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Morita SY, Ikeda Y. Regulation of membrane phospholipid biosynthesis in mammalian cells. Biochem Pharmacol 2022; 206:115296. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2022.115296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2022] [Revised: 10/05/2022] [Accepted: 10/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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Petersen EN, Pavel MA, Wang H, Hansen SB. Disruption of palmitate-mediated localization; a shared pathway of force and anesthetic activation of TREK-1 channels. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA. BIOMEMBRANES 2020; 1862:183091. [PMID: 31672538 PMCID: PMC6907892 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2019.183091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2019] [Revised: 09/15/2019] [Accepted: 09/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
TWIK related K+ channel (TREK-1) is a mechano- and anesthetic sensitive channel that when activated attenuates pain and causes anesthesia. Recently the enzyme phospholipase D2 (PLD2) was shown to bind to the channel and generate a local high concentration of phosphatidic acid (PA), an anionic signaling lipid that gates TREK-1. In a biological membrane, the cell harnesses lipid heterogeneity (lipid compartments) to control gating of TREK-1 using palmitate-mediated localization of PLD2. Here we discuss the ability of mechanical force and anesthetics to disrupt palmitate-mediated localization of PLD2 giving rise to TREK-1's mechano- and anesthetic-sensitive properties. The likely consequences of this indirect lipid-based mechanism of activation are discussed in terms of a putative model for excitatory and inhibitory mechano-effectors and anesthetic sensitive ion channels in a biological context. Lastly, we discuss the ability of locally generated PA to reach mM concentrations near TREK-1 and the biophysics of localized signaling. Palmitate-mediated localization of PLD2 emerges as a central control mechanism of TREK-1 responding to mechanical force and anesthetic action. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Molecular biophysics of membranes and membrane proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Nicholas Petersen
- Department of Molecular Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL 33458, USA; Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL 33458, USA
| | - Mahmud Arif Pavel
- Department of Molecular Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL 33458, USA; Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL 33458, USA
| | - Hao Wang
- Department of Molecular Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL 33458, USA; Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL 33458, USA
| | - Scott B Hansen
- Department of Molecular Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL 33458, USA; Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL 33458, USA.
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3
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McDermott MI, Wang Y, Wakelam MJO, Bankaitis VA. Mammalian phospholipase D: Function, and therapeutics. Prog Lipid Res 2019; 78:101018. [PMID: 31830503 DOI: 10.1016/j.plipres.2019.101018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2018] [Revised: 10/08/2019] [Accepted: 10/14/2019] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Despite being discovered over 60 years ago, the precise role of phospholipase D (PLD) is still being elucidated. PLD enzymes catalyze the hydrolysis of the phosphodiester bond of glycerophospholipids producing phosphatidic acid and the free headgroup. PLD family members are found in organisms ranging from viruses, and bacteria to plants, and mammals. They display a range of substrate specificities, are regulated by a diverse range of molecules, and have been implicated in a broad range of cellular processes including receptor signaling, cytoskeletal regulation and membrane trafficking. Recent technological advances including: the development of PLD knockout mice, isoform-specific antibodies, and specific inhibitors are finally permitting a thorough analysis of the in vivo role of mammalian PLDs. These studies are facilitating increased recognition of PLD's role in disease states including cancers and Alzheimer's disease, offering potential as a target for therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- M I McDermott
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center, College Station, TX 77843-1114, United States of America.
| | - Y Wang
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center, College Station, TX 77843-1114, United States of America; Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843-2128, United States of America
| | - M J O Wakelam
- Babraham Institute, Babraham Research Campus, Cambridge CB22 3AT, United Kingdom
| | - V A Bankaitis
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center, College Station, TX 77843-1114, United States of America; Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843-2128, United States of America; Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77840, United States of America
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4
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Loh J, Chuang MC, Lin SS, Joseph J, Su YA, Hsieh TL, Chang YC, Liu AP, Liu YW. An acute decrease in plasma membrane tension induces macropinocytosis via PLD2 activation. J Cell Sci 2019; 132:jcs.232579. [PMID: 31391241 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.232579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Accepted: 07/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Internalization of macromolecules and membrane into cells through endocytosis is critical for cellular growth, signaling and plasma membrane (PM) tension homeostasis. Although endocytosis is responsive to both biochemical and physical stimuli, how physical cues modulate endocytic pathways is less understood. Contrary to the accumulating discoveries on the effects of increased PM tension on endocytosis, less is known about how a decrease of PM tension impacts on membrane trafficking. Here, we reveal that an acute decrease of PM tension results in phosphatidic acid (PA) production, F-actin and phosphatidylinositol (4,5)-bisphosphate [PI(4,5)P2]-enriched dorsal membrane ruffling and subsequent macropinocytosis in myoblasts. The PA production induced by decreased PM tension depends on phospholipase D2 (PLD2) activation via PLD2 nanodomain disintegration. Furthermore, the 'decreased PM tension-PLD2-macropinocytosis' pathway is prominent in myotubes, reflecting a potential mechanism of PM tension homeostasis upon intensive muscle stretching and relaxation. Together, we identify a new mechanotransduction pathway that converts an acute decrease in PM tension into PA production and then initiates macropinocytosis via actin and PI(4,5)P2-mediated processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Loh
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10002, Taiwan
| | - Mei-Chun Chuang
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10002, Taiwan
| | - Shan-Shan Lin
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10002, Taiwan
| | - Jophin Joseph
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - You-An Su
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10002, Taiwan
| | - Tsung-Lin Hsieh
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10002, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Chen Chang
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10002, Taiwan
| | - Allen P Liu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Ya-Wen Liu
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10002, Taiwan .,Center of Precision Medicine, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10002, Taiwan
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5
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Egea-Jimenez AL, Zimmermann P. Phospholipase D and phosphatidic acid in the biogenesis and cargo loading of extracellular vesicles. J Lipid Res 2018; 59:1554-1560. [PMID: 29853529 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.r083964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2018] [Revised: 05/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles released by viable cells (exosomes and microvesicles) have emerged as important organelles supporting cell-cell communication. Because of their potential therapeutic significance, important efforts are being made toward characterizing the contents of these vesicles and the mechanisms that govern their biogenesis. It has been recently demonstrated that the lipid modifying enzyme, phospholipase D (PLD)2, is involved in exosome production and acts downstream of the small GTPase, ARF6. This review aims to recapitulate our current knowledge of the role of PLD2 and its product, phosphatidic acid, in the biogenesis of exosomes and to propose hypotheses for further investigation of a possible central role of these molecules in the biology of these organelles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Luis Egea-Jimenez
- Centre de Recherche en Cancérologie de Marseille (CRCM), Equipe labellisée LIGUE 2018, Aix-Marseille Université, Marseille F-13284, France and Inserm U1068, Institut Paoli-Calmettes, and CNRS UMR7258, Marseille F-13009, France
| | - Pascale Zimmermann
- Centre de Recherche en Cancérologie de Marseille (CRCM), Equipe labellisée LIGUE 2018, Aix-Marseille Université, Marseille F-13284, France and Inserm U1068, Institut Paoli-Calmettes, and CNRS UMR7258, Marseille F-13009, France; Department of Human Genetics, University of Leuven, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium.
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Raghunathan K, Kenworthy AK. Dynamic pattern generation in cell membranes: Current insights into membrane organization. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2018; 1860:2018-2031. [PMID: 29752898 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2018.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2018] [Revised: 04/30/2018] [Accepted: 05/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
It has been two decades since the lipid raft hypothesis was first presented. Even today, whether these nanoscale cholesterol-rich domains are present in cell membranes is not completely resolved. However, especially in the last few years, a rich body of literature has demonstrated both the presence and the importance of non-random distribution of biomolecules on the membrane, which is the focus of this review. These new developments have pushed the experimental limits of detection and have brought us closer to observing lipid domains in the plasma membrane of live cells. Characterization of biomolecules associated with lipid rafts has revealed a deep connection between biological regulation and function and membrane compositional heterogeneities. Finally, tantalizing new developments in the field have demonstrated that lipid domains might not just be associated with the plasma membrane of eukaryotes but could potentially be a ubiquitous membrane-organizing principle in several other biological systems. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Emergence of Complex Behavior in Biomembranes edited by Marjorie Longo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krishnan Raghunathan
- Department of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, PA 15224, USA.
| | - Anne K Kenworthy
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232, USA; Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, USA.
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Kinetic disruption of lipid rafts is a mechanosensor for phospholipase D. Nat Commun 2016; 7:13873. [PMID: 27976674 PMCID: PMC5171650 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms13873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2016] [Accepted: 11/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The sensing of physical force, mechanosensation, underlies two of five human senses—touch and hearing. How transduction of force in a membrane occurs remains unclear. We asked if a biological membrane could employ kinetic energy to transduce a signal absent tension. Here we show that lipid rafts are dynamic compartments that inactivate the signalling enzyme phospholipase D2 (PLD2) by sequestering the enzyme from its substrate. Mechanical disruption of the lipid rafts activates PLD2 by mixing the enzyme with its substrate to produce the signalling lipid phosphatidic acid (PA). We calculate a latency time of <650 μs for PLD activation by mixing. Our results establish a fast, non-tension mechanism for mechanotransduction where disruption of ordered lipids initiates a mechanosensitive signal for cell growth through mechanical mixing.
Mechanosensation by biological membranes can be relayed by mechanical tension to ion channels. Here the authors show that phospholipase D (PLD) is activated by mechanical disruption of lipid rafts which allows PLD to mix with its substrate in the lipid membrane, and propose a kinetic model of force transduction.
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Bruntz RC, Lindsley CW, Brown HA. Phospholipase D signaling pathways and phosphatidic acid as therapeutic targets in cancer. Pharmacol Rev 2015; 66:1033-79. [PMID: 25244928 DOI: 10.1124/pr.114.009217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 165] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Phospholipase D is a ubiquitous class of enzymes that generates phosphatidic acid as an intracellular signaling species. The phospholipase D superfamily plays a central role in a variety of functions in prokaryotes, viruses, yeast, fungi, plants, and eukaryotic species. In mammalian cells, the pathways modulating catalytic activity involve a variety of cellular signaling components, including G protein-coupled receptors, receptor tyrosine kinases, polyphosphatidylinositol lipids, Ras/Rho/ADP-ribosylation factor GTPases, and conventional isoforms of protein kinase C, among others. Recent findings have shown that phosphatidic acid generated by phospholipase D plays roles in numerous essential cellular functions, such as vesicular trafficking, exocytosis, autophagy, regulation of cellular metabolism, and tumorigenesis. Many of these cellular events are modulated by the actions of phosphatidic acid, and identification of two targets (mammalian target of rapamycin and Akt kinase) has especially highlighted a role for phospholipase D in the regulation of cellular metabolism. Phospholipase D is a regulator of intercellular signaling and metabolic pathways, particularly in cells that are under stress conditions. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the regulation of phospholipase D activity and its modulation of cellular signaling pathways and functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronald C Bruntz
- Department of Pharmacology (R.C.B., C.W.L., H.A.B.) and Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery (C.W.L.), Vanderbilt University Medical Center; Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology (C.W.L., H.A.B.); Vanderbilt Specialized Chemistry for Accelerated Probe Development (C.W.L.); and Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt-Ingram Cancer Center (H.A.B.), Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Craig W Lindsley
- Department of Pharmacology (R.C.B., C.W.L., H.A.B.) and Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery (C.W.L.), Vanderbilt University Medical Center; Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology (C.W.L., H.A.B.); Vanderbilt Specialized Chemistry for Accelerated Probe Development (C.W.L.); and Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt-Ingram Cancer Center (H.A.B.), Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - H Alex Brown
- Department of Pharmacology (R.C.B., C.W.L., H.A.B.) and Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery (C.W.L.), Vanderbilt University Medical Center; Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology (C.W.L., H.A.B.); Vanderbilt Specialized Chemistry for Accelerated Probe Development (C.W.L.); and Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt-Ingram Cancer Center (H.A.B.), Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee
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9
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Phospholipases of mineralization competent cells and matrix vesicles: roles in physiological and pathological mineralizations. Int J Mol Sci 2013; 14:5036-129. [PMID: 23455471 PMCID: PMC3634480 DOI: 10.3390/ijms14035036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2012] [Revised: 01/24/2013] [Accepted: 01/25/2013] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The present review aims to systematically and critically analyze the current knowledge on phospholipases and their role in physiological and pathological mineralization undertaken by mineralization competent cells. Cellular lipid metabolism plays an important role in biological mineralization. The physiological mechanisms of mineralization are likely to take place in tissues other than in bones and teeth under specific pathological conditions. For instance, vascular calcification in arteries of patients with renal failure, diabetes mellitus or atherosclerosis recapitulates the mechanisms of bone formation. Osteoporosis—a bone resorbing disease—and rheumatoid arthritis originating from the inflammation in the synovium are also affected by cellular lipid metabolism. The focus is on the lipid metabolism due to the effects of dietary lipids on bone health. These and other phenomena indicate that phospholipases may participate in bone remodelling as evidenced by their expression in smooth muscle cells, in bone forming osteoblasts, chondrocytes and in bone resorbing osteoclasts. Among various enzymes involved, phospholipases A1 or A2, phospholipase C, phospholipase D, autotaxin and sphingomyelinase are engaged in membrane lipid remodelling during early stages of mineralization and cell maturation in mineralization-competent cells. Numerous experimental evidences suggested that phospholipases exert their action at various stages of mineralization by affecting intracellular signaling and cell differentiation. The lipid metabolites—such as arachidonic acid, lysophospholipids, and sphingosine-1-phosphate are involved in cell signaling and inflammation reactions. Phospholipases are also important members of the cellular machinery engaged in matrix vesicle (MV) biogenesis and exocytosis. They may favour mineral formation inside MVs, may catalyse MV membrane breakdown necessary for the release of mineral deposits into extracellular matrix (ECM), or participate in hydrolysis of ECM. The biological functions of phospholipases are discussed from the perspective of animal and cellular knockout models, as well as disease implications, development of potent inhibitors and therapeutic interventions.
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10
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Gomez-Cambronero J. The exquisite regulation of PLD2 by a wealth of interacting proteins: S6K, Grb2, Sos, WASp and Rac2 (and a surprise discovery: PLD2 is a GEF). Cell Signal 2011; 23:1885-95. [PMID: 21740967 PMCID: PMC3204931 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2011.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2011] [Accepted: 06/21/2011] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Phospholipase D (PLD) catalyzes the conversion of the membrane phospholipid phosphatidylcholine to choline and phosphatidic acid (PA). PLD's mission in the cell is two-fold: phospholipid turnover with maintenance of the structural integrity of cellular/intracellular membranes and cell signaling through PA and its metabolites. Precisely, through its product of the reaction, PA, PLD has been implicated in a variety of physiological cellular functions, such as intracellular protein trafficking, cytoskeletal dynamics, chemotaxis of leukocytes and cell proliferation. The catalytic (HKD) and regulatory (PH and PX) domains were studied in detail in the PLD1 isoform, but PLD2 was traditionally studied in lesser detail and much less was known about its regulation. Our laboratory has been focusing on the study of PLD2 regulation in mammalian cells. Over the past few years, we have reported, in regards to the catalytic action of PLD, that PA is a chemoattractant agent that binds to and signals inside the cell through the ribosomal S6 kinases (S6K). Regarding the regulatory domains of PLD2, we have reported the discovery of the PLD2 interaction with Grb2 via Y169 in the PX domain, and further association to Sos, which results in an increase of de novo DNA synthesis and an interaction (also with Grb2) via the adjacent residue Y179, leading to the regulation of cell ruffling, chemotaxis and phagocytosis of leukocytes. We also present the complex regulation by tyrosine phosphorylation by epidermal growth factor receptor (EGF-R), Janus Kinase 3 (JAK3) and Src and the role of phosphatases. Recently, there is evidence supporting a new level of regulation of PLD2 at the PH domain, by the discovery of CRIB domains and a Rac2-PLD2 interaction that leads to a dual (positive and negative) effect on its enzymatic activity. Lastly, we review the surprising finding of PLD2 acting as a GEF. A phospholipase such as PLD that exists already in the cell membrane that acts directly on Rac allows a quick response of the cell without intermediary signaling molecules. This provides only the latest level of PLD2 regulation in a field that promises newer and exciting advances in the next few years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian Gomez-Cambronero
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Wright State University School of Medicine, Dayton, OH 45435, USA.
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11
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Selvy PE, Lavieri RR, Lindsley CW, Brown HA. Phospholipase D: enzymology, functionality, and chemical modulation. Chem Rev 2011; 111:6064-119. [PMID: 21936578 PMCID: PMC3233269 DOI: 10.1021/cr200296t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 269] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Paige E Selvy
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37064, USA
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12
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Brown HA, Henage LG, Preininger AM, Xiang Y, Exton JH. Biochemical Analysis of Phospholipase D. Methods Enzymol 2007; 434:49-87. [DOI: 10.1016/s0076-6879(07)34004-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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13
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Ho WT, Xie Z, Zhao ZJ, Exton JH. Tyrosine phosphorylation of phospholipase D1 by v-Src does not per se result in activation. Cell Signal 2005; 17:691-9. [PMID: 15722193 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2004.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2004] [Accepted: 10/11/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The relationship between tyrosine phosphorylation and activation of phospholipase D1 (PLD1) by v-Src was examined. Co-expression of v-Src and PLD1 in COS-7 cells resulted in increased activity and marked tyrosine phosphorylation of PLD1. PLD activity was increased in membranes or immunoprecipitates prepared from these cells. Dephosphorylation of the immunoprecipitated enzyme by tyrosine phosphatase or phosphorylation by c-Src produced no changes in its activity. Tyrosine phosphorylation induced by v-Src caused a shift of the enzyme from the Triton-soluble to the Triton-insoluble fraction. v-Src and PLD1 could be co-immunoprecipitated from cells co-expressing these and were co-localized in the perinuclear region as assessed by immunofluorescence. Mutation of the palmitoylation sites of PLD1 significantly reduced tyrosine phosphorylation by v-Src. It is concluded that tyrosine phosphorylation of PLD1 by v-Src does not per se alter its activity. It is proposed that activation of PLD1 by v-Src in vivo may involve association/colocalization of the two proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wan-Ting Ho
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and the Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Room 831 Light Hall, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232, United States
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14
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Hiroyama M, Exton JH. Studies of the roles of ADP-ribosylation factors and phospholipase D in phorbol ester-induced membrane ruffling. J Cell Physiol 2005; 202:608-22. [PMID: 15389577 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.20156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we have explored the roles of ADP-ribosylation factors (ARFs), phospholipase D (PLD) isozymes, and arfaptins in phorbol ester (PMA)-induced membrane ruffling in HeLa cells. PMA stimulation induced ruffling and translocated cortactin to the plasma membrane. The cortactin translocation was inhibited by dominant negative (DN)-ARF6, DN-ARF1, and DN-Rac1, but not by DN-RhoA and DN-Cdc42. The inability of DN-forms of ARF6, ARF1, and Rac1 to affect PLD activity in response to PMA indicated that this enzyme was not activated via these small G proteins and that its activation was not essential for the induction of ruffling. Endogenous-ARF1, -ARF6, and -Rac1 existed in the ruffling region along with cortactin after PMA stimulation. DN-ARF1 had no effect on the ruffling induced by DA-ARF6 or DA-Rac1, and DN-ARF6 had no effect on that induced by DA-ARF1 or DA-Rac1. On the other hand DN-Rac1 suppressed the effect of DA-ARF6 but not that of DA-ARF1. These results suggest that PMA causes membrane ruffling via an ARF6-Rac1 pathway and also an ARF1 pathway operating in parallel. Overexpression of PLD1 and PLD2 inhibited PMA-induced cortactin translocation and actin-cortactin complex formation, supporting the view that these enzymes are not required for ruffling, but actually suppress it. We conclude that PMA-induced membrane ruffling is caused via ARF6-Rac1 and ARF1 pathways operating in parallel and that PLD may be inhibitory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masami Hiroyama
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, USA
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15
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Smotrys JE, Linder ME. Palmitoylation of intracellular signaling proteins: regulation and function. Annu Rev Biochem 2004; 73:559-87. [PMID: 15189153 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.biochem.73.011303.073954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 452] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Protein S-palmitoylation is the thioester linkage of long-chain fatty acids to cysteine residues in proteins. Addition of palmitate to proteins facilitates their membrane interactions and trafficking, and it modulates protein-protein interactions and enzyme activity. The reversibility of palmitoylation makes it an attractive mechanism for regulating protein activity, and this feature has generated intensive investigation of this modification. The regulation of palmitoylation occurs through the actions of protein acyltransferases and protein acylthioesterases. Identification of the protein acyltransferases Erf2/Erf4 and Akr1 in yeast has provided new insight into the palmitoylation reaction. These molecules work in concert with thioesterases, such as acyl-protein thioesterase 1, to regulate the palmitoylation status of numerous signaling molecules, ultimately influencing their function. This review discusses the function and regulation of protein palmitoylation, focusing on intracellular proteins that participate in cell signaling or protein trafficking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica E Smotrys
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, USA.
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16
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Kageyama A, Oka M, Okada T, Nakamura SI, Ueyama T, Saito N, Hearing VJ, Ichihashi M, Nishigori C. Down-regulation of melanogenesis by phospholipase D2 through ubiquitin proteasome-mediated degradation of tyrosinase. J Biol Chem 2004; 279:27774-80. [PMID: 15067002 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m401786200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The involvement of phospholipase D (PLD) in the regulation of melanogenesis was examined. Treatment of B16 mouse melanoma cells with 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) resulted in the activation of PLD and a decrease in melanin content. 1-Butanol, but not 2-butanol, completely blocked the TPA-induced inhibition of melanogenesis, suggesting the involvement of PLD in this event. Reverse transcription-PCR and immunoblot analyses revealed the existence of both PLD isozymes, PLD1 and PLD2, in B16 cells. When PLD1 or PLD2 was introduced into those cells by an adenoviral gene-transfer technique, both PLD1 and PLD2 were activated by TPA. When PLD1 and PLD2 were overexpressed, PLD2 potently caused a decrease in melanin content, whereas the effect of PLD1 expression on melanin content was minimal. Over-expression of PLD2 itself did not affect protein kinase C activity, as assessed by the intracellular distribution and levels of expression of each isoform expressed in B16 cells. The effects of TPA on the down-regulation of basal or alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone-enhanced melanogenesis were almost completely blocked by expressing a lipase activity-negative mutant, LN-PLD2, but not by LN-PLD1. Further, the PLD2-induced decrease in melanin content was accompanied by a decrease in the amount and activity of tyrosinase, a key enzyme in melanogenesis, whereas the mRNA level of tyrosinase was unchanged by the over-expression of PLD2. Moreover, treatment with proteasome inhibitors completely blocked the PLD2-induced down-regulation of melanogenesis. Taken together, the present results indicate that the TPA-induced down-regulation of melanogenesis is mediated by PLD2 but not by PLD1 through the ubiquitin proteasome-mediated degradation of tyrosinase. This suggests that PLD2 may play an important role in regulating pigmentation in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akiko Kageyama
- Division of Dermatology, Clinical Molecular Medicine, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, Kobe 650-0017, Japan
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Du G, Huang P, Liang BT, Frohman MA. Phospholipase D2 localizes to the plasma membrane and regulates angiotensin II receptor endocytosis. Mol Biol Cell 2004; 15:1024-30. [PMID: 14718562 PMCID: PMC363061 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e03-09-0673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 172] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Phospholipase D (PLD) is a key facilitator of multiple types of membrane vesicle trafficking events. Two PLD isoforms, PLD1 and PLD2, exist in mammals. Initial studies based on overexpression studies suggested that in resting cells, human PLD1 localized primarily to the Golgi and perinuclear vesicles in multiple cell types. In contrast, overexpressed mouse PLD2 was observed to localize primarily to the plasma membrane, although internalization on membrane vesicles was observed subsequent to serum stimulation. A recent report has suggested that the assignment of PLD2 to the plasma membrane is in error, because the endogenous isoform in rat secretory cells was imaged and found to be present primarily in the Golgi apparatus. We have reexamined this issue by using a monoclonal antibody specific for mouse PLD2, and find, as reported initially using overexpression studies, that endogenous mouse PLD2 is detected most readily at the plasma membrane in multiple cell types. In addition, we report that mouse, rat, and human PLD2 when overexpressed all similarly localize to the plasma membrane in cell lines from all three species. Finally, studies conducted using overexpression of wild-type active or dominant-negative isoforms of PLD2 and RNA interference-mediated targeting of PLD2 suggest that PLD2 functions at the plasma membrane to facilitate endocytosis of the angiotensin II type 1 receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangwei Du
- Department of Pharmacology and the Center for Developmental Genetics, University Medical Center at Stony Brook, Stony Brook, New York 11794-5140, USA
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Yang H, Roberts MF. Phosphohydrolase and transphosphatidylation reactions of two Streptomyces phospholipase D enzymes: covalent versus noncovalent catalysis. Protein Sci 2003; 12:2087-98. [PMID: 12931007 PMCID: PMC2324005 DOI: 10.1110/ps.03192503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
A kinetic comparison of the hydrolase and transferase activities of two bacterial phospholipase D (PLD) enzymes with little sequence homology provides insights into mechanistic differences and also the more general role of Ca(2+) in modulating PLD reactions. Although the two PLDs exhibit similar substrate specificity (phosphatidylcholine preferred), sensitivity to substrate aggregation or Ca(2+), and pH optima are quite distinct. Streptomyces sp. PMF PLD, a member of the PLD superfamily, generates both hydrolase and transferase products in parallel, consistent with a mechanism that proceeds through a covalent phosphatidylhistidyl intermediate where the rate-limiting step is formation of the covalent intermediate. For Streptomyces chromofuscus PLD, the two reactions exhibit different pH profiles, a result consistent with a mechanism likely to involve direct attack of water or an alcohol on the phosphorus. Ca(2+), not required for monomer or micelle hydrolysis, can activate both PLDs for hydrolysis of PC unilamellar vesicles. In the case of Streptomyces sp. PMF PLD, Ca(2+) relieves product inhibition by interactions with the phosphatidic acid (PA). A similar rate enhancement could occur with other HxKx(4)D-motif PLDs as well. For S. chromofuscus PLD, Ca(2+) is absolutely critical for binding of the enzyme to PC vesicles and for PA activation. That the Ca(2+)-PA activation involves a discreet site on the protein is suggested by the observation that the identity of the C-terminal residue in S. chromofuscus PLD can modulate the extent of product activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongying Yang
- Merkert Chemistry Center, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts 02467, USA
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Mammalian phospholipase D – properties and regulation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2003. [DOI: 10.1016/s1569-2558(03)33022-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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