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Lee YS, Ji BJ, Pae HO, Cheon MW, Xu G, Chun HS, Kim S. Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Fermented Cabbage Extract Containing Nitric Oxide Metabolites with Silica. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:775. [PMID: 38255849 PMCID: PMC10815266 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25020775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2023] [Revised: 12/30/2023] [Accepted: 12/31/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to evaluate the anti-inflammatory effect of fermented cabbage extract (FC) containing nitric oxide metabolites with silica (FCS) on 1-fluoro-2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene (DNFB)-induced atopic dermatitis (AD) in BALB/c mice. Atopic dermatitis-like allergic contact dermatitis was induced by DNFB challenge in the ear after DNFB sensitization on the dorsal skin of mice. FCS alleviated the severity of atopic dermatitis-like skin lesions. In addition, epidermis thickness of the ear and penetration of inflammatory cells in atopic dermatitis-like skin lesions were decreased after topical application of FCS. The serum levels of TNF-α and IL-4 were measured in atopic dermatitis mice using ELISA kits, which were observed to be significantly decreased after topical application of FCS. This study demonstrates that the FCS can be used as a potential therapeutic for the treatment and prevention of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun-Seong Lee
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Wonkwang University, Iksan 54538, Republic of Korea; (Y.-S.L.); (H.-O.P.)
| | - Byeong-Jun Ji
- HumanEnos LLC., Wanju 55347, Republic of Korea;
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Institute for Medical Science, Chonbuk National University Medical School, Jeonju 54907, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun-Ock Pae
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Wonkwang University, Iksan 54538, Republic of Korea; (Y.-S.L.); (H.-O.P.)
| | - Mu-Weon Cheon
- Department of Chemistry, KwangWoon University, Seoul 01897, Republic of Korea;
| | - Guangpeng Xu
- Department of Environment Science & Biotechnology, Jeonju University, Jeonju 55069, Republic of Korea;
| | | | - Sooah Kim
- Department of Environment Science & Biotechnology, Jeonju University, Jeonju 55069, Republic of Korea;
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Dileepan KN, Raveendran VV, Sharma R, Abraham H, Barua R, Singh V, Sharma R, Sharma M. Mast cell-mediated immune regulation in health and disease. Front Med (Lausanne) 2023; 10:1213320. [PMID: 37663654 PMCID: PMC10470157 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2023.1213320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2023] [Accepted: 07/17/2023] [Indexed: 09/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Mast cells are important components of the immune system, and they perform pro-inflammatory as well as anti-inflammatory roles in the complex process of immune regulation in health and disease. Because of their strategic perivascular localization, sensitivity and adaptability to the microenvironment, and ability to release a variety of preformed and newly synthesized effector molecules, mast cells perform unique functions in almost all organs. Additionally, Mast cells express a wide range of surface and cytoplasmic receptors which enable them to respond to a variety of cytokines, chemicals, and pathogens. The mast cell's role as a cellular interface between external and internal environments as well as between vasculature and tissues is critical for protection and repair. Mast cell interactions with different immune and nonimmune cells through secreted inflammatory mediators may also turn in favor of disease promoting agents. First and forefront, mast cells are well recognized for their multifaceted functions in allergic diseases. Reciprocal communication between mast cells and endothelial cells in the presence of bacterial toxins in chronic/sub-clinical infections induce persistent vascular inflammation. We have shown that mast cell proteases and histamine induce endothelial inflammatory responses that are synergistically amplified by bacterial toxins. Mast cells have been shown to exacerbate vascular changes in normal states as well as in chronic or subclinical infections, particularly among cigarette smokers. Furthermore, a potential role of mast cells in SARS-CoV-2-induced dysfunction of the capillary-alveolar interface adds to the growing understanding of mast cells in viral infections. The interaction between mast cells and microglial cells in the brain further highlights their significance in neuroinflammation. This review highlights the significant role of mast cells as the interface that acts as sensor and early responder through interactions with cells in systemic organs and the nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kottarappat N. Dileepan
- Division of Allergy, Clinical Immunology and Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, The University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, United States
| | - Vineesh V. Raveendran
- Division of Allergy, Clinical Immunology and Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, The University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, United States
| | - Rishi Sharma
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Missouri, Kansas City, MO, United States
| | - Harita Abraham
- Division of Allergy, Clinical Immunology and Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, The University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, United States
| | - Rajat Barua
- Cardiology Section, Kansas City Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Kansas City, MO, United States
| | - Vikas Singh
- Neurology Section, Kansas City Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Kansas City, MO, United States
| | - Ram Sharma
- Research and Development Service, Kansas City Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Kansas City, MO, United States
| | - Mukut Sharma
- Research and Development Service, Kansas City Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Kansas City, MO, United States
- Midwest Veterans’ Biomedical Research Foundation (MVBRF), Kansas City VA Medical Center, Kansas, MO, United States
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3
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Abstract
Mast cells and eosinophils are the key effector cells of allergy [1]. In general, allergic reactions are composed of two phases, namely an early phase and a late phase, and after that resolution occurs. If the allergic reactions fail to resolve after the late phase, allergic inflammation (AI) can evolve into a chronic phase mainly involving mast cells and eosinophils that abundantly coexist in the inflamed tissue in the late and chronic phases and cross-talk in a bidirectional manner. We defined these bidirectional interactions between MCs and Eos, as the "allergic effector unit." This cross talk is mediated by both physical cell-cell contacts through cell surface receptors such as CD48, 2B4, and respective ligands and through released mediators such as various specific granular mediators, arachidonic acid metabolites, cytokines, and chemokines [2, 3]. The allergic effector unit can be studied in vitro in a customized co-culture system using mast cells and eosinophils derived from either mouse or human sources.
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Wang Z, Guhl S, Franke K, Artuc M, Zuberbier T, Babina M. IL-33 and MRGPRX2-Triggered Activation of Human Skin Mast Cells-Elimination of Receptor Expression on Chronic Exposure, but Reinforced Degranulation on Acute Priming. Cells 2019; 8:cells8040341. [PMID: 30979016 PMCID: PMC6523246 DOI: 10.3390/cells8040341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2019] [Revised: 04/08/2019] [Accepted: 04/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Clinically relevant exocytosis of mast cell (MC) mediators can be triggered by high-affinity IgE receptor (FcεRI)-aggregation (allergic route) or by the so-called pseudo-allergic pathway elicited via MAS-related G protein-coupled receptor-X2 (MRGPRX2). The latter is activated by drugs and endogenous neuropeptides. We recently reported that FcεRI-triggered degranulation is attenuated when human skin mast cells are chronically exposed to IL-33. Here, we were interested in the regulation of the MRGPRX2-route. Chronic exposure of skin MCs to IL-33 basically eliminated the pseudo-allergic/neurogenic route as a result of massive MRGPRX2 reduction. This downregulation seemed to partially require c-Jun N-terminal Kinase (JNK), but not p38, the two kinases activated by IL-33 in skin MCs. Surprisingly, however, JNK had a positive effect on MRGPRX2 expression in the absence of IL-33. This was evidenced by Accell®-mediated JNK knockdown and JNK inhibition. In stark contrast to the dampening effect upon prolonged exposure, IL-33 was able to prime for increased degranulation by MRGPRX2 ligands when administered directly before stimulation. This supportive effect depended on p38, but not on JNK activity. Our data reinforce the concept that exposure length dictates whether IL-33 will enhance or attenuate secretion. IL-33 is, thus, the first factor to acutely enhance MRGPRX2-triggered degranulation. Finally, we reveal that p38, rarely associated with MC degranulation, can positively affect exocytosis in a context-dependent manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhao Wang
- Department of Dermatology, Venerology and Allergy, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Sven Guhl
- Department of Dermatology, Venerology and Allergy, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Kristin Franke
- Department of Dermatology, Venerology and Allergy, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Metin Artuc
- Department of Dermatology, Venerology and Allergy, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Torsten Zuberbier
- Department of Dermatology, Venerology and Allergy, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Magda Babina
- Department of Dermatology, Venerology and Allergy, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany.
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Baumann KY, Church MK, Clough GF, Quist SR, Schmelz M, Skov PS, Anderson CD, Tannert LK, Giménez-Arnau AM, Frischbutter S, Scheffel J, Maurer M. Skin microdialysis: methods, applications and future opportunities-an EAACI position paper. Clin Transl Allergy 2019; 9:24. [PMID: 31007896 PMCID: PMC6456961 DOI: 10.1186/s13601-019-0262-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2019] [Accepted: 03/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Skin microdialysis (SMD) is a versatile sampling technique that can be used to recover soluble endogenous and exogenous molecules from the extracellular compartment of human skin. Due to its minimally invasive character, SMD can be applied in both clinical and preclinical settings. Despite being available since the 1990s, the technique has still not reached its full potential use as a tool to explore pathophysiological mechanisms of allergic and inflammatory reactions in the skin. Therefore, an EAACI Task Force on SMD was formed to disseminate knowledge about the technique and its many applications. This position paper from the task force provides an overview of the current use of SMD in the investigation of the pathogenesis of chronic inflammatory skin diseases, such as atopic dermatitis, chronic urticaria, psoriasis, and in studies of cutaneous events during type 1 hypersensitivity reactions. Furthermore, this paper covers drug hypersensitivity, UVB-induced- and neurogenic inflammation, and drug penetration investigated by SMD. The aim of this paper is to encourage the use of SMD and to make the technique easily accessible by providing an overview of methodology and applications, supported by standardized operating procedures for SMD in vivo and ex vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrine Y Baumann
- RefLab ApS, Copenhagen, Denmark.,2Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Martin K Church
- 3Department of Dermatology and Allergy, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Sven Roy Quist
- 5Clinic of Dermatology, Otto-von-Guericke University, Magdeburg, Germany.,Skin Center MDZ, Mainz, Germany
| | - Martin Schmelz
- 7Department of Experimental Pain Research, CBTM, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Per Stahl Skov
- RefLab ApS, Copenhagen, Denmark.,8Odense Research Center for Anaphylaxis (ORCA), Department of Dermatology and Allergy Center, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark
| | - Chris D Anderson
- 9Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Line Kring Tannert
- 8Odense Research Center for Anaphylaxis (ORCA), Department of Dermatology and Allergy Center, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark
| | - Ana Maria Giménez-Arnau
- 10Department of Dermatology, Hospital del Mar, Institut Mar d'Investigacions Mèdiques, Universitat Autònoma, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Stefan Frischbutter
- 3Department of Dermatology and Allergy, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Jörg Scheffel
- 3Department of Dermatology and Allergy, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Marcus Maurer
- 3Department of Dermatology and Allergy, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany
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Tsai KS, Chen YH, Chen HY, Shen EY, Lee YC, Shen JL, Wu SY, Lin JG, Chen YH, Chen WC. Antipruritic effect of cold stimulation at the Quchi acupoint (LI11) in mice. Altern Ther Health Med 2014; 14:341. [PMID: 25239797 PMCID: PMC4179855 DOI: 10.1186/1472-6882-14-341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2014] [Accepted: 09/16/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Background Acupuncture and moxibustion are used to treat pruritus and atopic dermatitis. However, whether cold stimulation (defined as that the temperature conducted under skin temperature) of acupoints affects itching in experimental murine models remains unclear. Methods The present study was designed to determine the therapeutic effects of different thermal stimulations at the Quchi acupoint (LI11) in a murine model in which scratching behaviour was elicited by subcutaneous injection with a pruritogenic agent (compound 48/80). Male ICR mice were divided into several groups as follows: control (saline), those receiving compound 48/80 and compound 48/80 with various thermal stimulations (5°C–45°C) at LI11 (n = 6 per group). The scratch response of each animal to these stimulations was recorded for 30 min. The antipruritic effect of the acupoint was further evaluated in LI11 and sham (non-acupoint) groups (n = 6 per group). Results Treatment with lower temperature (20°C) at the LI11 acupoint significantly attenuated compound 48/80-induced scratching; however, this antipruritic effect was not observed with stimulation at the sham point. The expression of c-fos in the neuron of the cervical spine induced by compound 48/80 was suppressed by cold stimulation at LI11. The antipruritic effect of cold stimulation was blocked by ruthium red (RR), a non-selective transient receptor potential (TRP) channel blocker, suggesting that TRP channels may play an important role in the antipruritic effect of cold stimulation at LI11 in mice. Conclusions This study demonstrated that cold stimulation at LI11 attenuated compound 48/80-induced scratching behaviour in mice, possibly by a TRP-related pathway.
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7
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Jensen BM, Frandsen PM, Raaby EM, Schiøtz PO, Skov PS, Poulsen LK. Molecular and stimulus-response profiles illustrate heterogeneity between peripheral and cord blood-derived human mast cells. J Leukoc Biol 2014; 95:893-901. [DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0712354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
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8
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Stress-induced mast cell activation in glabrous and hairy skin. Mediators Inflamm 2014; 2014:105950. [PMID: 24904196 PMCID: PMC4034722 DOI: 10.1155/2014/105950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2013] [Revised: 04/04/2014] [Accepted: 04/10/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Mast cells play a key role in modulation of stress-induced cutaneous inflammation. In this study we investigate the impact of repeated exposure to stress on mast cell degranulation, in both hairy and glabrous skin. Adult male Wistar rats were randomly divided into four groups: Stress 1 day (n = 8), Stress 10 days (n = 7), Stress 21 days (n = 6), and Control (n = 8). Rats in the stress groups were subjected to 2 h/day restraint stress. Subsequently, glabrous and hairy skin samples from animals of all groups were collected to assess mast cell degranulation by histochemistry and transmission electron microscopy. The impact of stress on mast cell degranulation was different depending on the type of skin and duration of stress exposure. Short-term stress exposure induced an amplification of mast cell degranulation in hairy skin that was maintained after prolonged exposure to stress. In glabrous skin, even though acute stress exposure had a profound stimulating effect on mast cell degranulation, it diminished progressively with long-term exposure to stress. The results of our study reinforce the view that mast cells are active players in modulating skin responses to stress and contribute to further understanding of pathophysiological mechanisms involved in stress-induced initiation or exacerbation of cutaneous inflammatory processes.
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9
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Gangwar RS, Levi-Schaffer F. Eosinophils interaction with mast cells: the allergic effector unit. Methods Mol Biol 2014; 1178:231-249. [PMID: 24986621 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-1016-8_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Mast cells (MC) and eosinophils are the key effector cells of allergy (Minai-Fleminger and Levi-Schaffer, Inflamm Res 58:631-638, 2009). In general, allergic reactions have two phases, namely, an early phase and a late phase. MC and eosinophils abundantly coexist in the inflamed tissue in the late and chronic phases and cross talk in a bidirectional manner. This bidirectional interaction between MC and eosinophils is mediated by both physical cell-cell contacts through cell surface receptors such as CD48 receptors CD48, 2B4 , 2B4 and soluble mediators through various specific granular mediators, arachidonic acid metabolites, cytokines cytokines , and chemokines, collectively termed the "Allergic Effector Unit" (AEU) (Elishmereni et al., Allergy 66:376-385, 2011; Minai-Fleminger et al., Cell Tissue Res 341:405-415, 2010). These bidirectional interactions can be studied in vitro in a customized coculture system of MC and eosinophils derived from either mouse or human source.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roopesh Singh Gangwar
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Institute for Drug Research, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 12065, Jerusalem, 91120, Israel
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10
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Rosenkranz MA, Davidson RJ, Maccoon DG, Sheridan JF, Kalin NH, Lutz A. A comparison of mindfulness-based stress reduction and an active control in modulation of neurogenic inflammation. Brain Behav Immun 2013; 27:174-84. [PMID: 23092711 PMCID: PMC3518553 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2012.10.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 159] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2012] [Revised: 10/11/2012] [Accepted: 10/12/2012] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Psychological stress is a major provocative factor of symptoms in chronic inflammatory conditions. In recent years, interest in addressing stress responsivity through meditation training in health-related domains has increased astoundingly, despite a paucity of evidence that reported benefits are specific to meditation practice. We designed the present study to rigorously compare an 8-week Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) intervention to a well-matched active control intervention, the Health Enhancement Program (HEP) in ability to reduce psychological stress and experimentally-induced inflammation. The Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) was used to induce psychological stress and inflammation was produced using topical application of capsaicin cream to forearm skin. Immune and endocrine measures of inflammation and stress were collected both before and after MBSR training. Results show those randomized to MBSR and HEP training had comparable post-training stress-evoked cortisol responses, as well as equivalent reductions in self-reported psychological distress and physical symptoms. However, MBSR training resulted in a significantly smaller post-stress inflammatory response compared to HEP, despite equivalent levels of stress hormones. These results suggest behavioral interventions designed to reduce emotional reactivity may be of therapeutic benefit in chronic inflammatory conditions. Moreover, mindfulness practice, in particular, may be more efficacious in symptom relief than the well-being promoting activities cultivated in the HEP program.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa A Rosenkranz
- Waisman Laboratory for Brain Imaging & Behavior and Center for Investigating Healthy Minds, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1500 Highland Avenue, Madison, WI 53705, United States.
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Effects of Se deficiency on serum histamine concentration and the expression of histamine H2 receptor in the jejunum of chickens. Pol J Vet Sci 2012; 15:547-52. [PMID: 23214377 DOI: 10.2478/v10181-012-0084-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED The present study was designed to investigate the influence of Se deficiency on serum histamine concentration and the expression of histamine receptor in the jejunum of chickens. Forty neonatal chickens were randomly divided into two groups. Experimental chickens were fed a low-Se diet (0.034 mg/kg), whereas chickens in the control group were fed a diet with a Se level of 0.229 mg/kg. Ten chickens were sacrificed on days 30, 45, 60 and 75. Blood and jejunum samples were collected. Histamine concentration in the jejunum was measured by ELISA, the jejunal mast cell (MC) ultrastructure was studied by transmission electron microscopy, and the expression level of histamine H2 receptor (H2R) mRNA in the jejunum was examined using real-time PCR. RESULTS The jejunal histamine concentration in chickens fed the low-Se diet was significantly higher than that in the control group (P < 0.01). Se deficiency induced degranulation of MC in the jejunum of chickens in the low-Se diet group; their cytoplasm was filled with fused granules and vacuoles. The expression level of jejunal H2R mRNA in chickens fed the low-Se diet was also significantly higher than that in the control group (P < 0.01). The results obtained suggest that Se deficiency stimulates MC degranulation and release of histamine, binding H2R promotes both regulation of digestion and cell proliferation while protects the jejunum from injury induced by Se deficiency.
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Nicoletti M, Neri G, Maccauro G, Tripodi D, Varvara G, Saggini A, Potalivo G, Castellani M, Fulcheri M, Rosati M, Toniato E, Caraffa A, Antinolfi P, Cerulli G, Pandolfi F, Galzio R, Conti P, Theoharides T. Impact and Neuropeptide Substance Pan Inflammatory Compound on Arachidonic Acid Compound Generation. Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol 2012; 25:849-57. [DOI: 10.1177/039463201202500403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
There is much evidence that neuropeptide substance P is involved in neurogenic inflammation and is an important neurotransmitter and neurmodulator compound. In addition, substance P plays an important role in inflammation and immunity. Macrophages can be activated by substance P which provokes the release of inflammatory compounds such as interleukins, chemokines and growth factors. Substance P is involved in the mechanism of pain through the trigeminal nerve which runs through the head, temporal and sinus cavity. Substance P also activates mast cells to release inflammatory mediators such as arachindonic acid compound, cytokines/chemokines and histamine. The release of these chemical mediators is crucial for inflammatory response. Among these mediators there are prostoglandins and leukotrines. Here we review the impact of substance P on inflammatory compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Nicoletti
- Department of Neurosciences and Imaging, University of Chieti, Italy
| | - G. Neri
- ENT Division, University of Chieti, Italy
| | - G. Maccauro
- Orthopedics Division, Catholic University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - D. Tripodi
- Dental School, University of Chieti-Pescara, Italy
| | - G. Varvara
- Dental School, University of Chieti-Pescara, Italy
| | - A. Saggini
- Dermatology Department, University Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
| | - G. Potalivo
- Orthopedics Division, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | | | - M. Fulcheri
- Department of Psychology, University of Chieti-Pescara, Italy
| | - M. Rosati
- Gynecology Division, Santo Spirito Hospital, Pescara, Italy
| | - E. Toniato
- Immunology Division, University of Chieti-Pescara, Italy
| | - A. Caraffa
- Orthopedics Division, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | - P. Antinolfi
- Orthopedics Division, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | - G. Cerulli
- Orthopedics Division, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | - F. Pandolfi
- Department of Medicine, Catholic University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - R. Galzio
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of L'Aquila, Italy
| | - P. Conti
- Immunology Division, University of Chieti-Pescara, Italy
| | - T.C. Theoharides
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Tufts University School of Medicine, New England Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA
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Theoharides TC, Alysandratos KD, Angelidou A, Delivanis DA, Sismanopoulos N, Zhang B, Asadi S, Vasiadi M, Weng Z, Miniati A, Kalogeromitros D. Mast cells and inflammation. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 2012; 1822:21-33. [PMID: 21185371 PMCID: PMC3318920 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2010.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 537] [Impact Index Per Article: 44.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2010] [Revised: 12/05/2010] [Accepted: 12/16/2010] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Mast cells are well known for their role in allergic and anaphylactic reactions, as well as their involvement in acquired and innate immunity. Increasing evidence now implicates mast cells in inflammatory diseases where they are activated by non-allergic triggers, such as neuropeptides and cytokines, often exerting synergistic effects as in the case of IL-33 and neurotensin. Mast cells can also release pro-inflammatory mediators selectively without degranulation. In particular, IL-1 induces selective release of IL-6, while corticotropin-releasing hormone secreted under stress induces the release of vascular endothelial growth factor. Many inflammatory diseases involve mast cells in cross-talk with T cells, such as atopic dermatitis, psoriasis and multiple sclerosis, which all worsen by stress. How mast cell differential responses are regulated is still unresolved. Preliminary evidence suggests that mitochondrial function and dynamics control mast cell degranulation, but not selective release. Recent findings also indicate that mast cells have immunomodulatory properties. Understanding selective release of mediators could explain how mast cells participate in numerous diverse biologic processes, and how they exert both immunostimulatory and immunosuppressive actions. Unraveling selective mast cell secretion could also help develop unique mast cell inhibitors with novel therapeutic applications. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Mast cells in inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theoharis C Theoharides
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunopharmacology and Drug Discovery, Department of Molecular Physiology and Pharmacology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02111, USA.
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14
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Maurer M, Church MK. Inflammatory skin responses induced by icatibant injection are mast cell mediated and attenuated by H1-antihistamines. Exp Dermatol 2011; 21:154-5. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0625.2011.01410.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Heimbach L, Li Z, Berkowitz P, Zhao M, Li N, Rubenstein DS, Diaz LA, Liu Z. The C5a receptor on mast cells is critical for the autoimmune skin-blistering disease bullous pemphigoid. J Biol Chem 2011; 286:15003-9. [PMID: 21393236 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111.221036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Bullous pemphigoid (BP) is an autoimmune skin-blistering disease characterized by the presence of autoantibodies against the hemidesmosomal proteins BP230 and BP180. In the IgG passive transfer mouse model of BP, subepidermal blistering is triggered by anti-BP180 antibodies and depends on the complement system, mast cell (MC) degranulation, and neutrophil infiltration. In this study, we have identified the signaling events that connect the activation of the complement system and MC degranulation. We found that mice deficient in MCs or the C5a receptor (C5aR) injected with pathogenic anti-BP180 IgG failed to develop subepidermal blisters and exhibited a drastic reduction in p38 MAPK phosphorylation compared with WT mice. Local reconstitution with MCs from WT but not C5aR-deficient mice restored high levels of p38 MAPK phosphorylation and subepidermal blistering in MC-deficient mice. Local injection of recombinant C5a induced phosphorylation of p38 MAPK in WT but not MC-deficient mice. Cultured mouse MCs treated with recombinant C5a exhibited a significant increase in p38 MAPK phosphorylation and MC degranulation. Taken together, these data demonstrate that C5a interacts with C5aR on MCs and that this C5a-C5aR interaction triggers activation of the p38 MAPK pathway, subsequent MC degranulation, and ultimately BP blistering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Heimbach
- Department of Dermatology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA
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16
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Abstract
Located primarily in tissues, mast cells are one of the principal effector cells in allergic inflammation. Mast cells derive from mononuclear precursor cells which undergo their final phase of differentiation in the tissues. Mast cells express a unique set of proteases and display functional diversity depending on the tissue in which they differentiate--a phenomenon often referred to as mast cell heterogeneity. Enzymatic digestion and density centrifugation have often been used to isolate human mast cells from tissues such as lung and skin, frequently resulting in cells with low viability and purity. Here, we describe a protocol that combines gentle enzymatic digestion with positive selection techniques to isolate reasonably viable and substantially enriched preparations of tissue mast cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marianna Kulka
- National Research Council Canada, Institute for Nutrisciences and Health, Charlottetown, Prince Edward, Island, Canada
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17
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Abstract
Mast cells, unlike other immune effector cells, are not found in the circulation and thus must be obtained from accessible tissues such as gastrointestinal and lung tissue. In this unit, a combination of mechanical fragmentation, enzyme digestion, and centrifugation procedures are used to obtain suspensions enriched for mast cells from gastrointestinal tissue. A support protocol details a procedure for acid toluidine blue staining of mast cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- D D Metcalfe
- National Institute of Allergy And Infectious Diseases, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
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18
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Okayama Y, Saito H, Ra C. Targeting human mast cells expressing g-protein-coupled receptors in allergic diseases. Allergol Int 2008; 57:197-203. [PMID: 18724073 DOI: 10.2332/allergolint.r-08-163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2008] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
The G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the largest known group of integral membrane receptor proteins and are the most common targets of pharmacotherapy. Mast cells (MCs) have been reported to play an important role in allergic diseases, such as urticaria and bronchial asthma. There is an increasing body of clinical evidence that MCs are recruited into allergic reactions by non-IgE-dependent mechanisms. Human MCs are activated and secrete histamine in response to neuropeptides, such as substance P and somatostatin, mediated by a GPCR, MRGX2. The microenvironment surrounding MCs in their resident tissues is likely to contain multiple factors that modify antigen-dependent MC activation. MCs express various GPCRs, and since the function of human MCs is modulated by various GPCR ligands, such as adenosine and sphingosine-1-phosphate, which are present in high levels in the bronchial alveolar lavage fluid of asthmatic patients, the GPCRs expressed on MCs may play an important role in human allergic diseases. The GPCRs expressed on MCs may serve as drug targets for the treatment of allergic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshimichi Okayama
- Division of Molecular Cell Immunology and Allergology, Advanced Medical Research Center, Nihon University Graduate School of Medical Science, Tokyo, Japan.
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19
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Comparison of short term in vitro cultured human mast cells from different progenitors - Peripheral blood-derived progenitors generate highly mature and functional mast cells. J Immunol Methods 2008; 336:166-74. [PMID: 18538784 DOI: 10.1016/j.jim.2008.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2007] [Revised: 04/08/2008] [Accepted: 04/15/2008] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
During the last two decades different scientific groups have investigated the phenotype and function of in vitro generated human mast cells (MC). The cells have been shown to display variable surface markers and functional characteristics. The phenotypic differences may reflect different culture conditions, protocols or the use of different progenitors. To investigate the significance of different progenitors, we have compared MC generated from CD133(+) progenitor cells from cord blood (CBMC) or peripheral blood (PBMC). The progenitors were cultured for 7 weeks in the presence of IL-6 and SCF, with addition of IL-3 the first 3 weeks, and FCS during week 7. The phenotype of the established MC was characterized by surface marker expression levels, metachromasia, histamine and tryptase contents and their function was evaluated by receptor-mediated release of histamine and PGD(2). The generated metachromatic (<99%) MC were 75% tryptase(+), regardless of the source of progenitor cell. Expression of c-kit/CD117, CD203c, and FcepsilonRI was comparable. The density of c-kit/CD117 receptors on CBMC was higher that of PBMC (p<0.001). The density of CD203c and FcepsilonRI was higher on PBMC (p<0.001). PBMC contained more histamine (p<0.001), expressed more FcepsilonRI (p<0.001) and released more histamine (p<0.001) and PGD(2) (p<0.001) upon ligation of FcepsilonRI, than CBMC. Culture with IL-4 increased expression of tryptase, FcepsilonRI, CD117 and CD203c, secretion of histamine and PGD(2) of PBMC, and histamine secretion of CBMC. Cord and peripheral blood may give rise to different types of MC. The question addressed should determine the progenitor cell and protocol to be used.
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20
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Metz M, Siebenhaar F, Maurer M. Mast cell functions in the innate skin immune system. Immunobiology 2007; 213:251-60. [PMID: 18406371 DOI: 10.1016/j.imbio.2007.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2007] [Revised: 10/22/2007] [Accepted: 10/29/2007] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Mast cells are not only potent effector cells in allergy, but are also important players in protective immune responses against pathogens. Most of our knowledge about mast cells in innate immunity is derived from models of sepsis, whereas their role in innate immune responses of the skin has largely been neglected in the past. Their particular pattern of distribution in the skin and their ability to sense and react to pathogens and other danger signals indicate that mast cells can be important sentinels and effector cells in skin immune responses. The recent findings reviewed here have confirmed this hypothesis and have established a prominent role for skin mast cells in innate immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Metz
- Department of Dermatology and Allergy, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany
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21
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Theoharides TC, Kempuraj D, Tagen M, Vasiadi M, Cetrulo CL. Human umbilical cord blood-derived mast cells: a unique model for the study of neuro-immuno-endocrine interactions. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007; 2:143-54. [PMID: 17237553 DOI: 10.1007/s12015-006-0021-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/1999] [Revised: 11/30/1999] [Accepted: 11/30/1999] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Findings obtained using animal models have often failed to reflect the processes involved in human disease. Moreover, human cultured cells do not necessarily function as their actual tissue counterparts. Therefore, there is great demand for sources of human progenitor cells that may be directed to acquire specific tissue characteristics and be available in sufficient quantities to carry out functional and pharmacological studies. Acase in point is the mast cell, well known for its involvement in allergic reactions, but also implicated in inflammatory diseases. Mast cells can be activated by allergens, anaphylatoxins, immunoglobulin-free light chains, superantigens, neuropeptides, and cytokines, leading to selective release of mediators. These could be involved in many inflammatory diseases, such as asthma and atopic dermatitis, which worsen by stress, through activation by local release of corticotropin-releasing hormone or related peptides. Umbilical cord blood and cord matrix-derived mast cell progenitors can be separated magnetically and grown in the presence of stem cell factor, interleukin-6, interleukin-4, and other cytokines to yield distinct mast cell populations. The recent use of live cell array, with its ability to study such interactions rapidly at the single-cell level, provides unique new opportunities for fast output screening of mast cell triggers and inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- T C Theoharides
- Department of Laboratory of Molecular Immunopharmacology and Drug Discovery, Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA.
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22
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Theoharides TC, Kalogeromitros D. The critical role of mast cells in allergy and inflammation. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2007; 1088:78-99. [PMID: 17192558 DOI: 10.1196/annals.1366.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 219] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Mast cells are well known for their involvement in allergic and anaphylactic reactions, but recent findings implicate them in a variety of inflammatory diseases affecting different organs, including the heart, joints, lungs, and skin. In these cases, mast cells appear to be activated by triggers other than aggregation of their IgE receptors (FcepsilonRI), such as anaphylatoxins, immunoglobulin-free light chains, superantigens, neuropeptides, and cytokines leading to selective release of mediators without degranulation. These findings could explain inflammatory diseases, such as asthma, atopic dermatitis, coronary inflammation, and inflammatory arthritis, all of which worsen by stress. It is proposed that the pathogenesis of these diseases involve mast cell activation by local release of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) or related peptides. Combination of CRH receptor antagonists and mast cell inhibitors may present novel therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theoharis C Theoharides
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02111, USA.
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23
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Chen WK, Zou YY, Li FJ, Luo D. Changes of psychosocial factors, enteric mucosal mast cells and 5-hydroxytryptamine in irritable bowel syndrome. Shijie Huaren Xiaohua Zazhi 2007; 15:46-50. [DOI: 10.11569/wcjd.v15.i1.46] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM: To explore the roles of psychosocial factors, enteric mucosal mast cells (MC) and 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) in the pathogenesis of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS).
METHODS: Hamilton anxiety scale (HAMA) and Hamilton depression scale (HAMD) were used to evaluate the psychosocial status of 27 IBS patients and controls. Immunohistochemistry was used to examine the number of mucosal MC in ileocecal junction (ICJ), and the content of mucosal 5-HT in ICJ was detected by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with an electrochemical detector. The relationship among the scores of HAMA and HAMD, the number of MC and the concentration of 5-HT were analyzed.
RESULTS: The scores of HAMA (18.26 ± 6.23) and HAMD (20.93 ± 6.96) in IBS patients were significantly higher than those in the controls (9.15 ± 4.91, 9.89 ± 5.31) (P < 0.05). The number of mucosal MC and the percentage of degranulated MC in ICJ were significantly higher in patients with constipation predominant IBS (C-IBS) (22.1 ± 6.5/HP, 35.4% ± 7.1%) and diarrhea-predominant IBS (D-IBS) (28.4 ± 7.3/HP, 42.3% ± 10.1%) than those in the controls (15.6 ± 6.9/HP, 24.8% ± 7.2%) (P < 0.05), and they were also significantly higher in D-IBS patients than those in C-IBS patients (P < 0.05). The concentration of ileocecal mucosal 5-HT in C-IBS (2669 ± 920 ng/g) and D-IBS (2628 ± 906 ng/g) patients was markedly higher than that in the controls (1893 ± 984 ng/g) (P < 0.05), and it was not significantly different between D-IBS and C-IBS patients (P > 0.05). The scores of HAMA and HAMD were positively correlated with the number of MC (r = 0.784, 0.711) and the percentage of degranulated MC (r = 0.842, 0.860) in ICJ mucosa of IBS patients (P < 0.01), but not with the concentration of mucosal 5-HT (P > 0.05). The concentration of mucosal 5-HT was not correlated with the number of mucosal MC and the percentage of degranulated MC (P > 0.05).
CONCLUSION: IBS patients show the abnormal psychosocial status, increased number of MC, elevated percentage of degranulated MC and enhanced 5-HT in ICJ. The abnormal psychosocial factors are correlated with the increased number and degranulation of mucosal MC.
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24
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Paus R, Liu FT. Viewpoint 4. Exp Dermatol 2006. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0625.2006.00506_5.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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25
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Paus R, Schröder JM, Reich K, Kabashima K, Liu FT, Romani N, Metz M, Kerstan A, Lee PHA, Loser K, Schön MP, Maurer M, Stoitzner P, Beissert S, Tokura Y, Gallo RL, Reich K. Who is really in control of skin immunity underphysiologicalcircumstances - lymphocytes, dendritic cells or keratinocytes? Exp Dermatol 2006. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0625.2006.00506.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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26
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Roosterman D, Goerge T, Schneider SW, Bunnett NW, Steinhoff M. Neuronal Control of Skin Function: The Skin as a Neuroimmunoendocrine Organ. Physiol Rev 2006; 86:1309-79. [PMID: 17015491 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00026.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 403] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
This review focuses on the role of the peripheral nervous system in cutaneous biology and disease. During the last few years, a modern concept of an interactive network between cutaneous nerves, the neuroendocrine axis, and the immune system has been established. We learned that neurocutaneous interactions influence a variety of physiological and pathophysiological functions, including cell growth, immunity, inflammation, pruritus, and wound healing. This interaction is mediated by primary afferent as well as autonomic nerves, which release neuromediators and activate specific receptors on many target cells in the skin. A dense network of sensory nerves releases neuropeptides, thereby modulating inflammation, cell growth, and the immune responses in the skin. Neurotrophic factors, in addition to regulating nerve growth, participate in many properties of skin function. The skin expresses a variety of neurohormone receptors coupled to heterotrimeric G proteins that are tightly involved in skin homeostasis and inflammation. This neurohormone-receptor interaction is modulated by endopeptidases, which are able to terminate neuropeptide-induced inflammatory or immune responses. Neuronal proteinase-activated receptors or transient receptor potential ion channels are recently described receptors that may have been important in regulating neurogenic inflammation, pain, and pruritus. Together, a close multidirectional interaction between neuromediators, high-affinity receptors, and regulatory proteases is critically involved to maintain tissue integrity and regulate inflammatory responses in the skin. A deeper understanding of cutaneous neuroimmunoendocrinology may help to develop new strategies for the treatment of several skin diseases.
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27
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Grimbaldeston MA, Finlay-Jones JJ, Hart PH. Mast cells in photodamaged skin: what is their role in skin cancer? Photochem Photobiol Sci 2006; 5:177-83. [PMID: 16465303 DOI: 10.1039/b504344a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
In this review, changes that we have observed in the prevalence of mast cells in human sun-exposed skin, and their potential immunoregulatory role, are discussed. More specifically, in a study of Australian volunteers, the prevalence of dermal mast cells was increased in back-of-hand skin, anecdotally the most sun-exposed site of the body, but not in skin from buttock, inner arm or shoulder. By histological analysis of back-of-hand skin, there was a significant correlation between dermal mast cell prevalence and elastin content suggesting increased mast cell prevalence with photodamage. We hypothesised that these mast cells were immunomodulatory upon activation by sun exposure. However, no link was found between dermal mast cell prevalence in hand skin and the presence of basal cell carcinomas. Finally, we discuss other roles for increased numbers of mast cells in UV-exposed photodamaged skin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michele A Grimbaldeston
- Telethon Institute for Child Health Research and Centre for Child Health Research, University of Western Australia, P.O. Box 855, West Perth, Western Australia 6872
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28
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van der Haegen A, Künzle F, Gerber V, Welle M, Robinson NE, Marti E. Mast cells and IgE-bearing cells in lungs of RAO-affected horses. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2005; 108:325-34. [PMID: 16040130 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2005.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2004] [Revised: 05/03/2005] [Accepted: 06/13/2005] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Recurrent airway obstruction (RAO) is a common condition in stabled horses characterised by small airway inflammation and obstruction following exposure of susceptible horses to mouldy hay and straw. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether lung tissue from horses with RAO contains higher numbers of IgE-protein positive (+) cells and mast cells compared to controls after mouldy hay challenge. Furthermore, mast cell subtypes in lung tissue were investigated. IgE+ cells were detected in most lung tissue samples but no significant differences between RAO-affected and control horses were found. In the wall of the bronchi and bronchioli of both RAO-affected and control horses, mainly chymase+ mast cells (MC(C)) were present (85% in the bronchial wall and 77% in the wall of the bronchioli), while 73% of the mast cells (MC) around blood vessels were tryptase+ mast cells (MC(T)). No double stained MCs were detected. RAO-affected horses had significantly more MC(C) than controls in the wall of the bronchi (median=7.6 and 1.7 cell/mm(2), respectively, P< or =0.05). They also showed a tendency for more MC(C) in the wall of the bronchioli than controls (median=21 and 2.9 cells/mm(2), respectively, P=0.07) but there were no differences in MC(T) numbers. The data suggest an involvement of MC(C) in the pathogenesis of RAO. Independently of the clinical diagnosis, there was a significant relationship between high MC(C) numbers in the bronchial wall and lung fibrosis, suggesting that these MC(C) may be involved in tissue remodelling. Furthermore, high MC(C) numbers were also associated with increased infiltration with lymphocytes and neutrophils.
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Affiliation(s)
- A van der Haegen
- Institute for Animal Genetics, Nutrition and Housing, University of Berne, Bremgartenstrasse 109A, 3001 Bern, Switzerland
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29
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Kostenich G, Livnah N, Bonasera TA, Yechezkel T, Salitra Y, Litman P, Kimel S, Orenstein A. Targeting small-cell lung cancer with novel fluorescent analogs of somatostatin. Lung Cancer 2005; 50:319-28. [PMID: 16159681 DOI: 10.1016/j.lungcan.2005.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2005] [Revised: 06/27/2005] [Accepted: 07/04/2005] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Early, accurate detection of small-cell lung cancer (SCLC), before it becomes systemic, is essential for successful treatment. Fluorescence-based imaging provides safe, sensitive detection of malignancies. Targeted delivery of fluorophores increases sensitivity of endoscopic imaging. We synthesized novel somatostatin analogs, based on backbone cyclic peptides, and conjugated them with fluorescent agents. Nineteen conjugates differing in core peptide, length of alkyl linker and fluorescence moiety (rhodamine and fluorescein) were tested in vitro, using a receptor binding assay, and nine of the more promising conjugates were tested in vivo by fiber-optic spectrofluorimetry and quantitative spectral imaging, on an H69 human SCLC tumor mouse xenograft model. The lead compound showed exceptional tumor/normal tissue ratios, ranging from 9 to 90, and has potential for targeting SCLC overexpressing somatostatin receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Genady Kostenich
- Advanced Technology Center, Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer 52621, Israel.
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30
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Abstract
Complement is part of the innate immune system, acting to protect the host from microorganisms such as bacteria, and other foreign and abnormal cells. Although primarily protective, complement activation can also cause damage to the host. In a number of inflammatory diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis and dermatitis, there is excessive and inappropriate complement activation. Many of the toxic effects seen in these conditions are attributable to the excessive production of the anaphylatoxin C5a, which may contribute to both the initiation and progression of the disease. Therefore, the regulation of C5a production and modulation of its function are good pharmacological targets in these disorders. As yet, there are no effective agents for the therapeutic regulation of C5a in routine clinical practice. This review describes the role of C5a in inflammatory disease, animal models used to study C5a-related effects, and current strategies aimed at regulating C5a. There is also a discussion of the strengths and weaknesses of these approaches, and an outline of the likely progress of this class of drugs in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masashi Mizuno
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Immunology, Cardiff University, School of Medicine, Henry Wellcome Building, Heath Park, Cardiff CF14 4XN, UK.
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31
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Kleij HPVD, Bienenstock J. Significance of Conversation between Mast Cells and Nerves. Allergy Asthma Clin Immunol 2005; 1:65-80. [PMID: 20529227 PMCID: PMC2877069 DOI: 10.1186/1710-1492-1-2-65] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
More and more studies are demonstrating interactions between the nervous system and the immune system. However, the functional relevance of this interaction still remains to be elucidated. Such associations have been found in the intestine between nerves and mast cells as well as between eosinophils and plasma cells. Similar morphologic associations have been demonstrated in the liver, mesentery, urinary bladder, and skin. Unmyelinated axons especially were found to associate with mast cells as well as Langerhans' cells in primate as well as murine skin. Although there are several pathways by which immune cells interact with the nervous system, the focus in this review will be on the interaction between mast cells and nerves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanneke Pm van der Kleij
- Brain-Body Institute and Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, St, Joseph's Healthcare, Hamilton, Ontario, and McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario
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32
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Papp A, Härmä M, Harvima R, Lahtinen T, Uusaro A, Alhava E. Microdialysis for detection of dynamic changes in tissue histamine levels in experimental thermal injury. Burns 2005; 31:476-81. [PMID: 15896511 DOI: 10.1016/j.burns.2004.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Histamine is an important mediator contributing to oedema formation after thermal injury. Tissue histamine concentrations have been previously determined by analyzing tissue biopsies. The microdialysis method enables continuous collection of samples from the extracellular tissue fluid. In this experimental burn study on pigs samples from the extracellular fluid for histamine analysis were collected from superficial, partial thickness and full thickness burn sites during a 24-h period. There was a burn depth-related increase in histamine concentrations during the first 2 h post injury. Deep burns induced a more profound initial increase in tissue histamine concentration than the partial thickness and superficial burns. Histamine concentrations at all burn sites declined until 12 h post injury. There was a second rise in tissue histamine concentrations between 12 and 24 h post injury without a rise in plasma histamine concentrations. Histamine concentrations at all burn sites were higher than at the non-burned control sites. The microdialysis technique is an easily applicable method of collecting on-line samples from burned tissue. This method provides a useful tool in investigating the effects of different treatment modalities on the secretion of substances into interstitial fluid within burned tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Papp
- Department of Surgery, Kuopio University Hospital, P.O. Box 1777, 70211 Kuopio, Finland.
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33
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O'Keeffe C, Baird AW, Nolan N, McCormick PA. Cholestatic pruritus - the role of cutaneous mast cells and nerves. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2004; 19:1293-300. [PMID: 15191511 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2036.2004.01997.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The pathogenesis of pruritus in cholestatic liver disease is poorly understood. Cutaneous mast cells and nerves are thought to contribute to pruritus in several dermatological diseases. AIM To determine if cutaneous mast cell density, neural density and mast cell-neural interaction are increased in patients with pruritus and cholestatic liver disease. METHODS Skin biopsy specimens from (i). patients with pruritus due to cholestatic liver disease (CLDP+; n = 6), (ii). patients with chronic liver disease without pruritus (CLDP-; n = 5), and (iii). healthy controls (n = 6) were studied. Biopsies were dual stained immunohistochemically for mast cells and nerves. RESULTS Mast cell density in the control group was not significantly different from that in CLDP+ group or from that in the CLDP- group. Similarly neural density was not significantly different between groups when assessed either in terms of total nerve area, or in terms of the number of neural elements seen. The frequency of mast cell-nerve contact was not significantly different between groups. CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that mast cells, nerves or interaction between the two may not contribute to cholestatic pruritus. Therefore, therapies targeted at cutaneous mast cells or nerves are unlikely to be of benefit.
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Affiliation(s)
- C O'Keeffe
- Liver Unit, St Vincent's University Hospital, Elm Park, Dublin, Ireland
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34
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Bischoff SC, Schwengberg S, Lorentz A, Manns MP, Bektas H, Sann H, Levi-Schaffer F, Shanahan F, Schemann M. Substance P and other neuropeptides do not induce mediator release in isolated human intestinal mast cells. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2004; 16:185-93. [PMID: 15086872 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2982.2004.00502.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Neuropeptides such as substance P (SP) and related peptides are supposed to act as mast cell agonists, and thus as mediators of neuroimmune interactions. The data supporting this hypothesis were obtained mostly from rodent experiments. Here, we studied for the first time the effect of SP and other peptides on mediator release in human intestinal mast cells, either unpurified or enriched to 85-99% purity. We found that SP at 0.1-100 micromol L(-1), or other peptides including neurokinin A and B, calcitonin gene-related peptide, vasoactive intestinal peptide and serotonin at 1 micromol L(-1) do not induce release of mediators such as histamine, sulphidoleukotrienes, and tumour necrosis factor alpha. The peptides also failed to cause mediator release in mast cells isolated from inflamed tissue derived from Crohn's disease. Using reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction, flow cytometry and immunohistochemistry, we could show that human intestinal mast cells do not express the tachykinin receptors NK-1, NK-2, or NK-3 under basal conditions. However, upon stimulation by immunoglobulin E (IgE) receptor-crosslinking, which induces an extensive mediator release reaction, a subpopulation of mast cells clearly expressed NK-1, the SP receptor. In conclusion, our data show that SP and other neuropeptides do not act as secretagogues in human intestinal mast cells that have not been pre-activated by IgE receptor-crosslinking.
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Affiliation(s)
- S C Bischoff
- Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Endocrinology, Medical School of Hannover, Hannover, Germany.
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Theoharides TC, Cochrane DE. Critical role of mast cells in inflammatory diseases and the effect of acute stress. J Neuroimmunol 2004; 146:1-12. [PMID: 14698841 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2003.10.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 284] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Mast cells are not only necessary for allergic reactions, but recent findings indicate that they are also involved in a variety of neuroinflammatory diseases, especially those worsened by stress. In these cases, mast cells appear to be activated through their Fc receptors by immunoglobulins other than IgE, as well as by anaphylatoxins, neuropeptides and cytokines to secrete mediators selectively without overt degranulation. These facts can help us better understand a variety of sterile inflammatory conditions, such as multiple sclerosis (MS), migraines, inflammatory arthritis, atopic dermatitis, coronary inflammation, interstitial cystitis and irritable bowel syndrome, in which mast cells are activated without allergic degranulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theoharis C Theoharides
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Tufts-New England Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA.
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Blunk JA, Schmelz M, Zeck S, Skov P, Likar R, Koppert W. Opioid-induced mast cell activation and vascular responses is not mediated by mu-opioid receptors: an in vivo microdialysis study in human skin. Anesth Analg 2004; 98:364-370. [PMID: 14742371 DOI: 10.1213/01.ane.0000097168.32472.0d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Activation of mast cells and the systemic release of histamine is a common side effect of opioids. Nevertheless, fentanyl and its derivatives show only a slight activation of mast cells with a subsequent liberation of histamine and tryptase. In this study, we used intradermal microdialysis to assess whether this stimulatory effect of opioids on mast cells depends on the activation of opioid receptors. This new approach allowed us to measure the dose-dependent release of histamine and tryptase from mast cells and the subsequent vascular and sensory effect without systemic side effects in volunteers. The opiate codeine and the synthetic opioids meperidine, fentanyl, alfentanil, sufentanil, remifentanil, buprenorphine, and the opioid antagonist naloxone were tested. Only codeine and meperidine induced mast cell activation with the release of tryptase and histamine, leading to protein extravasation, flare reactions, and itch sensations. Because naloxone did not attenuate these effects, it is unlikely that mu-opioid receptors are involved in the activation of mast cells. IMPLICATIONS Opioid effects on mast cells were assessed using intradermal microdialysis. Mast cell activation was seen with codeine and meperidine; no other opioid induced degranulation. Therefore, histamine release seen at large concentrations of potent micro agonists is caused by an unspecific effect rather than an activation of opioid receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- James A Blunk
- *Department of Anesthesiology, University Hospital, Erlangen; †Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine Mannheim, University Heidelberg, Germany; ‡The Reference Laboratory, University Hospital Kopenhagen, Denmark; and §Department of Anesthesiology, LKH Klagenfurt, Austria
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Viewpoint 3. Exp Dermatol 2003. [DOI: 10.1111/j.0906-6705.2003.0109d.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Mastocytosis is comprised of a group of heterogeneous diseases involving various organs. Urticaria pigmentosa is the most common manifestation of cutaneous mastocytosis; others include mastocytoma, diffuse mastocytosis, and telangiectasia macularis eruptiva perstans. METHODS We describe a case of indolent mastocytosis presenting as scarring alopecia. The scalp biopsy revealed a perifollicular and dermal inflammatory infiltrate composed predominantly of mast cells, which was confirmed by tryptase and Giemsa stains. RESULTS The preponderance of mast cells in the biopsy prompted testing for urine N-methylhistamine levels, which were elevated and confirmed the diagnosis of mastocytosis. This is the first report of mastocytosis presenting as scarring alopecia. CONCLUSIONS This case suggests that the diagnosis of mastocytosis should be entertained in patients presenting with scarring alopecia accompanied by an intense mast cell infiltrate on scalp biopsy and also supports the notion that mast cells may be involved in the pathogenesis of alopecia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaowei Xu
- Departments of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Hospital of University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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Kumamoto T, Shalhevet D, Matsue H, Mummert ME, Ward BR, Jester JV, Takashima A. Hair follicles serve as local reservoirs of skin mast cell precursors. Blood 2003; 102:1654-60. [PMID: 12738661 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2003-02-0449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Several leukocyte populations normally reside in mouse skin, including Langerhans cells and gammadelta T cells in the epidermis and macrophage and mast cells in the dermis. Interestingly, these skin resident leukocytes are frequently identified within or around hair follicles (HFs), which are known to contain stem cell populations that can generate the epidermal architecture or give rise to the melanocyte lineage. Thus, we reasoned that HFs might serve as a local reservoir of the resident leukocyte populations in the skin. When vibrissal follicles of adult mice were cultured in the presence of stem cell factor (SCF), interleukin 3 (IL-3), IL-7, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, and Flt3 ligand, CD45+/lineage-/c-kit+/FcepsilonRI+ cells became detectable on the outgrowing fibroblasts in 10 days and expanded progressively thereafter. These HF-derived leukocytes showed characteristic features of connective tissue-type mast cells, including proliferative responsiveness to SCF, metachromatic granules, mRNA expression for mast cell proteases-1, -4, -5, and -6, and histamine release on ligation of surface IgE or stimulation with substance P or compound 48/80. These results, together with our findings that HFs contain c-kit+ cells and produce SCF mRNA and protein, suggest that HFs provide a unique microenvironment for local development of mast cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tadashi Kumamoto
- Department of Dermatology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
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Anand MK, Nelson HS, Dreskin SC. A possible role for cyclooxygenase 2 inhibitors in the treatment of chronic urticaria. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2003; 111:1133-6. [PMID: 12743584 DOI: 10.1067/mai.2003.1454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Algermissen B, Hermes B, Henz BM, Müller U, Berlien HP. Laser-induced weal and flare reactions: clinical aspects and pharmacological modulation. Br J Dermatol 2002; 146:863-8. [PMID: 12000385 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2133.2002.04723.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Among the adverse effects of cutaneous laser therapy, weal and flare reactions immediately after treatment have received little attention, and the pathomechanisms are unclear. OBJECTIVES To study clinical features and possible mechanisms of laser-induced weal and flare reactions in order to identify means of possible therapeutic intervention. METHODS Normal skin from the inner arm of 20 volunteers was treated with an argon laser, and the size of weal and flare reactions was measured over a 60-min period. Skin biopsies were taken from four volunteers before and up to 24 h after laser treatment and examined histologically and immunohistologically. Possible underlying mechanisms were also explored using various topical or systemic pharmacological agents. RESULTS Wealing was noted in 19 of 20, and flare reactions in all volunteers, with peak values at 15 min. Skin biopsies showed central coagulation of the tissue, cleft formation between epidermis and dermis, normal numbers of morphologically intact mast cells on toluidine blue staining close to the lesion, and only minor upregulation of endothelial and leucocyte adhesion molecules. In agreement with these findings, pretreatment with acetylsalicylic acid, the H1-blocker loratadine and triamcinolone cream was ineffective or resulted in a non-significant reduction of weal and flare reactions. In contrast, local anaesthetics as well as neuropeptide depletion of skin with capsaicin abolished the reactions almost completely. CONCLUSIONS Transient weal and flare reactions in response to laser treatment occur in almost all persons and are based primarily on a neurogenic rather than a histamine- or mast cell-dependent mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Algermissen
- Department of Laser Medicine, Krankenhaus Neukölln, Berlin, Germany
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Leurs R, Church MK, Taglialatela M. H1-antihistamines: inverse agonism, anti-inflammatory actions and cardiac effects. Clin Exp Allergy 2002; 32:489-98. [PMID: 11972592 DOI: 10.1046/j.0954-7894.2002.01314.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 259] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
This review addresses novel concepts of histamine H1-receptor function and attempts to relate them to the anti-inflammatory effects of H1-antihistamines. Furthermore, the molecular mechanisms underlying the cardiotoxic effects of H1-antihistamines are discussed. H1-receptors are G-protein-coupled-receptors (GPCRs), the inactive and active conformations of which coexist in equilibrium. The degree receptor activation in the absence of histamine is its 'constitutive activity'. In this two-state model, histamine acts as an agonist by combining with and stabilizing the activated conformation of the H1-receptor to shift the equilibrium towards the activated state. Drugs classified previously as antagonists act as either inverse agonists or neutral antagonists. Inverse agonists combine with and stabilize the inactive conformation of the receptor to shift the equilibrium towards the inactive state. Thus, they may down-regulate constitutive receptor activity, even in the absence of histamine. Neutral antagonists combine equally with both conformations of the receptor, do not affect basal receptor activity but do interfere with agonist binding. All H1-antihistamines examined to date are inverse agonists. As the term 'H1-receptor antagonists' is obviously erroneous, we suggest that it be replaced by 'H1-antihistamines'. The observations that H1-receptors modulate NF-kappaB activation and that there are complex interactions between GPCRs, has allowed us to postulate receptor dependent-mechanisms for some anti-inflammatory effects of H1-antihistamines, e.g. inhibition of ICAM-1 expression and the effects of bradykinin. Finally, the finding that blockade of HERG1 K+ channels is the mechanism by which some H1-antihistamines may cause cardiac arrhythmias has allowed the development of preclinical tests to predict such activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Leurs
- Leiden/Amsterdam Center for Drug Research, Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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Affiliation(s)
- C Tkaczyk
- Laboratory of Allergic Diseases, National Institutes of Allergy and Inflammatory Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Building 10, Room 11C213, MSC 1881, 10 Center Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892-1881, USA
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Fajardo I, Urdiales JL, Medina MA, Sanchez-Jimenez F. Effects of phorbol ester and dexamethasone treatment on histidine decarboxylase and ornithine decarboxylase in basophilic cells. Biochem Pharmacol 2001; 61:1101-6. [PMID: 11301043 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-2952(01)00567-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Both histamine and polyamines are important for maintaining basophilic cell function and viability. The synthesis of these biogenic amines is regulated by histidine decarboxylase and ornithine decarboxylase, respectively. In other mammalian tissues, an interplay between histamine and polyamine metabolisms has been suspected. In this report, the interplay between histamine and ornithine-derived polyamines was studied in a non-transformed mouse mast cell line (C57.1) treated with phorbol ester and dexamethasone, a treatment previously used to increase histidine decarboxylase expression in mastocytoma and basophilic leukemia. Treatment with phorbol ester and dexamethasone increased histidine decarboxylase expression and intracellular histamine levels in C57.1 mast cells to a greater extent than those found for other transformed basophilic models. The treatment also induced a reduction in ornithine decarboxylase expression, intracellular polyamine contents, and cell proliferation. These results indicate that the treatment induces a co-ordinate response of polyamine metabolism and proliferation in mast cells and other immune-related cells. The decrease in the proliferative capacity of mast cells caused by phorbol ester and dexamethasone was simultaneous to an increase in histamine production. Our results, together with those reported by other groups working with polyamine-treated mast cells, indicate an antagonism between histamine and polyamines in basophilic cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Fajardo
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Malaga, Campus of Teatinos, 29071 Malaga, Spain
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