB and FcgammaRIIC genes to enable study of their unique single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP). We have utilized these data to characterize a linked set of three coding region SNPs in the FcgammaRIIC exon 3 (EC1) that includes the stop codon SNP, which provides an important insight into natural killer cell function. Together, these data provide the basis for the study of additional SNPs in FcgammaR genes in SLE disease susceptibility.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- K Su
- Division of Clinical Immunology and Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294-0006, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
31
|
Gaffney PM, Moser KL, Graham RR, Behrens TW. Recent advances in the genetics of systemic lupus erythematosus. Rheum Dis Clin North Am 2002; 28:111-26. [PMID: 11840693 DOI: 10.1016/s0889-857x(03)00072-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, we have witnessed an explosion in our understanding of the biology of SLE through the study of lupus-prone mice and the identification and subsequent narrowing of the genomic intervals likely responsible for SLE in human beings. The data from these efforts support the hypothesis that multiple genes contribute to disease susceptibility. Clearly, there is no single locus operating in all families multiplex for SLE, and the degree of ethnic and genetic heterogeneity seems to be quite significant. In this respect, the genetics of SLE resemble those of many other complex genetic diseases. The list of candidate genes and pathways (see Table 1) implicated in the pathogenesis of SLE is expanding at a rapid rate. Understanding how alterations in these genes and pathways lead to the lupus phenotype is the primary objective of future genetic studies in SLE.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Patrick M Gaffney
- Division of Hematology, Oncology, and Transplantation, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
32
|
Nguyen C, Limaye N, Wakeland EK. Susceptibility genes in the pathogenesis of murine lupus. ARTHRITIS RESEARCH 2002; 4 Suppl 3:S255-63. [PMID: 12110145 PMCID: PMC3240158 DOI: 10.1186/ar583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2002] [Accepted: 03/13/2002] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is the paradigm of a multisystem autoimmune disease in which genetic factors strongly influence susceptibility. Through genome scans and congenic dissection, numerous loci associated with lupus susceptibility have been defined and the complexity of the inheritance of this disease has been revealed. In this review, we provide a brief description of animal models of SLE, both spontaneous models and synthetic models, with an emphasis on the B6 congenic model derived from analyses of the NZM2410 strain. A hypothetical model of disease progression that organizes many of the identified SLE susceptibility loci in three distinct biological pathways that interact to mediate disease pathogenesis is also described. We finally discuss our recent fine mapping analysis, which revealed a cluster of loci that actually comprise the Sle1 locus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Charles Nguyen
- Center for Immunology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Nisha Limaye
- Center for Immunology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Edward K Wakeland
- Center for Immunology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Wellmann U, Letz M, Schneider A, Amann K, Winkler TH. An Ig mu-heavy chain transgene inhibits systemic lupus erythematosus immunopathology in autoimmune (NZB x NZW)F1 mice. Int Immunol 2001; 13:1461-9. [PMID: 11717187 DOI: 10.1093/intimm/13.12.1461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Intrinsic defects in the B lymphoid lineage are involved in predisposition for systemic lupus erythematosus in (NZB x NZW)F(1) (NZB/W) mice. In addition, a contribution of CD4(+) T cells has been shown to be crucial for the development of fatal glomerulonephritis. To further dissect the role of B and T cells in lupus immunopathology we used Ig mu-heavy chain (muHC) transgenic (Tg) NZB/W mice that we recently established to study mechanisms of B cell tolerance. The Tg NZB/W mice have a very restricted B cell repertoire and only a very minor population of B cells having endogenously rearranged muHC Ig loci are able to undergo isotype switch. Here we analyzed the influence of the restricted B cell repertoire on the development of IgG anti-DNA antibodies and glomerulonephritis as well as the hyperactivation of T(h) cells. IgG anti-DNA antibodies developed delayed but consistently in the Tg NZB/W mice, suggesting that a strong selective mechanism for the development of these autoantibodies is operative. Despite significant autoantibody titers in Tg NZB/W mice, very little immune deposits in the glomeruli and no evidence for renal inflammation were found. The Tg mice have a significantly prolonged survival time and most of the Tg mice lived much longer than 1 year. Interestingly, the generalized T cell activation that normally correlates and coincides with the progression of the disease in NZB/W mice is strongly reduced in older Tg animals. The absence of IgG3 anti-DNA antibodies and the strong reduction of IgG2a anti-DNA antibodies in the Tg mice suggests that particularly the activation of T(h)1 cells is inhibited. This result shows that a significant restriction in the B cell repertoire prevents hyperactivation of T(h) cells and supports the model that T cell hyperactivation in NZB/W mice is secondary to specific interactions with a subpopulation of presumably autoreactive B lymphocytes.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antibodies, Antinuclear/biosynthesis
- Antibodies, Antinuclear/blood
- B-Lymphocyte Subsets/immunology
- B-Lymphocyte Subsets/metabolism
- Cell Movement/genetics
- Cell Movement/immunology
- Crosses, Genetic
- DNA/immunology
- Female
- Genes, Immunoglobulin/physiology
- Glomerulonephritis/genetics
- Glomerulonephritis/immunology
- Glomerulonephritis/prevention & control
- Immunoglobulin G/biosynthesis
- Immunoglobulin G/blood
- Immunoglobulin Heavy Chains/genetics
- Immunoglobulin Heavy Chains/physiology
- Immunoglobulin mu-Chains/genetics
- Immunoglobulin mu-Chains/physiology
- Lupus Erythematosus, Systemic/immunology
- Lupus Erythematosus, Systemic/mortality
- Lupus Erythematosus, Systemic/pathology
- Lupus Erythematosus, Systemic/prevention & control
- Male
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred NZB/genetics
- Mice, Inbred NZB/immunology
- Mice, Transgenic
- Survival Rate
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/immunology
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/pathology
- Transgenes/immunology
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- U Wellmann
- Department of Genetics, Hematopoiesis Unit, Nikolaus Fiebiger Center for Molecular Medicine and Institute for Pathology, University of Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
34
|
Paisansinsup T, Vallejo AN, Luthra H, David CS. HLA-DR modulates autoantibody repertoire, but not mortality, in a humanized mouse model of systemic lupus erythematosus. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2001; 167:4083-90. [PMID: 11564830 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.167.7.4083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
To evaluate the disease-modulating role of HLA-DR2 and DR3 molecules, which have been associated with systemic lupus erythematosus, a humanized mouse model was examined. HLA-DR2 (DRB1*1502)- and DR3 (DRB1*0301)-transgenic mice were backcrossed to the New Zealand Mixed 2410 (NZM 2410, H2(z)) strain. Seventh generation DR2 and DR3 transgene-positive animals along with their transgene-negative littermates and the parental strain NZM2410 were monitored for proteinuria, azotemia, autoantibody production, development of nephritis, and mortality. The results showed no significant differences in proteinuria, azotemia, or mortality between the backcrosses with and without HLA-DR2 or HLA-DR3. However, the genetic analysis of different backcrosses showed that heterozygosity at the endogenous H2-E locus (E(z)/E(b)) was strongly linked with acceleration of lupus nephritis in both HLA-DR2 and HLA-DR3 transgenics. More importantly, the presence of the HLA-DR2, but not the HLA-DR3, transgene significantly enhanced the production of anti-dsDNA, but not anti-ssDNA, anti-histone-dsDNA complex, or anti-histone, Abs. In contrast, neither HLA-DR2 nor HLA-DR3 influenced the development of glomerulonephritis or the degree of immune complex deposition. Moreover, nephritic kidneys from mice with and without HLA-DR2 or HLA-DR3 transgenes showed similar patterns of cytokine expression. Collectively, these findings provide molecular evidence that the association of HLA-DR2 or HLA-DR3 with lupus susceptibility is related to the type of autoantibody rather than to disease mortality. The use of a humanized mouse model provides a way of dissecting the roles of human MHC genes in systemic lupus erythematosus pathogenesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- T Paisansinsup
- Division of Rheumatology, Departments of Medicine and Immunology, Mayo Clinic, 200 First Street Southwest, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
35
|
Monneaux F, Dumortier H, Steiner G, Briand JP, Muller S. Murine models of systemic lupus erythematosus: B and T cell responses to spliceosomal ribonucleoproteins in MRL/Fas(lpr) and (NZB x NZW)F(1) lupus mice. Int Immunol 2001; 13:1155-63. [PMID: 11526096 DOI: 10.1093/intimm/13.9.1155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
(NZB x NZW)F(1) and MRL/Fas(lpr) lupus mice present a similar phenotype with a spectrum of autoantibodies associated with very severe nephritis. It is thought, however, that in contrast to other lupus-prone mice such as MRL/Fas(lpr) mice, (NZB x NZW)F(1) mice do not generate autoantibodies to ribonucleoproteins (RNP) Sm/RNP. In this study, we demonstrate that contrary to previous reports, the autoimmune response directed against Sm/RNP antigens also occurs in NZB x NZW mice. CD4(+) T cells from unprimed 10-week-old NZB x NZW mice proliferate and secrete IL-2 in response to peptide 131-151 of the U1-70K protein, which is known to contain a T(h) epitope recognized by CD4(+) T cells from MRL/Fas(lpr) mice. Peptide 131-151, which was found to bind I-A(k) and I-E(k) class II MHC molecules, also bound both I-A(d) and I-E(d) molecules. This result led us to also re-evaluate longitudinally the anti-Sm/RNP antibody response in NZB x NZW mice. We found that 25-week-old mice do produce antibodies reacting with several small nuclear and heterogeneous nuclear (hn) RNP proteins, such as SmD1, U1-70K and hnRNP A2/B1 proteins. The fine specificity of these antibodies was studied with overlapping synthetic peptides. The same antigenically positive and negative peptides were characterized in MRL/Fas(lpr) and NZB x NZW mice in the three proteins. This new finding can help to understand the mechanisms involved in the development of the anti-Sm/RNP antibody response and, particularly, the role played by non-MHC genes in this autoimmune response.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- F Monneaux
- Institut de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire, UPR 9021 Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 15 rue René Descartes, 6700 Strasbourg, France
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
36
|
Wellmann U, Werner A, Winkler TH. Altered selection processes of B lymphocytes in autoimmune NZB/W mice, despite intact central tolerance against DNA. Eur J Immunol 2001; 31:2800-10. [PMID: 11536179 DOI: 10.1002/1521-4141(200109)31:9<2800::aid-immu2800>3.0.co;2-e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Anti-DNA autoantibodies are the hallmark of systemic lupus erythematosus and the (NZBxNZW)F1 (NZB/W) murine model. To investigate potential defects in B cell tolerance, we followed the development of anti-DNA-specific B cells in 2-5-month-old mice transgenic for an unmutated muH chain in the normal C57BL/6 and in the NZB/W background. When the transgenic H chain was combined with a random kappa L chain repertoire about 60% of the antibodies bound to DNA. The analysis of the B cell repertoire in the spleen showed extensive receptor editing and a deletion of DNA reactivity in the C57BL/6 as well as in the autoimmune NZB/W background. NZB/W compared to C57BL/6 transgenic mice had a higher frequency of anti-DNA B cells among follicular B cells that were not censored by central tolerance mechanisms. Furthermore, positive selection of B cells with a recurrent rearrangement into the marginal zone compartment was more pronounced in NZB/W mice. Serum levels of transgenic IgM and of anti-DNA autoantibodies indicate a polyclonal activation of hyperactive B cells in the transgenic NZB/W mice. We propose different B cell receptor signaling thresholds for the NZB/W compared to C57BL/6 B cells. This could explain the quantitative differences in the B cell repertoire as well as the hyperactivity of B cells from NZB/W mice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- U Wellmann
- Division of Molecular Immunology, Department of Medicine III, University of Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
37
|
Abstract
The complex multifactorial inheritance pattern of systemic lupus erythematosus in various murine models has been dissected via both classic genetic analysis and the use of modern technologies in genomic manipulation. Current information suggests that lupus may be mediated by a multitude of genetic abnormalities that impact on specific checkpoints in a three-step pathogenic pathway. These steps are as follows: loss of immunologic tolerance to nuclear antigens; the transition to pathogenic autoimmunity; and end-organ targeting. The identities of the genes that are responsible for transition between the specific steps of the pathway are still unknown and will require further study. However, several recent findings have provided insights into specific elements in each stage of lupus. These findings suggest that mouse models of lupus may provide valuable insights into the genetic basis of human systemic lupus erythematosus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Y S Yim
- Center for Immunology, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
38
|
Abstract
SLE susceptibility requires the interplay of an unknown number of genes and equally unidentified triggering events. The past few years have seen significant advances in our understanding of SLE susceptibility through the genetic analysis of murine models. The NZM2410 strain, which is derived from the NZB/WF1 model has played a significant role in these advances. The main advantages presented by this strain over other models are the genetic homozygozity at all loci and an highly penetrant early onset lupus nephritis in both males and females, indicating that the strongest BWF1 susceptibility loci were retained in NZM2410. After identification of NZM2410 susceptibility loci via linkage analyses, congenic strains have been derived in order to convert a polygenic system into a series of monogenic traits. These congenic strains have been analyzed in an integrated process which has provided simultaneously 1) novel functional characterization of the Sle susceptibility loci, 2) high resolution genetic maps that will lead to the identification of the corresponding susceptibility genes by either candidate locus or positional cloning, and 3) insights into the mechanisms by which these loci interact to produce systemic autoimmunity with fatal end-organ damage.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- L Morel
- Department of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville 32610-0275, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
39
|
Zhang X, Smith DS, Guth A, Wysocki LJ. A receptor presentation hypothesis for T cell help that recruits autoreactive B cells. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2001; 166:1562-71. [PMID: 11160197 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.166.3.1562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
To uncover mechanisms that drive spontaneous expansions of autoreactive B cells in systemic lupus erythematosus, we analyzed somatic mutations in variable region genes expressed by a panel of (NZB x SWR)F(1) hybridomas representing a large, spontaneously arising clone with specificity for chromatin. A single mutation within the Jkappa intron that was shared by all members of the lineage indicated that the clone emanated from a single mutated precursor cell and led to the prediction that a somatic mutation producing a functionally decisive amino acid change in the coding region would also be universally shared. Upon cloning and sequencing the corresponding germline V(H) gene, we found that two replacement somatic mutations in FR1 and CDR2 were indeed shared by all seven clone members. Surprisingly, neither mutation influenced Ab binding to chromatin; however, one of them produced a nonconservative amino acid replacement in a mutationally "cold" region of FR1 and created an immunodominant epitope for class II MHC-restricted T cells. The epitope was restricted by IA(q) (SWR), and the SWR MHC locus is associated with systemic lupus erythematosus in (NZB x SWR)F(1) mice. These, and related findings, provoke the hypothesis that autoreactive B cells may be recruited by a "receptor presentation" mechanism involving cognate interactions between T cells and somatically generated V region peptides that are self-presented by B cells.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Animals
- Antigen Presentation/genetics
- Autoantibodies/biosynthesis
- Autoantibodies/metabolism
- Autoantigens/immunology
- B-Lymphocytes/immunology
- B-Lymphocytes/metabolism
- Base Sequence
- Binding Sites, Antibody/genetics
- Cell Fusion
- Chromatin/immunology
- Chromatin/metabolism
- Female
- Gene Rearrangement, B-Lymphocyte, Heavy Chain
- Germ-Line Mutation
- Histocompatibility Antigens Class II/genetics
- Histones/immunology
- Histones/metabolism
- Hybridomas
- Immunodominant Epitopes/genetics
- Immunoglobulin Heavy Chains/genetics
- Immunoglobulin Variable Region/genetics
- Lymphocyte Cooperation/genetics
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Mice, Inbred NZB
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Point Mutation
- Receptors, Antigen, B-Cell/metabolism
- Stem Cells/immunology
- Stem Cells/metabolism
- T-Lymphocytes, Helper-Inducer/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Helper-Inducer/metabolism
- Tumor Cells, Cultured
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- X Zhang
- Department of Immunology, National Jewish Medical and Research Center, and the University of Colorado School of Medicine, Denver, CO 80206
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
40
|
Tsokos GC, Kammer GM. Molecular aberrations in human systemic lupus erythematosus. MOLECULAR MEDICINE TODAY 2000; 6:418-24. [PMID: 11074367 DOI: 10.1016/s1357-4310(00)01798-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Systemic lupus erythematosus is an autoimmune disorder that predominantly affects women during the childbearing years. Clinically, major organ systems are affected, including the skin, kidneys and nervous system. Genetic, hormonal, environmental and immunoregulatory factors contribute to the highly variable expression of the disease. Impaired cellular and humoral immune responses reflect disordered biochemical and molecular functions that might be determined genetically. Enhanced understanding of these molecular abnormalities should enable development of new, effective therapeutic agents in the near future.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- G C Tsokos
- Department of Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
41
|
Lettesjö H, Burd GP, Mageed RA. CD4+ T lymphocytes with constitutive CD40 ligand in preautoimmune (NZB x NZW)F1 lupus-prone mice: phenotype and possible role in autoreactivity. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2000; 165:4095-104. [PMID: 11034421 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.165.7.4095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Lupus disease is marked by B lymphocyte hyperactivity and the production of Abs to dsDNA. The production of these anti-dsDNA Abs is T lymphocyte dependent. However, it is not clear how CD4+ T lymphocytes provide help for B lymphocytes to produce IgG anti-dsDNA Abs. One possible mechanism is suggested by studies showing that human patients with systemic lupus erythematosus and lupus mice have increased numbers of CD40 ligand (CD40L)+ T and B lymphocytes. The results described in this study reveal that young, clinically healthy lupus-prone New Zealand Black x New Zealand White F1 (BWF1) mice have naive CD4+ T cells with preformed CD40L. These cells contribute to a brisk response to immunization and to the production of anti-dsDNA Abs. In vitro experiments revealed that CD4+ T cells with preformed CD40L could, upon stimulation, provide antiapoptotic signals for B cells but could not induce proliferation or reduce activation threshold. These results suggest that the direct target cells for the effect of T cells with preformed CD40L in lupus may not be B lymphocytes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- H Lettesjö
- The Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, Hammersmith, London, United Kingdom
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
42
|
Abstract
The fate of the lymphocyte is determined by integration of signals delivered after the binding of antigen to the surface antigen receptor, signals delivered by cytokines that bind to their surface receptors, and signals initiated after the engagement of other surface receptors, known as costimulatory molecules. The summation of this input determines whether the immune cell will become stimulated, ignore the signal (anergy), or die (apoptosis). Antigen-receptor signaling events are abnormal in lupus lymphocytes, manifested by increased calcium responses and hyperphosphorylation of several cytosolic protein substrates. Further down, at the gene transcription level, the activity of the nuclear factor kappaB is decreased. These events are underwritten by defective T cell receptor zeta chain expression, overexpression of the gamma chain of the Fc(epsilon)RI that functions as an alternate of zeta chain, and decreased p65 -Rel A protein that is responsible for the inducible NFkappaB activity. Accumulated research data have enabled us to begin deciphering the molecular basis of the abnormal lupus lymphocyte and may lead to the development of new medicinal treatments for lupus.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- Animals
- B-Lymphocytes/physiology
- Cell Cycle
- Cyclin-Dependent Kinases/antagonists & inhibitors
- Estrogens/physiology
- Genes, MHC Class II/physiology
- Humans
- Lupus Erythematosus, Systemic/genetics
- Lupus Erythematosus, Systemic/immunology
- Lupus Erythematosus, Systemic/physiopathology
- Mice
- NF-kappa B/physiology
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell, gamma-delta/deficiency
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell, gamma-delta/genetics
- Signal Transduction
- T-Lymphocytes/physiology
- Transcription Factor AP-1/physiology
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- G C Tsokos
- Department of Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, and Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland 20910-7500, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
43
|
Morel L, Croker BP, Blenman KR, Mohan C, Huang G, Gilkeson G, Wakeland EK. Genetic reconstitution of systemic lupus erythematosus immunopathology with polycongenic murine strains. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000; 97:6670-5. [PMID: 10841565 PMCID: PMC18697 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.97.12.6670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 305] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
We previously produced three congenic strains carrying lupus susceptibility genes (Sle1-Sle3) from the lupus-prone NZM2410 mouse on the C57BL/6 background and characterized their component phenotypes. Sle1 mediates the loss of tolerance to nuclear antigens; Sle2 lowers the activation threshold of B cells; and Sle3 mediates a dysregulation of CD4(+) T cells. We have now created a collection of bi- and tricongenic strains with these intervals and assessed the autoimmune phenotypes they elicit in various combinations. Our results indicate that Sle1 is key for the development of fatal lupus. The combination of Sle1 with Sle2, Sle3, or the BXSB-derived autoimmune accelerating gene yaa results in the development of systemic autoimmunity with variably penetrant severe glomerulonephritis culminating in kidney failure. In contrast, two locus combinations of Sle2, Sle3, and yaa failed to mediate fatal disease. These results indicate that the loss of tolerance to chromatin mediated by Sle1 is essential for disease pathogenesis and identify the pathway occupied by Sle1 as a strategic target for therapeutic intervention in systemic lupus erythematosus. The coexpression of Sle1, Sle2, and Sle3 as a B6-triple congenic results in severe systemic autoimmunity and fully penetrant, fatal glomerulonephritis. These results demonstrate the fulfillment of the genetic equivalent of Koch's postulate, where susceptibility loci in a lupus-prone strain have been identified by a genome scan, isolated and functionally characterized by congenic dissection, and finally shown to mediate full disease expression when recombined in a normal genome.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- L Morel
- Departments of Medicine and Pathology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
44
|
Carlson BC, Jansson AM, Larsson A, Bucht A, Lorentzen JC. The endogenous adjuvant squalene can induce a chronic T-cell-mediated arthritis in rats. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2000; 156:2057-65. [PMID: 10854227 PMCID: PMC1850095 DOI: 10.1016/s0002-9440(10)65077-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Squalene is a cholesterol precursor, which stimulates the immune system nonspecifically. We demonstrate that one intradermal injection of this adjuvant lipid can induce joint-specific inflammation in arthritis-prone DA rats. Histopathological and immunohistochemical analyses revealed erosion of bone and cartilage, and that development of polyarthritis coincided with infiltration of alphabeta(+) T cells. Depletion of these cells with anti-alphabeta TcR monoclonal antibody (R73) resulted in complete recovery, whereas anti-CD8 and anti-gammadelta TcR injections were ineffective. The apparent dependence on CD4(+) T cells suggested a role for genes within the major histocompatibility complex (MHC), and this was concluded from comparative studies of MHC congenic rat strains, in which DA.1H rats were less susceptible than DA rats. Furthermore, LEW.1AV1 and PVG.1AV1 rats with MHC identical to DA rats were arthritis-resistant, demonstrating that non-MHC genes also determine susceptibility. Some of these genetic influences could be linked to previously described arthritis susceptibility loci in an F2 intercross between DA and LEW.1AV1 rats (ie, Cia3, Oia2 and Cia5). Interestingly, some F2 hybrid rats developed chronic arthritis, a phenotype not apparent in the parental inbred strains. Our demonstration that an autoadjuvant can trigger chronic, immune-mediated joint-specific inflammation may give clues to the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis, and it raises new questions concerning the role of endogenous molecules with adjuvant properties in chronic inflammatory diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- B C Carlson
- Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
45
|
Abstract
Rheumatic diseases have long been recognized as having complex inheritance patterns. It has recently been estimated that over 100 genes may be implicated in the SLE disease process. Identification of these genes has led to a greater understanding of the etiopathogenesis of SLE and is beginning to lead to new types of interventions directed at correcting aberrant biological processes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- K E Sullivan
- Department of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, USA
| |
Collapse
|
46
|
|
47
|
Lindqvist AK, Steinsson K, Johanneson B, Kristjánsdóttir H, Arnasson A, Gröndal G, Jonasson I, Magnusson V, Sturfelt G, Truedsson L, Svenungsson E, Lundberg I, Terwilliger JD, Gyllensten UB, Alarcón-Riquelme ME. A susceptibility locus for human systemic lupus erythematosus (hSLE1) on chromosome 2q. J Autoimmun 2000; 14:169-78. [PMID: 10677248 DOI: 10.1006/jaut.1999.0357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
To identify chromosomal regions containing susceptibility loci for systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), we performed genome scans in families with multiple SLE patients from Iceland, a geographical and genetic isolate, and from Sweden. A number of chromosomal regions showed maximum lod scores (Z) indicating possible linkage to SLE in both the Icelandic and Swedish families. In the Icelandic families, five regions showed lod scores greater than 2.0, three of which (4p15-13, Z=3.20; 9p22, Z=2.27; 19q13, Z=2.06) are homologous to the murine regions containing the lmb2, sle2 and sle3 loci, respectively. The fourth region is located on 19p13 (D19S247, Z=2.58) and the fifth on 2q37 (D2S125, Z=2.06). Only two regions showed lod scores above 2.0 in the Swedish families: on chromosome 2q11 (D2S436, Z=2. 13) and 2q37 (D2S125, Z=2.18). The combination of both family sets gave a highly significant lod score at D2S125 of Z=4.24 in favor of linkage for 2q37. This region represents a new locus for SLE. Our results underscore the importance of studying well-defined populations for genetic analysis of complex diseases such as SLE.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A K Lindqvist
- Department of Genetics and Pathology, Section for Medical Genetics, Uppsala University, Uppsala, 751 85, Sweden
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
48
|
Pritchard NR, Cutler AJ, Uribe S, Chadban SJ, Morley BJ, Smith KG. Autoimmune-prone mice share a promoter haplotype associated with reduced expression and function of the Fc receptor FcgammaRII. Curr Biol 2000; 10:227-30. [PMID: 10704418 DOI: 10.1016/s0960-9822(00)00344-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 176] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
Human autoimmune diseases thought to arise from the combined effects of multiple susceptibility genes include systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and autoimmune diabetes. Well-characterised polygenic mouse models closely resembling each of these diseases exist, and genetic evidence links receptors for the Fc portion of immunoglobulin G (FcR) with their pathogenesis in mice and humans [1] [2] [3]. FcRs may be activatory or inhibitory and regulate a variety of immune and inflammatory processes [4] [5]. FcgammaRII (CD32) negatively regulates activation of cells including B cells and macrophages [6]. FcgammaRII-deficient mice are prone to immune-mediated disease [7] [8] [9]. The gene encoding FcgammaRII, Fcgr2, is contained in genetic susceptibility intervals in mouse models of SLE such as the New Zealand Black (NZB) contribution to the (NZB x New Zealand White (NZW)) F1 strain [1] [10] [11] and the BXSB strain [12], and in human SLE [1] [2] [3]. We therefore sequenced Fcgr2 and identified a haplotype defined by deletions in the Fcgr2 promoter region that is present in major SLE-prone mouse strains (NZB, BXSB, SB/Le, MRL, 129 [13]) and non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice but absent in control strains (BALB/c, C57BL/6, DBA/2, C57BL/10) and NZW mice. The autoimmune haplotype was associated with reduced cell-surface expression of FcgammaRII on macrophages and activated B cells and with hyperactive macrophages resembling those of FcgammaRII-deficient mice, and is therefore likely to play an important role in the pathogenesis of SLE and possibly diabetes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- N R Pritchard
- Department of Medicine, Cambridge Institute of Medical Research, University of Cambridge School of Clinical Medicine, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Box 139, Cambridge, CB2 2XY, UK
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
49
|
Abstract
Systemic lupus erythematosus is a complex, multifactorial, autoimmune disease. Genetic factors are believed to contribute to its pathogenesis. There have been numerous recent advances in the study of both murine and human lupus genetics. In murine lupus, congenic strains of three susceptibility loci have been developed. Transgenic and knock-out mice models of candidate genes now exist. In association studies of human lupus, the contributions of the MHC loci, Fcgamma receptors, various cytokines, components of the complement cascade, and proteins involved in apoptosis have been explored. Most recently, linkage analyses have been performed and provide numerous regions for further exploration for susceptibility genes. Studies to identify the genes in the susceptibility regions are underway. An understanding of the genes involved in the development of lupus should provide targets for more focused therapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J M Grossman
- UCLA School of Medicine, Department of Medicine, Division of Rheumatology, 1000 Veteran Avenue, Room 32-59, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA. jgrossm
| | | |
Collapse
|
50
|
Abstract
Rat and mouse models for the major human autoimmune/inflammatory diseases are under intense genetic scrutiny. Genome-wide linkage studies reveal that each model is regulated by multiple genetic loci. Many of these loci colocalize to homologous genomic regions associated with several different autoimmune diseases of mice, rats and humans. Candidate genes are being identified. Polymorphic alleles associated with these chromosomal segments may represent predisposing genetic elements common to a number of human diseases with very different clinical presentations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M M Griffiths
- Veteran Affairs Medical Center, Department of Medicine, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UI, USA.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|