Excision of group II introns as circles

Intron lariat spliceosomes convert lariats to true circles: implications for intron transposition

Rare, full-length circular intron RNAs distinct from lariats have been reported in several species, but their biogenesis is not understood. We envisioned and tested a hypothesis for their formation using Saccharomyces cerevisiae, documenting full-length and novel processed circular RNAs from multiple introns. Evidence implicates a previously undescribed catalytic activity of the intron lariat spliceosome (ILS) in which the 3'-OH of the lariat tail (with optional trimming and adenylation by the nuclear 3' processing machinery) attacks the branch, joining the intron 3' end to the 5' splice site in a 3'-5' linked circle. Human U2 and U12 spliceosomes produce analogous full-length and processed circles. Postsplicing catalytic activity of the spliceosome may promote intron transposition during eukaryotic genome evolution.

Long-read direct RNA sequencing of the mitochondrial transcriptome of Saccharomyces cerevisiae reveals condition-dependent intron abundance

Mitochondria fulfil many essential roles and have their own genome, which is expressed as polycistronic transcripts that undergo co- or posttranscriptional processing and splicing. Due to the inherent complexity and limited technical accessibility of the mitochondrial transcriptome, fundamental questions regarding mitochondrial gene expression and splicing remain unresolved, even in the model eukaryote Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Long-read sequencing could address these fundamental questions. Therefore, a method for the enrichment of mitochondrial RNA and sequencing using Nanopore technology was developed, enabling the resolution of splicing of polycistronic genes and the quantification of spliced RNA. This method successfully captured the full mitochondrial transcriptome and resolved RNA splicing patterns with single-base resolution and was applied to explore the transcriptome of S. cerevisiae grown with glucose or ethanol as the sole carbon source, revealing the impact of growth conditions on mitochondrial RNA expression and splicing. This study uncovered a remarkable difference in the turnover of Group II introns between yeast grown in either mostly fermentative or fully respiratory conditions. Whether this accumulation of introns in glucose medium has an impact on mitochondrial functions remains to be explored. Combined with the high tractability of the model yeast S. cerevisiae, the developed method enables to monitor mitochondrial transcriptome responses in a broad range of relevant contexts, including oxidative stress, apoptosis and mitochondrial diseases.

Intron-lariat spliceosomes convert lariats to true circles: implications for intron transposition

Rare, full length circular intron RNAs distinct from lariats have been reported in several species, but their biogenesis is not understood. We envision and test a hypothesis for their formation using Saccharomyces cerevisiae, documenting full length and novel processed circular RNAs from multiple introns. Evidence implicates a previously undescribed catalytic activity of the intron-lariat spliceosome (ILS) in which the 3'-OH of the lariat tail (with optional trimming and adenylation by the nuclear 3' processing machinery) attacks the branch, joining the intron 3' end to the 5' splice site in a 3'-5' linked circle. Human U2 and U12 spliceosomes produce analogous full length and processed circles. Post-splicing catalytic activity of the spliceosome may promote intron transposition during eukaryotic genome evolution.

Circular RNA: A promising new star of vaccine

Circular RNAs (circRNAs) are a class of single-stranded RNAs with covalently closed structures. Owing to their not having 3' or 5' ends, circRNAs are highly durable and insusceptible to exonuclease-mediated degradation. Moreover, some circRNAs with certain structures are translatable, making them novel vaccines. Vaccines are efficient tools for immunotherapy, such as for the prevention of infectious diseases and cancer treatment. The immune system is activated during immunotherapy to fight against abnormal allies or invaders. CircRNA vaccines represent a potential new avenue in the vaccine era. Recently, several circRNA vaccines have been synthesized and tested in vitro and in vivo. Our review briefly introduces the current understanding of the biology and function of translatable circRNAs, molecular biology, synthetic methods, delivery of circRNA, and current circRNA vaccines. We also discussed the challenges and future directions in the field by summarizing the developments in circRNA vaccines in the past few years.

In Vitro Transcribed RNA-Based Platform Vaccines: Past, Present, and Future

mRNA was discovered in 1961, but it was not used as a vaccine until after three decades. Recently, the development of mRNA vaccine technology gained great impetus from the pursuit of vaccines against COVID-19. To improve the properties of RNA vaccines, and primarily their circulation time, self-amplifying mRNA and trans-amplifying mRNA were developed. A separate branch of mRNA technology is circular RNA vaccines, which were developed with the discovery of the possibility of translation on their protein matrix. Circular RNA has several advantages over mRNA vaccines and is considered a fairly promising platform, as is trans-amplifying mRNA. This review presents an overview of the mRNA platform and a critical discussion of the more modern self-amplifying mRNA, trans-amplifying mRNA, and circular RNA platforms created on its basis. Finally, the main features, advantages, and disadvantages of each of the presented mRNA platforms are discussed. This discussion will facilitate the decision-making process in selecting the most appropriate platform for creating RNA vaccines against cancer or viral diseases.

A linear and circular dual-conformation noncoding RNA involved in oxidative stress tolerance in Bacillus altitudinis

Circular RNAs have been extensively studied in eukaryotes, but their presence and/or biological functionality in bacteria are unclear. Here, we show that a regulatory noncoding RNA (DucS) exists in both linear and circular conformation in Bacillus altitudinis. The linear forms promote B. altitudinis tolerance to H2O2 stress, partly through increased translation of a stress-responsive gene, htrA. The 3' end sequences of the linear forms are crucial for RNA circularization, and formation of circular forms can decrease the levels of the regulatory linear cognates. Bioinformatic analysis of available RNA-seq datasets from 30 bacterial species revealed multiple circular RNA candidates, distinct from DucS, for all the examined species. Experiments testing for the presence of selected circular RNA candidates in four species successfully validated 7 out of 9 candidates from B. altitudinis and 4 out of 5 candidates from Bacillus paralicheniformis; However, none of the candidates tested for Bacillus subtilis and Escherichia coli were detected. Our work identifies a dual-conformation regulatory RNA in B. altitutidinis, and indicates that circular RNAs exist in diverse bacteria. However, circularization of specific RNAs does not seem to be conserved across species, and the circularization mechanisms and biological functionality of the circular forms remain unclear.

Circular RNA vaccine in disease prevention and treatment

CircRNAs are a class of single-stranded RNAs with covalently linked head-to-tail topology. In the decades since its initial discovery, their biogenesis, regulation, and function have rapidly disclosed, permitting a better understanding and adoption of them as new tools for medical applications. With the development of biotechnology and molecular medicine, artificial circRNAs have been engineered as a novel class of vaccines for disease treatment and prevention. Unlike the linear mRNA vaccine which applications were limited by its instability, inefficiency, and innate immunogenicity, circRNA vaccine which incorporate internal ribosome entry sites (IRESs) and open reading frame (ORF) provides an improved approach to RNA-based vaccination with safety, stability, simplicity of manufacture, and scalability. However, circRNA vaccines are at an early stage, and their optimization, delivery and applications require further development and evaluation. In this review, we comprehensively describe circRNA vaccine, including their history and superiority. We also summarize and discuss the current methodological research for circRNA vaccine preparation, including their design, synthesis, and purification. Finally, we highlight the delivery options of circRNA vaccine and its potential applications in diseases treatment and prevention. Considering their unique high stability, low immunogenicity, protein/peptide-coding capacity and special closed-loop construction, circRNA vaccine, and circRNA-based therapeutic platforms may have superior application prospects in a broad range of diseases.

Natural circularly permuted group II introns in bacteria produce RNA circles

Group II self-splicing introns are large structured RNAs that remove themselves from transcripts while simultaneously sealing the resulting gaps. Some representatives can subsequently reverse splice into DNA, accounting for their pervasive distribution in bacteria. The catalytically active tertiary structure of each group II intron is assembled from six domains that are arranged in a conserved order. Here, we report structural isomers of group II introns, called CP group II ribozymes, wherein the characteristic order of domains has been altered. Domains five and six, which normally reside at the 3' end of group II introns, instead occupy the 5' end to form circularly permuted variants. These unusual group II intron derivatives are catalytically active and generate large linear branched and small circular RNAs, reaction products that are markedly different from those generated by canonical group II introns. The biological role of CP group II ribozymes is currently unknown.

The design and synthesis of circular RNAs

Circular RNAs (circRNAs) are a novel class of RNAs distinguished by their single-stranded, covalently-closed topology. Although initially perceived as rare byproducts of aberrant splicing, circRNAs are now recognized as ubiquitously expressed and functionally significant. These discoveries have led to a growing need for ways to model circRNAs in living cells to advance our understanding of their biogenesis, regulation, and function, and to adopt them as new technologies for application within research and medicine. In this review, we provide an updated summary of approaches used to produce circRNAs in vitro and in vivo, the latter of which has grown considerably in recent years. Given increased interest in the unique functions carried out by individual circRNAs, we further dedicate a section on how to customize synthesized circRNAs for specific biological roles. We focus on the most common applications, including designing circRNAs for protein delivery, to target miRNAs and proteins, to act as fluorescent reporters, and to modulate cellular immunity.

Molecular characterization of both transesterification reactions of the group II intron circularization pathway

Group II introns can self-splice from RNA transcripts through branching, hydrolysis and circularization, being released as lariats, linear introns and circles, respectively. In contrast to branching, the circularization pathway is mostly based on assumptions and has been largely overlooked. Here, we address the molecular details of both transesterification reactions of the group II intron circularization pathway in vivo. We show that free E1 is recruited by the intron through base pairing interactions and that released intron circles can generate free E1 by the spliced exon reopening reaction. The first transesterification reaction was found to be induced inaccurately by the 3′OH of the terminal residue of free E1 at the 3′ splice site, producing circularization intermediates with heterogeneous 3′ ends. Nevertheless, specific terminal 3′OH, selected by a molecular ruler, was shown to precisely attack the 5′ splice site and release intron circles with 3′–5′ rather than 2′–5′ bonds at their circularization junction. Our work supports a circularization model where the recruitment of free E1 and/or displacement of cis-E1 induce a conformational change of the intron active site from the pre-5′ to the pre-3′ splice site processing conformation, suggesting how circularization might initiate at the 3′ instead of the 5′ splice site.

A Singular and Widespread Group of Mobile Genetic Elements: RNA Circles with Autocatalytic Ribozymes

Circular DNAs, such as most prokaryotic and phage genomes, are a frequent form of nucleic acids, whereas circular RNAs had been regarded as unusual macromolecules until very recently. The first reported RNA circles were the family of small infectious genomes of viroids and circular RNA (circRNA) satellites of plant viruses, some of which contain small self-cleaving RNA motifs, such as the hammerhead (HHR) and hairpin ribozymes. A similar infectious circRNA, the unique human hepatitis delta virus (HDV), is another viral satellite that also encodes self-cleaving motifs called HDV ribozymes. Very recently, different animals have been reported to contain HDV-like circRNAs with typical HDV ribozymes, but also conserved HHR motifs, as we describe here. On the other hand, eukaryotic and prokaryotic genomes encode sequences able to self-excise as circRNAs, like the autocatalytic Group I and II introns, which are widespread genomic mobile elements. In the 1990s, the first circRNAs encoded in a mammalian genome were anecdotally reported, but their abundance and importance have not been unveiled until recently. These gene-encoded circRNAs are produced by events of alternative splicing in a process generally known as backsplicing. However, we have found a second natural pathway of circRNA expression conserved in numerous plant and animal genomes, which efficiently promotes the accumulation of small non-coding RNA circles through the participation of HHRs. Most of these genome-encoded circRNAs with HHRs are the transposition intermediates of a novel family of non-autonomous retrotransposons called retrozymes, with intriguing potential as new forms of gene regulation.

DNA cleavage and reverse splicing of ribonucleoprotein particles reconstituted in vitro with linear RmInt1 RNA

The RmInt1 group II intron is an efficient self-splicing mobile retroelement that catalyzes its own excision as lariat, linear and circular molecules. In vivo, the RmInt1 lariat and the reverse transcriptase (IEP) it encodes form a ribonucleoprotein particle (RNP) that recognizes the DNA target for site-specific full intron insertion via a two-step reverse splicing reaction. RNPs containing linear group II intron RNA are generally thought to be unable to complete the reverse splicing reaction. Here, we show that reconstituted in vitro RNPs containing linear RmInt1 ΔORF RNA can mediate the cleavage of single-stranded DNA substrates in a very precise manner with the attachment of the intron RNA to the 3´exon as the first step of a reverse splicing reaction. Notably, we also observe molecules in which the 5´exon is linked to the RmInt1 RNA, suggesting the completion of the reverse splicing reaction, albeit rather low and inefficiently. That process depends on DNA target recognition and can be successful completed by RmInt1 RNPs with linear RNA displaying 5´ modifications.

Postsplicing-Derived Full-Length Intron Circles in the Protozoan Parasite Entamoeba histolytica

Noncoding circular RNAs are widespread in the tree of life. Particularly, intron-containing circular RNAs which apparently upregulate their parental gene expression. Entamoeba histolytica, the causative agent of dysentery and liver abscesses in humans, codes for several noncoding RNAs, including circular ribosomal RNAs, but no intron containing circular RNAs have been described to date. Divergent RT-PCR and diverse molecular approaches, allowed us to detect bona fide full-length intronic circular RNA (flicRNA) molecules. Self-splicing reactions, RNA polymerase II inhibition with Actinomycin D, and second step of splicing-inhibition with boric acid showed that the production of flicRX13 (one of the flicRNAs found in this work, and our test model) depends on mRNA synthesis and pre-mRNA processing instead of self-splicing. To explore the cues and factors involved in flicRX13 biogenesis in vivo, splicing assays were carried out in amoeba transformants where splicing factors and Dbr1 (intron lariat debranching enzyme 1) were silenced or overexpressed, or where Rabx13 wild-type and mutant 5'ss (splice site) and branch site minigene constructs were overexpressed. Whereas SF1 (splicing factor 1) is not involved, the U2 auxiliary splicing factor, Dbr1, and the GU-rich 5'ss are involved in postsplicing flicRX13 biogenesis, probably by Dbr1 stalling, in a similar fashion to the formation of ciRNAs (circular intronic RNAs), but with distinctive 5'-3'ss ligation points. Different from the reported functions of ciRNAs, the 5'ss GU-rich element of flicRX13 possibly interacts with transcription machinery to silence its own gene in cis. Furthermore, introns of E. histolytica virulence-related genes are also processed as flicRNAs.

Molecular functions and specific roles of circRNAs in the cardiovascular system

As part of the superfamily of long noncoding RNAs, circular RNAs (circRNAs) are emerging as a new type of regulatory molecules that partake in gene expression control. Here, we review the current knowledge about circRNAs in cardiovascular disease. CircRNAs are not only associated with different types of cardiovascular disease, but they have also been identified as intracellular effector molecules for pathophysiological changes in cardiovascular tissues, and as cardiovascular biomarkers. This evidence is put in the context of the current understanding of general circRNA biogenesis and of known interactions of circRNAs with DNA, RNA, and proteins.

Group II introns in wheat mitochondria have degenerate structural features and varied splicing pathways

Mitochondrial introns in flowering plant genes are virtually all classified as members of the group II ribozyme family although certain structural features have degenerated to varying degrees over evolutionary time. We are interested in the impact that unconventional intron architecture might have on splicing biochemistry in vivo and we have focused in particular on intronic domains V and VI, which for self-splicing introns provide a key component of the catalytic core and the bulged branchpoint adenosine, respectively. Notably, the two transesterification steps in classical group II splicing are the same as for nuclear spliceosomal introns and release the intron as a lariat. Using RT-PCR and circularized RT-PCR, we had previously demonstrated that several wheat mitochondrial introns which lack a branchpoint adenosine have atypical splicing pathways, and we have now extended this analysis to the full set of wheat introns, namely six trans-splicing and sixteen cis-splicing ones. A number of introns are excised using non-lariat pathways and interestingly, we find that several introns which do have a conventional domain VI also use pathways that appear to exploit other internal or external nucleophiles, with the lariat form being relatively minor. Somewhat surprisingly, several introns with weakly-structured domain V/VI helices still exhibit classical lariat splicing, suggesting that accessory factors aid in restoring a splicing-competent conformation. Our observations illustrate that the loss of conventional group II features during evolution is correlated with altered splicing biochemistry in an intron-distinctive manner.

High-throughput sequencing reveals circular substrates for an archaeal RNA ligase

It is only recently that the abundant presence of circular RNAs (circRNAs) in all kingdoms of Life, including the hyperthermophilic archaeon Pyrococcus abyssi, has emerged. This led us to investigate the physiologic significance of a previously observed weak intramolecular ligation activity of Pab1020 RNA ligase. Here we demonstrate that this enzyme, despite sharing significant sequence similarity with DNA ligases, is indeed an RNA-specific polynucleotide ligase efficiently acting on physiologically significant substrates. Using a combination of RNA immunoprecipitation assays and RNA-seq, our genome-wide studies revealed 133 individual circRNA loci in P. abyssi. The large majority of these loci interacted with Pab1020 in cells and circularization of selected C/D Box and 5S rRNA transcripts was confirmed biochemically. Altogether these studies revealed that Pab1020 is required for RNA circularization. Our results further suggest the functional speciation of an ancestral NTase domain and/or DNA ligase toward RNA ligase activity and prompt for further characterization of the widespread functions of circular RNAs in prokaryotes. Detailed insight into the cellular substrates of Pab1020 may facilitate the development of new biotechnological applications e.g. in ligation of preadenylated adaptors to RNA molecules.

Accumulation of Stable Full-Length Circular Group I Intron RNAs during Heat-Shock

Group I introns in nuclear ribosomal RNA of eukaryotic microorganisms are processed by splicing or circularization. The latter results in formation of full-length circular introns without ligation of the exons and has been proposed to be active in intron mobility. We applied qRT-PCR to estimate the copy number of circular intron RNA from the myxomycete Didymium iridis. In exponentially growing amoebae, the circular introns are nuclear and found in 70 copies per cell. During heat-shock, the circular form is up-regulated to more than 500 copies per cell. The intron harbours two ribozymes that have the potential to linearize the circle. To understand the structural features that maintain circle integrity, we performed chemical and enzymatic probing of the splicing ribozyme combined with molecular modeling to arrive at models of the inactive circular form and its active linear counterpart. We show that the two forms have the same overall structure but differ in key parts, including the catalytic core element P7 and the junctions at which reactions take place. These differences explain the relative stability of the circular species, demonstrate how it is prone to react with a target molecule for circle integration and thus supports the notion that the circular form is a biologically significant molecule possibly with a role in intron mobility.

Multiple splicing pathways of group II trans-splicing introns in wheat mitochondria

Trans-splicing of discontinuous introns in plant mitochondria requires the assembly of independently-transcribed precursor RNAs into splicing-competent structures, and they are expected to be excised as Y-branched molecules ("broken lariats") because these introns belong to the group II ribozyme family. We now demonstrate that this is just one of several trans-splicing pathways for wheat mitochondrial nad1 intron 4 and nad5 intron 2; they also use a hydrolytic pathway and the liberated 5'-half-intron linear molecules are unexpectedly abundant in the RNA population. We also observe a third productive splicing pathway for nad5 intron 2 that yields full-length excised introns in which the termini are joined in vivo and possess non-encoded nucleotides. In the case of trans-splicing nad1 intron 1, which has a weakly-structured and poorly-conserved core sequence, excision appears to be solely through a hydrolytic pathway. When wheat embryos are germinated in the cold rather than at room temperature, an increased complexity in trans-splicing products is seen for nad1 intron 4, suggesting that there can be environmental effects on the RNA folding of bipartite introns. Our observations provide insights into intron evolution and the complexity of RNA processing events in plant mitochondria.

Group II introns: versatile ribozymes and retroelements

Group II introns are catalytic RNAs (ribozymes) and retroelements found in the genomes of bacteria, archaebacteria, and organelles of some eukaryotes. The prototypical retroelement form consists of a structurally conserved RNA and a multidomain reverse transcriptase protein, which interact with each other to mediate splicing and mobility reactions. A wealth of biochemical, cross-linking, and X-ray crystal structure studies have helped to reveal how the two components cooperate to carry out the splicing and mobility reactions. In addition to the standard retroelement form, group II introns have evolved into derivative forms by either losing specific splicing or mobility characteristics, or becoming functionally specialized. Of particular interest are the eukaryotic derivatives-the spliceosome, spliceosomal introns, and non-LTR retroelements-which together make up approximately half of the human genome. On a practical level, the properties of group II introns have been exploited to develop group II intron-based biotechnological tools. WIREs RNA 2016, 7:341-355. doi: 10.1002/wrna.1339 For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.

Circularization pathway of a bacterial group II intron

Group II introns are large RNA enzymes that can excise as lariats, circles or in a linear form through branching, circularization or hydrolysis, respectively. Branching is by far the main and most studied splicing pathway while circularization was mostly overlooked. We previously showed that removal of the branch point A residue from Ll.LtrB, the group II intron from Lactococcus lactis, exclusively leads to circularization. However, the majority of the released intron circles harbored an additional C residue of unknown origin at the splice junction. Here, we exploited the Ll.LtrB-ΔA mutant to study the circularization pathway of bacterial group II introns in vivo. We demonstrated that the non-encoded C residue, present at the intron circle splice junction, corresponds to the first nt of exon 2. Intron circularization intermediates, harboring the first 2 or 3 nts of exon 2, were found to accumulate showing that branch point removal leads to 3′ splice site misrecognition. Traces of properly ligated exons were also detected functionally confirming that a small proportion of Ll.LtrB-ΔA circularizes accurately. Overall, our data provide the first detailed molecular analysis of the group II intron circularization pathway and suggests that circularization is a conserved splicing pathway in bacteria.

Sequential splicing of a group II twintron in the marine cyanobacterium Trichodesmium

The marine cyanobacterium Trichodesmium is unusual in its genomic architecture as 40% of the genome is occupied by non-coding DNA. Although the majority of it is transcribed into RNA, it is not well understood why such a large non-coding genome fraction is maintained. Mobile genetic elements can contribute to genome expansion. Many bacteria harbor introns whereas twintrons, introns-in-introns, are rare and not known to interrupt protein-coding genes in bacteria. Here we show the sequential in vivo splicing of a 5400 nt long group II twintron interrupting a highly conserved gene that is associated with RNase HI in some cyanobacteria, but free-standing in others, including Trichodesmium erythraeum. We show that twintron splicing results in a putatively functional mRNA. The full genetic arrangement was found conserved in two geospatially distinct metagenomic datasets supporting its functional relevance. We further show that splicing of the inner intron yields the free intron as a true circle. This reaction requires the spliced exon reopening (SER) reaction to provide a free 5′ exon. The fact that Trichodesmium harbors a functional twintron fits in well with the high intron load of these genomes, and suggests peculiarities in its genetic machinery permitting such arrangements.

The Ll.LtrB intron from Lactococcus lactis excises as circles in vivo: insights into the group II intron circularization pathway

Group II introns are large ribozymes that require the assistance of intron-encoded or free-standing maturases to splice from their pre-mRNAs in vivo. They mainly splice through the classical branching pathway, being released as RNA lariats. However, group II introns can also splice through secondary pathways like hydrolysis and circularization leading to the release of linear and circular introns, respectively. Here, we assessed in vivo splicing of various constructs of the Ll.LtrB group II intron from the Gram-positive bacterium Lactococcus lactis. The study of excised intron junctions revealed, in addition to branched intron lariats, the presence of perfect end-to-end intron circles and alternatively circularized introns. Removal of the branch point A residue prevented Ll.LtrB excision through the branching pathway but did not hinder intron circle formation. Complete intron RNA circles were found associated with the intron-encoded protein LtrA forming nevertheless inactive RNPs. Traces of double-stranded head-to-tail intron DNA junctions were also detected in L. lactis RNA and nucleic acid extracts. Some intron circles and alternatively circularized introns harbored variable number of non-encoded nucleotides at their splice junction. The presence of mRNA fragments at the splice junction of some intron RNA circles provides insights into the group II intron circularization pathway in bacteria.

Circular RNAs: diversity of form and function

It is now clear that there is a diversity of circular RNAs in biological systems. Circular RNAs can be produced by the direct ligation of 5' and 3' ends of linear RNAs, as intermediates in RNA processing reactions, or by "backsplicing," wherein a downstream 5' splice site (splice donor) is joined to an upstream 3' splice site (splice acceptor). Circular RNAs have unique properties including the potential for rolling circle amplification of RNA, the ability to rearrange the order of genomic information, protection from exonucleases, and constraints on RNA folding. Circular RNAs can function as templates for viroid and viral replication, as intermediates in RNA processing reactions, as regulators of transcription in cis, as snoRNAs, and as miRNA sponges. Herein, we review the breadth of circular RNAs, their biogenesis and metabolism, and their known and anticipated functions.

In vitro characterization of the splicing efficiency and fidelity of the RmInt1 group II intron as a means of controlling the dispersion of its host mobile element

Group II introns are catalytic RNAs that are excised from their precursors in a protein-dependent manner in vivo. Certain group II introns can also react in a protein-independent manner under nonphysiological conditions in vitro. The efficiency and fidelity of the splicing reaction is crucial, to guarantee the correct formation and expression of the protein-coding mRNA. RmInt1 is an efficient mobile intron found within the ISRm2011-2 insertion sequence in the symbiotic bacterium Sinorhizobium meliloti. The RmInt1 intron self-splices in vitro, but this reaction generates side products due to a predicted cryptic IBS1* sequence within the 3' exon. We engineered an RmInt1 intron lacking the cryptic IBS1* sequence, which improved the fidelity of the splicing reaction. However, atypical circular forms of similar electrophoretic mobility to the lariat intron were nevertheless observed. We analyzed a run of four cytidine residues at the 3' splice site potentially responsible for a lack of fidelity at this site leading to the formation of circular intron forms. We showed that mutations of residues base-pairing in the tertiary EBS3-IBS3 interaction increased the efficiency and fidelity of the splicing reaction. Our results indicate that RmInt1 has developed strategies for decreasing its splicing efficiency and fidelity. RmInt1 makes use of unproductive splicing reactions to limit the transposition of the insertion sequence into which it inserts itself in its natural context, thereby preventing potentially harmful dispersion of ISRm2011-2 throughout the genome of its host.

Novel RNA structural features of an alternatively splicing group II intron from Clostridium tetani

Group II introns are ribozymes in bacterial and organellar genomes that function as self-splicing introns and as retroelements. Previously, we reported that the group II intron C.te.I1 of Clostridium tetani alternatively splices in vivo to produce five distinct coding mRNAs. Accurate fusion of upstream and downstream reading frames requires a shifted 5' splice site located 8 nt upstream of the usual 5' GUGYG motif. This site is specified by the ribozyme through an altered intron/exon-binding site 1 (IBS1-EBS1) pairing. Here we use mutagenesis and self-splicing assays to investigate in more detail the significance of the structural features of the C.te.I1 ribozyme. The shifted 5' splice site is shown to be affected by structures in addition to IBS1-EBS1, and unlike other group II introns, C.te.I1 appears to require a spacer between IBS1 and the GUGYG motif. In addition, the mechanism of 3' exon recognition is modified from the ancestral IIB mechanism to a IIA-like mechanism that appears to be longer than the typical single base-pair interaction and may extend up to 4 bp. The novel ribozyme properties that have evolved for C.te.I1 illustrate the plasticity of group II introns in adapting new structural and catalytic properties that can be utilized to affect gene expression.

Impact of low temperature on splicing of atypical group II introns in wheat mitochondria

To investigate the impact of cold on group II intron splicing, we compared the physical forms of excised mitochondrial introns from wheat embryos germinated at room temperature and 4°C. For introns which deviate from the conventional branchpoint structure, we observed predominantly heterogeneous circularized introns in the cold rather than linear polyadenylated forms arising from a hydrolytic pathway as seen at room temperature. In addition, intron-containing precursors are elevated relative to mature mRNAs upon cold treatment. Our findings indicate that low temperature growth not only reduces splicing efficiency, but also shifts the splicing biochemistry of atypical group II introns to novel, yet productive, pathways.

Predicted group II intron lineages E and F comprise catalytically active ribozymes

Group II introns are self-splicing, retrotransposable ribozymes that contribute to gene expression and evolution in most organisms. The ongoing identification of new group II introns and recent bioinformatic analyses have suggested that there are novel lineages, which include the group IIE and IIF introns. Because the function and biochemical activity of group IIE and IIF introns have never been experimentally tested and because these introns appear to have features that distinguish them from other introns, we set out to determine if they were indeed self-splicing, catalytically active RNA molecules. To this end, we transcribed and studied a set of diverse group IIE and IIF introns, quantitatively characterizing their in vitro self-splicing reactivity, ionic requirements, and reaction products. In addition, we used mutational analysis to determine the relative role of the EBS-IBS 1 and 2 recognition elements during splicing by these introns. We show that group IIE and IIF introns are indeed distinct active intron families, with different reactivities and structures. We show that the group IIE introns self-splice exclusively through the hydrolytic pathway, while group IIF introns can also catalyze transesterifications. Intriguingly, we observe one group IIF intron that forms circular intron. Finally, despite an apparent EBS2-IBS2 duplex in the sequences of these introns, we find that this interaction plays no role during self-splicing in vitro. It is now clear that the group IIE and IIF introns are functional ribozymes, with distinctive properties that may be useful for biotechnological applications, and which may contribute to the biology of host organisms.

Self-circularizing 5'-ETS RNAs accumulate along with unprocessed pre ribosomal RNAs in growth-stressed Entamoeba histolytica

The primary transcript of rRNA genes is a large pre rRNA which is precisely processed to release the mature rRNAs. The 5'-external transcribed spacer (ETS) of rRNA genes contains important sites for pre rRNA processing. Once the processing is accomplished the ETS is rapidly degraded. We show that in growth-stressed cells of the human parasitic protist Entamoeba histolytica the A'-A(0) sub-fragment of the 5'-ETS accumulates to high levels as a family of RNA molecules of size 666 to 912 nt. These etsRNAs are circular in vivo and can spontaneously self-circularize in vitro. The accumulation of etsRNAs is accompanied by accumulation of unprocessed pre rRNA, indicating a possible role of etsRNAs in inhibition of processing during growth stress. Our data shows for the first time that processed etsRNA is not a mere by-product destined for degradation but is stabilized by circularization and could play a regulatory role as noncoding RNA.

Group II introns: mobile ribozymes that invade DNA

Group II introns are mobile ribozymes that self-splice from precursor RNAs to yield excised intron lariat RNAs, which then invade new genomic DNA sites by reverse splicing. The introns encode a reverse transcriptase that stabilizes the catalytically active RNA structure for forward and reverse splicing, and afterwards converts the integrated intron RNA back into DNA. The characteristics of group II introns suggest that they or their close relatives were evolutionary ancestors of spliceosomal introns, the spliceosome, and retrotransposons in eukaryotes. Further, their ribozyme-based DNA integration mechanism enabled the development of group II introns into gene targeting vectors ("targetrons"), which have the unique feature of readily programmable DNA target specificity.

Alternative splicing by participation of the group II intron ORF in extremely halotolerant and alkaliphilic Oceanobacillus iheyensis

Group II introns inserted into genes often undergo splicing at unexpected sites, and participate in the transcription of host genes. We identified five copies of a group II intron, designated Oi.Int, in the genome of an extremely halotolerant and alkaliphilic bacillus, Oceanobacillus iheyensis. The Oi.Int4 differs from the Oi.Int3 at four bases. The ligated exons of the Oi.Int4 could not be detected by RT-PCR assays in vivo or in vitro although group II introns can generally self-splice in vitro without the involvement of an intron-encoded open reading frame (ORF). In the Oi.Int4 mutants with base substitutions within the ORF, ligated exons were detected by in vitro self-splicing. It was clear that the ligation of exons during splicing is affected by the sequence of the intron-encoded ORF since the splice sites corresponded to the joining sites of the intron. In addition, the mutant introns showed unexpected multiple products with alternative 5' splice sites. These findings imply that alternative 5' splicing which causes a functional change of ligated exons presumably has influenced past adaptations of O. iheyensis to various environmental changes.

Relevance of the branch point adenosine, coordination loop, and 3' exon binding site for in vivo excision of the Sinorhizobium meliloti group II intron RmInt1

Excision of the bacterial group II intron RmInt1 has been demonstrated in vivo, resulting in the formation of both intron lariat and putative intron RNA circles. We show here that the bulged adenosine in domain VI of RmInt1 is required for splicing via the branching pathway, but branch site mutants produce small numbers of RNA molecules in which the first G residue of the intron is linked to the last C residue. Mutations in the coordination loop in domain I reduced splicing efficiency, but branched templates clearly predominated among splicing products. We also found that a single substitution at the EBS3 position (G329C), preventing EBS3-IBS3 pairing, resulted in the production of 50 to 100 times more RNA molecules in which the 5' and 3' extremities were joined. We provide evidence that these intron molecules may correspond to both, intron circles linked by a 2'-5' phosphodiester bond, and tandem, head-to-tail intron copies.

The tertiary structure of group II introns: implications for biological function and evolution

Group II introns are some of the largest ribozymes in nature, and they are a major source of information about RNA assembly and tertiary structural organization. These introns are of biological significance because they are self-splicing mobile elements that have migrated into diverse genomes and played a major role in the genomic organization and metabolism of most life forms. The tertiary structure of group II introns has been the subject of many phylogenetic, genetic, biochemical and biophysical investigations, all of which are consistent with the recent crystal structure of an intact group IIC intron from the alkaliphilic eubacterium Oceanobacillus iheyensis. The crystal structure reveals that catalytic intron domain V is enfolded within the other intronic domains through an elaborate network of diverse tertiary interactions. Within the folded core, DV adopts an activated conformation that readily binds catalytic metal ions and positions them in a manner appropriate for reaction with nucleic acid targets. The tertiary structure of the group II intron reveals new information on motifs for RNA architectural organization, mechanisms of group II intron catalysis, and the evolutionary relationships among RNA processing systems. Guided by the structure and the wealth of previous genetic and biochemical work, it is now possible to deduce the probable location of DVI and the site of additional domains that contribute to the function of the highly derived group IIB and IIA introns.

A natural ribozyme with 3',5' RNA ligase activity

Using electrophoresis, sequencing and enzymatic digestion, we show that the group I intron from the cyanobacterium Anabaena sp. PCC 7120 catalyzes phosphodiester bond formation using a triphosphate on the 5'-terminal nucleotide, much like protein polymerases and engineered ribozymes. In the process, this ribozyme forms a unique circular RNA that incorporates the exogenous guanosine cofactor added during self-splicing. This finding may have relevance to a prebiotic RNA world and to modern biology.

The sporadic occurrence of a group I intron-like element in the mtDNA rnl gene of Ophiostoma novo-ulmi subsp. americana

The presence of group I intron-like elements within the U7 region of the mtDNA large ribosomal subunit RNA gene (rnl) was investigated in strains of Ophiostoma novo-ulmi subsp. americana from Canada, Europe and Eurasia, and in selected strains of O. ips, O. minus, O. piceae, O. ulmi, and O. himal-ulmi. This insertion is of interest as it has been linked previously to the generation of plasmid-like mtDNA elements in diseased strains of O. novo-ulmi. Among 197 O. novo-ulmi subsp. americana strains tested, 61 contained a 1.6kb insertion within the rnl-U7 region and DNA sequence analysis suggests the presence of a group I intron (IA1 type) that encodes a potential double motif LAGLIDADG homing endonuclease-like gene (HEG). Phylogenetic analysis of rnl-U7 intron encoded HEG-like elements supports the view that double motif HEGs originated from a duplication event of a single-motif HEG followed by a fusion event that combined the two copies into one open reading frame (ORF). The data also show that rnl-U7 intron encoded ORFs belong to a clade that includes ORFs inserted into different types of group I introns, e.g. IB, ID, IC3, IA1, present within a variety of different mtDNA genes, such as the small ribosomal subunit RNA gene (rns), apo-cytochrome b gene (cob), NADH dehydrogenase subunit 5 (nad5), cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 gene (coxI), and ATPase subunit 9 gene (atp9). We also compared the occurrence of the rnl-U7 intron in our collection of 227 strains with the presence of the rnl-U11 group I intron and concluded that the U7 intron appears to be an optional element and the U11 intron is probably essential among the strains tested.

Cis- and trans-splicing of group II introns in plant mitochondria

Group II-type introns in the mitochondrial genes of flowering plants belong to the ribozymic, mobile retroelement family, but not all exhibit conventional structural features and some follow unusual splicing pathways. Moreover, several introns have been disrupted by DNA rearrangements, so that separately-transcribed precursors undergo splicing in trans. RNA processing in plant mitochondria has the added complexity of C-to-U RNA editing which also sometimes occurs within core intron structures or at exon sites very close to introns. It appears that mitochondrial introns in flowering plants have followed quite different evolutionary pathways than other group II introns.

Bacterial group II introns: not just splicing

Group II introns are both catalytic RNAs (ribozymes) and mobile retroelements that were discovered almost 14 years ago. It has been suggested that eukaryotic mRNA introns might have originated from the group II introns present in the alphaproteobacterial progenitor of the mitochondria. Bacterial group II introns are of considerable interest not only because of their evolutionary significance, but also because they could potentially be used as tools for genetic manipulation in biotechnology and for gene therapy. This review summarizes what is known about the splicing mechanisms and mobility of bacterial group II introns, and describes the recent development of group II intron-based gene-targetting methods. Bacterial group II intron diversity, evolutionary relationships, and behaviour in bacteria are also discussed.

Group II intron in Bacillus cereus has an unusual 3' extension and splices 56 nucleotides downstream of the predicted site

All group II introns known to date fold into six functional domains. However, we recently identified an intron in Bacillus cereus ATCC 10987, B.c.I4, that splices 56 nt downstream of the expected 3′ splice site in vivo (Tourasse et al. 2005, J. Bacteriol., 187, 5437–5451). In this study, we confirmed by ribonuclease protection assay that the 56-bp segment is part of the intron RNA molecule, and computational prediction suggests that it might form a stable stem-loop structure downstream of domain VI. The splicing of B.c.I4 was further investigated both in vivo and in vitro. Lariat formation proceeded primarily by branching at the ordinary bulged adenosine in domain VI without affecting the fidelity of splicing. In addition, the splicing efficiency of the wild-type intron was better than that of a mutant construct deleted of the 56-bp 3′ extension. These results indicate that the intron has apparently adapted to the extra segment, possibly through conformational adjustments. The extraordinary group II intron B.c.I4 harboring an unprecedented extra 3′ segment constitutes a dramatic example of the flexibility and adaptability of group II introns.

Group II introns: structure, folding and splicing mechanism

Group II introns are large autocatalytic RNAs found in organellar genomes of plants and lower eukaryotes, as well as in some bacterial genomes. Interestingly, these ribozymes share characteristic traits with both spliceosomal introns and non-LTR retrotransposons and may have a common evolutionary ancestor. Furthermore, group II intron features such as structure, folding and catalytic mechanism differ considerably from those of other large ribozymes, making group II introns an attractive model system to gain novel insights into RNA biology and biochemistry. This review explores recent advances in the structural and mechanistic characterization of group II intron architecture and self-splicing.

A new RNA branching activity: the GIR1 ribozyme

The formation of lariat intermediates during the first step of splicing of group II introns and spliceosomal introns is a well-studied fundamental reaction in molecular biology. Apart from this prominent example, there are surprisingly few occurrences of branched nucleotides or even 2',5'-phosphodiester bonds in biology. We recently described a new ribozyme, the GIR1 branching ribozyme, which catalyzes the formation of a tiny lariat that caps an mRNA. This new example together with work on artificial branching ribozymes and deoxyribozymes shows that branching is facile and points to the possibility that branching reactions could be more prevalent than previously recognized.

Detection of a group II intron without an open reading frame in the alpha-toxin gene of Clostridium perfringens isolated from a broiler chicken

A DNA insertion of 834 bp, designated CPF-G2Im, was identified within the alpha toxin gene (cpa) of Clostridium perfringens strain CPBC16ML, isolated from a broiler chicken. Sequence analysis of CPF-G2Im indicated that it was integrated 340 nucleotides downstream of the start codon of cpa. However, the insertion did not abolish the phospholipase C and hemolytic activities of CPBC16ML. To investigate the expression of its alpha toxin, the intact copy of cpa was cloned into an expression vector and transformed into Escherichia coli M15 cells. Immunoblotting analysis showed that the protein expressed from the transformant as well as in the culture supernatant of C. perfringens strain CPBC16ML had the expected molecular weight detected in reference strains of C. perfringens. Northern hybridization and reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR) analysis revealed that the entire CPF-G2Im insertion was completely spliced from the cpa precursor mRNA transcripts. The sequence of the insertion fragment has 95% and 97% identity to two noncoding regions corresponding to sequences that flank a predicted group II RT gene present in the pCPF4969 plasmid of C. perfringens. However, an RT was not encoded by the CPF-G2Im fragment. Based on the secondary structure prediction analysis, CPF-G2Im revealed typical features of group II introns. The present study shows that CPF-G2Im is capable of splicing in both C. perfringens and E. coli. To our knowledge, this is the first report that a group II intron without an open reading frame (ORF) is located in the cpa ORF of C. perfringens.

Self-splicing of a group IIC intron: 5' exon recognition and alternative 5' splicing events implicate the stem-loop motif of a transcriptional terminator

Bacterial IIC introns are a newly recognized subclass of group II introns whose ribozyme properties have not been characterized in detail. IIC introns are typically located downstream of transcriptional terminator motifs (inverted repeat followed by T's) or other inverted repeats in bacterial genomes. Here we have characterized the self-splicing activity of a IIC intron, B.h.I1, from Bacillus halodurans. B.h.I1 self-splices in vitro through hydrolysis to produce linear intron, but interestingly, additional unexpected products were formed that were highly dependent on ionic conditions. These products were determined to represent alternative splicing events at the 5' junction and cleavages throughout the RNA transcript. The alternative splicing and cleavage events occurred at cryptic splice sites containing stem-loop and IBS1 motifs, suggesting that the 5' exon is recognized by both elements. These results provide the first example of a group II intron that uses 5' splice sites nonadjacent to the ribozyme structure. Furthermore, the data suggest that IIC introns differ from IIA and IIB introns with respect to 5' exon definition, and that the terminator stem-loop substitutes in part for the missing IBS2-EBS2 (intron and exon binding sites 2) interaction.

Excision of the Sinorhizobium meliloti group II intron RmInt1 as circles in vivo

Excision of group II introns as circles has been described only for a few eukaryotic introns and little is known about the mechanisms involved, the relevance or consequences of the process. We report that splicing of the bacterial group II intron RmInt1 in vivo leads to the formation of both intron lariat and intron RNA circles. We determined that besides being required for the intron splicing reaction, the maturase domain of the intron-encoded protein also controls the balance between lariat and RNA intron circle production. Furthermore, comparison with in vitro self-splicing products indicates that in vivo, the intron-encoded protein appears to promote the use of a correct EBS1/IBS1 intron-exon interaction as well as cleavage at, or next to, the expected 3' splice site. These findings provide new insights on the mechanism of excision of group II introns as circles.

Multiple physical forms of excised group II intron RNAs in wheat mitochondria

Plant mitochondrial group II introns do not all possess hallmark ribozymic features such as the bulged adenosine involved in lariat formation. To gain insight into their splicing pathways, we have examined the physical form of excised introns in germinating wheat embryos. Using RT–PCR and cRT–PCR, we observed conventional lariats consistent with a two-step transesterification pathway for introns such as nad2 intron 4, but this was not the case for the cox2 intron or nad1 intron 2. For cox2, we detected full-length linear introns, which possess non-encoded 3′terminaladenosines, as well as heterogeneous circular introns, which lack 3′ nucleotide stretches. These observations are consistent with hydrolytic splicing followed by polyadenylation as well as an in vivo circularization pathway, respectively. The presence of both linear and circular species in vivo is supported by RNase H analysis. Furthermore, the nad1 intron 2, which lacks a bulged nucleotide at the branchpoint position, comprised a mixed population of precisely full-length molecules and circular ones which also include a short, discrete block of non-encoded nucleotides. The presence of these various linear and circular forms of excised intron molecules in plant mitochondria points to multiple novel group II splicing mechanisms in vivo.

Variation in mitochondrial transcript profiles of protein-coding genes during early germination and seedling development in wheat

We examined RNA profiles of wheat mitochondrial genes during the developmental period when seeds leave dormancy, germinate and develop into seedlings. Mitochondrial RNAs isolated from 0 h to 6 days post-imbibition were subjected to Northern analysis, using coding-specific and intron-specific probes. Stable, edited mRNAs were observed in dormant seeds and precursor RNAs were subsequently detected early in embryo germination. The respiratory chain genes (nad7, cox1, cox2, atp6) showed mRNA profiles which paralleled those of the ribosomal RNAs, whereas ribosomal protein genes (rps2, rps3, rps7) had proportionately lower steady-state mRNA levels in later stages of seedling development. The relative levels of precursors compared with the respective mRNAs shifted down during development, consistent with transcription outpacing RNA processing in the early stages but co-ordination being more effective several days after imbibition. In the case of multiply split genes containing group II introns, complex patterns of splicing intermediates were observed, suggesting a lack of strict polarity of intron removal, although splicing efficiency appears to differ among introns. Excised intron RNAs typically are relatively more abundant in embryos than seedlings. These observations are consistent with a transient imbalance of RNA-processing machinery at the onset of seed germination, which is a period of rapid mitochondrial biogenesis.

A multiprotein complex involved in chloroplast group II intron splicing

The psaA gene of the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii consists of three exons that are widely separated on the chloroplast genome and transcribed independently. The exons are flanked by group II intron sequences. Maturation of the psaA mRNA requires two steps of splicing in trans between the transcripts of exons 1, 2, and 3. At least 14 nuclear loci and one chloroplast gene (tscA) are involved in this process. Recently the genes of three of these nuclear factors have been cloned. Raa3 is involved in the first trans-splicing reaction, and Raa1 and Raa2 are required for the second trans-splicing reaction. Here we show that Raa1 and Raa2 can be coimmunoprecipitated and that they are part of a high molecular weight complex of 400-500 kD. The size and integrity of the complex are affected by mutations in other complementation groups, suggesting that the corresponding proteins may also be components of this multiprotein complex or required for its assembly. Raa1 is also associated with a larger complex.

Lariat formation and a hydrolytic pathway in plant chloroplast group II intron splicing

Lariat formation has been studied intensively only with a few self-splicing group II introns, and little is known about how the numerous diverse introns in plant organelles are excised. Several of these introns have branch-points that are not a single bulge but are adjoined by A:A, A:C, A:G and G:G pairs. Using a highly sensitive in vivo approach, we demonstrate that all but one of the barley chloroplast introns splice via the common pathway that produces a branched product. RNA editing does not improve domain 5 and 6 structures of these introns. The conserved branch-point in tobacco rpl16 is chosen even if an adjacent unpaired adenosine is available, suggesting that spatial arrangements in domain 6 determine correct branch-point selection. Lariats were not detected for the chloroplast trnV intron, which lacks an unpaired adenosine in domain 6. Instead, this intron is released as linear molecules that undergo further polyadenylation. trnV, which is conserved throughout plant evolution, constitutes the first example of naturally occurring hydrolytic group II intron splicing in vivo.

A glimpse of the catalytic core of a group II intron

A paper in a recent issue of Science describes the first high-resolution structure of part of the catalytic core of a group II intron that will allow more detailed comparisons between the excision of introns by self-splicing group II introns and by nuclear pre-mRNA introns.