LPS-induced oxidative stress and inflammatory reaction in the rat striatum

Kojic acid reverses LPS-induced neuroinflammation and cognitive impairment by regulating the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway

Intense neuroinflammation contributes to neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. Lipopolysaccharides (LPSs) are an integral part of the cell wall of Gram-negative bacteria that act as pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and potentially activate the central nervous system's (CNS) immune system. Microglial cells are the local macrophages of the CNS and have the potential to induce and control neuroinflammation. This study aims to evaluate the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effect of kojic acid against the toxic effects of LPSs, such as neuroinflammation-induced neurodegeneration and cognitive decline. The C57BL/6N mice were subjected to LPS injection for 2 weeks on alternate days (each mouse received 0.25 mg/kg/i.p. for a total of seven doses), and kojic acid was administered orally for 3 weeks consecutively (50 mg/kg/mouse, p. o). Bacterial endotoxins, or LPSs, are directly attached to TLR4 surface receptors of microglia and astrocytes and alter the cellular metabolism of immune cells. Intraperitoneal injection of LPS triggers the toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), phospho-nuclear factor kappa B (p-NFκB), and phospho-c-Jun n-terminal kinase (p-JNK) protein expressions in the LPS-treated group, but these expression levels were significantly downregulated in the LPS + KA-treated mice brains. Prolong neuroinflammation leads to the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) followed by a decrease in nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and the enzyme hemeoxygenase 1 (HO-1) expression in LPS-subjected mouse brains. Interestingly, the levels of both Nrf-2 and HO-1 increased in the LPS + KA-treated mice group. In addition, kojic acid inhibited LPS-induced TNF-α and IL-1β production in mouse brains. These results indicated that kojic acid may suppress LPS-induced neuroinflammation and oxidative stress in male wild-type mice brains (in both the cortex and the hippocampus) by regulating the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway.

Cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors alleviated depressive and anxious-like behaviors in mice exposed to lipopolysaccharide: Involvement of oxidative stress and neuroinflammation

Depression and anxiety disorders have their pathophysiologies linked to inflammation and oxidative stress. In this context, celecoxib (CLX) and etoricoxib (ETR) inhibit cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2), an enzyme expressed by cells involved in the inflammatory process and found in the brain. Studies have been using CLX as a possible drug in the treatment of depression, although its mechanisms at the central nervous system level are not fully elucidated. In this study, the effects of CLX and ETR on behavioral, oxidative, and inflammatory changes induced by systemic exposure to Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide (LPS) were evaluated in adult male swiss mice. For ten days, the animals received intraperitoneal injections of LPS at 0.5 mg/kg. From the sixth to the tenth day, one hour after LPS exposure, they were treated orally with CLX (15 mg/kg), ETR (10 mg/kg), or fluoxetine (FLU) (20 mg/kg). Twenty-four hours after the last oral administration, the animals underwent evaluation of locomotor activity (open field test), predictive tests for depressive-like behavior (forced swim and tail suspension tests), and anxiolytic-like effect (elevated plus maze and hole board tests). Subsequently, the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex and striatum were dissected for the measurement of oxidative and nitrosative parameters (malondialdehyde, nitrite, and glutathione) and quantification of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β and IL-6). LPS induced depressive and anxious-like behavior, and treatment with CLX or ETR was able to reverse most of the behavioral changes. It was evidenced that nitrosative stress and the degree of lipid peroxidation induced by LPS were reduced in different brain areas after treatment with the drugs, as well as the endogenous defense system against free radicals was strengthened. CLX and ETR also significantly reduced LPS-induced cytokine levels. These data are expected to expand information on the role of inflammation in depression and anxiety and provide insights into possible mechanisms of COX-2 inhibitors in psychiatric disorders with a neurobiological basis in inflammation and oxidative stress.

Dissecting the antidepressant effect of troxerutin: modulation of neuroinflammatory and oxidative stress biomarkers in lipopolysaccharide-treated mice

The role of neuroinflammation in the pathogenesis of depression has prompted the search for new antidepressants. Troxerutin, a bioflavonoid with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, has shown promise, but its impact on neurobehavioral functions remains poorly understood. This study aimed to investigate the antidepressant potential of troxerutin and its effect on the neuroinflammatory response. Here, we exposed male Swiss mice (n = 5/group) to various treatments, including naive and negative controls receiving distilled water, troxerutin-treated groups administered at different doses (10, 20, 40 mg/kg, i.p.), and an imipramine-treated group (25 mg/kg, i.p.). After seven days of treatment, with the exception of the naive group, mice were administered a single dose of lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 0.83 mg/kg). Behavioral evaluations, consisting of the novelty-suppressed feeding (NSF) test, forced swim test (FST), and open field test (OFT), were conducted. Additionally, brain samples were collected for biochemical and immunohistochemical analyses. Troxerutin significantly reduced immobility time in the FST and mitigated behavioral deficits in the NSF test. Additionally, troxerutin increased glutathione (GSH) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) levels while reducing nitrite, malondialdehyde (MDA), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) levels compared to the negative control. Immunohistochemistry analysis revealed decreased expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) in troxerutin-treated mice. Overall, these findings suggest that troxerutin exerts significant antidepressive-like effects, likely mediated by its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant mechanisms. The reduction in neuroinflammatory and oxidative stress biomarkers, along with the improvement in behavioral outcomes, underscores troxerutin's potential as a therapeutic agent for depression.

Bioactive glass 1393 promotes angiogenesis and accelerates wound healing through ROS/P53/MMP9 signaling pathway

Compared to bioactive glass 45S5, bioactive glass 1393 has shown greater potential in activating tissue cells and promoting angiogenesis for bone repair. Nevertheless, the effect of bioactive glass 1393 in the context of wound healing remains extensively unexplored, and its mechanism in wound healing remains unclear. Considering that angiogenesis is a critical stage in wound healing, we hypothesize that bioactive glass 1393 may facilitate wound healing through the stimulation of angiogenesis. To validate this hypothesis and further explore the mechanisms underlying its pro-angiogenic effects, we investigated the impact of bioactive glass 1393 on wound healing angiogenesis through both in vivo and in vitro studies. The research demonstrated that bioactive glass 1393 accelerated wound healing by promoting the formation of granulation, deposition of collagen, and angiogenesis. The results of Western blot analysis and immunofluorescence staining revealed that bioactive glass 1393 up-regulated the expression of angiogenesis-related factors. Additionally, bioactive glass 1393 inhibited the expression of ROS and P53 to promote angiogenesis. Furthermore, bioactive glass 1393 stimulated angiogenesis through the P53 signaling pathway, as evidenced by P53 activation assays. Collectively, these findings indicate that bioactive glass 1393 accelerates wound healing by promoting angiogenesis via the ROS/P53/MMP9 signaling pathway.

Preparation, Characterization, and Antioxidant Activities of Extracts from Amygdalus persica L. Flowers

A novel water-soluble Amygdalus persica L. flowers polysaccharide (APL) was successfully isolated and purified from Amygdalus persica L. flowers by hot water extraction. Its chemical components and structure were analyzed by IR, GC-MS, and HPLC. APL consisted of rhamnose, arabinose, mannose and glucose in a molar ratio of 0.17:0.034:1.0:0.17 with an average molecular weight of approximately 208.53 kDa and 15.19 kDa. The antioxidant activity of APL was evaluated through radical scavenging assays using 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS), Hydroxyl radical scavenging, Superoxide radical scavenging, and the reducing power activity was also determined in vitro. Besides, in vivo antioxidant experiment, zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos were treated with different concentrations of APL and then exposed to LPS to induce oxidative stress. Treatment with APL at 50 or 100 µg/mL significantly reduced LPS-induced oxidative stress in the zebrafish, demonstrating the strong antioxidant activity of APL. Moreover, the effect of APL on zebrafish depigmentation was tested by analyzing the tyrosinase activity and melanin content of zebrafish embryos. APL showed a potential reduction in the total melanin content and tyrosinase activity after treatment. This work provided important information for developing a potential natural antioxidant in the field of cosmetics and food.

Effect of quercetin-loaded poly (lactic-co-glycolic) acid nanoparticles on lipopolysaccharide-induced memory decline, oxidative stress, amyloidogenesis, neurotransmission, and Nrf2/HO-1 expression

Neuroinflammation contributes to the pathogenesis of several neurodegenerative disorders. This study examined the neuroprotective effect of quercetin (QUR)-loaded poly (lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) nanoparticles (QUR NANO) against the neurotoxicity induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in mice. A QUR NANO formulation was prepared and characterized by differential scanning calorimetry, X-ray diffraction, entrapment efficiency (EE), high-resolution transmission electron microscopy, field emission scanning electron microscopy, and in vitro drug release profile. Levels of glutathione, malondialdehyde, catalase, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), amyloid beta 42 (Aβ42), β-secretase, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), and acetylcholine esterase (AChE) were measured in the mouse brain tissues. The gene expression of nuclear factor erythroid-related factor 2 (Nrf-2) and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) were also determined. The prepared QUR NANO formulation showed 92.07 ± 3.21% EE and drug loading of 4.62 ± 0.55. It exhibited clusters of nano-spherical particles with smooth surface areas, and the loading process was confirmed. In vivo, the QUR NANO preserved the spatial memory of mice and protected the hippocampus from LPS-induced histological lesions. The QUR NANO significantly reduced the levels of malondialdehyde, iNOS, Aβ42, β-secretase, and AChE in brain tissue homogenates. Conversely, QUR NANO increased the glutathione, catalase, and GABA concentrations and upregulated the expression of Nrf-2 and HO-1 genes. Remarkably, the neuroprotective effect of QUR NANO was significantly greater than that of herbal QUR. In summary, the prepared QUR NANO formulation was efficient in mitigating LPS-induced neurotoxicity by reducing memory loss, oxidative stress, and amyloidogenesis while preserving neurotransmission and upregulating the expression of Nrf2 and HO-1 genes. This study addresses several key factors in neuroinflammatory disorders and explores the potential of QUR-loaded nanoparticles as a novel therapeutic approach to alleviate these factors.

The Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of the Main Carotenoids from Tomatoes via Nrf2 and NF-κB Signaling Pathways

Oxidative stress and inflammation are crucial factors in the development of cardiovascular diseases. In previous research, the oxidative stress and inflammation models have frequently been explored independently. In the current study, we investigated the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of tomato extract and its two main carotenoids (lutein and lycopene) with various concentrations using a rat cardiomyocyte model of co-existing oxidative stress and persistent chronic inflammation. It was discovered that the antioxidant effects of 0.5-5 μM lutein, 0.5-5 μM lycopene, and 50-200 μg/mL tomato extract increased in a dose-dependent manner. However, the pro-oxidation effects emerged by measuring the antioxidant-related indices, including the levels of ROS, SOD, and GPX in H9c2 cells as concentrations exceeded those mentioned above. The anti-inflammatory effects of lutein, lycopene, and tomato extract were simultaneously strengthened with higher concentrations, potentially due to the suppression of the NF-κB signaling pathway. Furthermore, high concentrations of lutein, lycopene, and tomato extract potentially regulated Nrf2/HO-1 and NF-κB signaling pathways dependent on TGF-1β and IL-10 to demonstrate high concentrations of pro-oxidation and anti-inflammation effects. Our findings indicate that the dose-effect regulatory mechanisms of antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties among lutein, lycopene, and tomato extract will be advantageous in developing more effective therapeutic strategies to prevent cardiovascular diseases.

Stress to inflammation and anhedonia: Mechanistic insights from preclinical and clinical models

Anhedonia, as evidenced by impaired pleasurable response to reward, reduced reward motivation, and/or deficits in reward-related learning, is a common feature of depression. Such deficits in reward processing are also an important clinical target as a risk factor for depression onset. Unfortunately, reward-related deficits remain difficult to treat. To address this gap and inform the development of effective prevention and treatment strategies, it is critical to understand the mechanisms that drive impairments in reward function. Stress-induced inflammation is a plausible mechanism of reward deficits. The purpose of this paper is to review evidence for two components of this psychobiological pathway: 1) the effects of stress on reward function; and 2) the effects of inflammation on reward function. Within these two areas, we draw upon preclinical and clinical models, distinguish between acute and chronic effects of stress and inflammation, and address specific domains of reward dysregulation. By addressing these contextual factors, the review reveals a nuanced literature which might be targeted for additional scientific inquiry to inform the development of precise interventions.

The Anti-inflammatory Effects of Isoflavonoids from Radix Astragali in Hepatoprotective Potential against LPS/D-gal-induced Acute Liver Injury

Radix Astragali (RA) is an important Traditional Chinese Medicine widely used in the treatment of various diseases, such as pneumonia, atherosclerosis, diabetes, kidney and liver fibrosis. The role of isoflavonoids from RA in the treatment of liver injury remains unclear. The study aimed to explore hepatoprotective and anti-inflammatory effects of isoflavonoids from Astragalus mongholicus. Network pharmacological analysis showed that RA had a multi-target regulating effect on alleviating liver injury and inhibiting inflammation through its active ingredients, among which isoflavones were closely related to its key molecular targets. The anti-inflammatory and liver protection effects of isoflavonoids of RA were investigated using lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW 264.7 cells in vitro and LPS/D-galactosamine (D-gal)-induced acute liver injury mice in vivo. The experimental results showed that methylnissolin (ML) and methylnissolin-3-O-β-D-glucoside (MLG) presented more notable anti-inflammatory effects. Both of them suppressed the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as iNOS, COX-2, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. In vivo investigation demonstrated that ML markedly meliorated liver injury in LPS/D-gal-induced mice. Western blot results revealed that ML and MLG down-regulated the expression of proinflammatory cytokines via NF-κB signaling pathway. The isoflavonoids, methylnissolin (ML), and methylnissolin-3-O-β-D-glucoside (MLG), play a vital role in the hepatoprotective and anti-inflammatory effects of RA.

Effects of Citrus kawachiensis Peel in Frailty-like Model Mice Induced by Low Protein Nutrition Disorders

"Frailty" caused by a decline in physiological reserve capacity, chronic inflammation, and oxidative stress in the elderly has recently become a major social issue. The present study examined the effects of the peel of Citrus kawachiensis (CK), which exhibits anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and pro-neurogenesis activities in frailty-like model mice. Male C57BL/6 mice (15 weeks old) were fed an 18% protein diet (CON), a 2.5% protein diet (PM), and PM mixed with 1% dried CK peel powder for approximately 1 month. Mice were euthanized 2 or 8 days after a single intraperitoneal administration of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and tissues were dissected. Among peripheral tissues, muscle weight, liver weight, and blood glucose levels were significantly higher in the PM-LPS-CK group than in the PM-LPS group. In the behavioral analysis, locomotive activity was significantly lower in the PM-LPS group than in the PM group. The reduction in locomotive activity in the PM-LPS-CK group was significantly smaller than that in the PM-LPS group. The quantification of microglia in the hippocampal stratum lacunosum-moleculare revealed that increases in the PM-LPS group were significantly suppressed by the dried CK peel powder. Furthermore, the quantification of synaptic vesicle membrane proteins in the hippocampal CA3 region showed down-regulated expression in the PM-LPS group, which was significantly ameliorated by the administration of the dried CK peel powder. Collectively, these results suggest that CK inhibits inflammation and oxidative stress induced by PM and LPS in the central nervous system and peripheral tissue. Therefore, C. kawachiensis is highly effective against "frailty".

Minocycline Protects Against Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Cognitive Impairment and Oxidative Stress: Possible Role of the CREB-BDNF Signaling Pathway

The oxidative stress-induced dysregulation of the cyclic AMP response element-binding protein- brain-derived neurotrophic factor (CREB-BDNF) cascade has been linked to cognitive impairment in several studies. This study aimed to investigate the effect of minocycline on the levels of oxidative stress markers, CREB, and BDNF in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced cognitive impairment. Fifty adult male Sprague Dawley rats were divided randomly into five groups. Group 1 was an untreated control group. Groups 2, 3, 4 and 5 were treated concurrently with LPS (5 mg/kg, i.p) once on day 5 and normal saline (0.7 ml/rat, i.p) or minocycline (25 and 50 mg/kg, i.p) or memantine (10 mg/kg, i.p) once daily from day 1 until day 14, respectively. From day 15 to day 22 of the experiment, Morris Water Maze (MWM) was used to evaluate learning and reference memory in rats. The levels of protein carbonyl (PCO), malondialdehyde (MDA), catalase (CAT), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). CREB and BDNF expression and density were measured by immunohistochemistry and western blot analysis, respectively. LPS administration significantly increased escape latency to the hidden platform with decreased travelled distance, swimming speed, target crossings and time spent in the target quadrant. Besides, the hippocampal tissue of LPS rats showed increased levels of PCO and MDA, decreased levels of CAT and SOD, and reduced expression and density of BDNF and CREB. Treatment with minocycline reversed these effects in a dose-dependent manner, comparable to the effects of memantine. Both doses of minocycline treatment protect against LPS-induced cognitive impairment by reducing oxidative stress and upregulating the CREB-BDNF signalling pathway in the rat hippocampus.

Biological Investigation and Chemical Study of Brassica villosa subsp. drepanensis (Brassicaeae) Leaves

Brassica villosa subsp. drepanensis (Caruel) Raimondo & Mazzola, belonging to the Brassica oleracea complex, is a wild edible plant endemic to western Sicily and a relative of modern cultivated Brassica crops. In this study, the antioxidant properties, anti-inflammatory activities, enzymatic inhibition, and cytotoxicity in cancer cells of B. villosa subsp. drepanensis leaf ethanolic extract were analysed for the first time. In addition, its chemical profile was investigated partitioning the total 70% ethanol extract among ethyl acetate, n-butanol, and water to obtain three residues that were subjected to chromatographic separation. Two flavonol glycosides, a phenol glucoside, two amino acids, and purine/pyrimidine bases were obtained. The presence of the glucosinolate glucoiberin was detected in the water extract by UHPLC-MS analysis. The total polyphenol and flavonoid content of the 70% ethanol extract showed good antioxidant capacities and anti-inflammatory properties by reducing nitric oxide release and reactive oxygen species levels and increasing glutathione in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. The extract inhibited the enzymatic activity of α-amylase, α-glucosidase, and, significantly, of lipase. The MTT assay showed that the extract did not affect the viability of normal HFF-1 and RAW 264.7 cells. Among the cancer cell lines tested, an antiproliferative action was only observed in CaCo-2. The cytotoxicity of the extract was further confirmed by LDH release assay and by the destabilization of the oxidative balance. Results confirmed the antioxidant properties of the crude extract responsible for the anti-inflammatory effect on healthy cells and cytotoxicity in cancer cells.

Inchinkoto, the Traditional Japanese Kampo Medicine, Enhances Intestinal Epithelial Barrier Function In Vitro

Inchinkoto (ICKT), a traditional herbal medicine that is often used as a hepatoprotective drug in Japan, has pharmacological properties that include antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and choleretic actions. Genipin is a metabolite of geniposide and the most abundant ingredient of ICKT; furthermore, it is considered to be the active substance responsible for its pharmacological properties in the liver. Drugs with such pharmacological characteristics are expected to prevent intestinal barrier dysfunction, which causes inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs). However, no studies have investigated the effects of ICKT on the intestinal epithelial barrier. Therefore, we investigated the activity of ICKT in intestinal tight junctions by using cultured Caco-2 cell monolayers. The action of the compound on tight junctions was examined by measuring transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) and sodium fluorescein (Na-F) permeability in the presence or absence of lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Moreover, the expression of the tight junction protein claudin-1 was assessed by using immunofluorescent staining. ICKT and genipin increased TEER and decreased Na-F permeability, which was suggestive of enhanced intestinal epithelial barrier function. Moreover, they prevented the LPS-induced destruction of the barrier, i.e., a decrease in TEER and an increase in Na-F permeability. Immunofluorescence staining revealed a high claudin-1 expression level on the cell surface, whereas exposure to LPS downregulated claudin-1. In turn, ICKT and genipin prevented the LPS-mediated reduction of claudin-1. These results suggest that ICKT enhances intestinal epithelial barrier function by upregulating claudin-1. Furthermore, genipin contributed to these effects. ICKT may be a promising medicine for the prevention and treatment of diseases associated with intestinal barrier disruption, such as IBD, obesity, and metabolic disorders.

P2X7 Receptor Augments LPS-Induced Nitrosative Stress by Regulating Nrf2 and GSH Levels in the Mouse Hippocampus

P2X7 receptor (P2X7R) regulates inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression/activity in response to various harmful insults. Since P2X7R deletion paradoxically decreases the basal glutathione (GSH) level in the mouse hippocampus, it is likely that P2X7R may increase the demand for GSH for the maintenance of the intracellular redox state or affect other antioxidant defense systems. Therefore, the present study was designed to elucidate whether P2X7R affects nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) activity/expression and GSH synthesis under nitrosative stress in response to lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced neuroinflammation. In the present study, P2X7R deletion attenuated iNOS upregulation and Nrf2 degradation induced by LPS. Compatible with iNOS induction, P2X7R deletion decreased S-nitrosylated (SNO)-cysteine production under physiological and post-LPS treated conditions. P2X7R deletion also ameliorated the decreases in GSH, glutathione synthetase, GS and ASCT2 levels concomitant with the reduced S-nitrosylations of GS and ASCT2 following LPS treatment. Furthermore, LPS upregulated cystine:glutamate transporter (xCT) and glutaminase in P2X7R^+/+ mice, which were abrogated by P2X7R deletion. LPS did not affect GCLC level in both P2X7R^+/+ and P2X7R^−/− mice. Therefore, our findings indicate that P2X7R may augment LPS-induced neuroinflammation by leading to Nrf2 degradation, aberrant glutamate-glutamine cycle and impaired cystine/cysteine uptake, which would inhibit GSH biosynthesis. Therefore, we suggest that the targeting of P2X7R, which would exert nitrosative stress with iNOS in a positive feedback manner, may be one of the important therapeutic strategies of nitrosative stress under pathophysiological conditions.

Analysis of N15-rat growth hormone after incubation with rat subcutaneous tissue and immune cells using ultra-pressure chromatography-mass spectrometry

Therapeutic proteins (TPs) are exposed to various immune cells like macrophages and neutrophils, especially after subcutaneous (SC) administration. It is well known that the immune cells can generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) and this may lead to oxidation of TPs. The oxidation can occur in the SC tissue after SC administration, during distribution to the immune organs like lymph nodes and spleen, and even in the blood circulation. The oxidation can lead to alteration of their pharmacokinetics and efficacy. Therefore, it is important to study the oxidation of TPs in the biological matrices using ultra-pressure chromatography-mass spectrometry. Rat growth hormone (rGH) was selected as a test protein due to its similarity with human growth hormone (hGH), which is widely used for treatment of growth hormone deficiency. In this manuscript, we have summarized sample processing strategy and ultra-pressure chromatography-mass spectrometry methodology to identify rGH and its degradation products after ex-vivo incubation with rat SC tissue, and in vitro incubation with rat splenocytes and canine peripheral blood mononuclear cells (cPBMCs) as a model foreign host species. We did not observe oxidation of rGH in these biological matrices. This could be due to very minor yields of oxidation products, lack of sensitivity of the mass spectrometry method, loss of protein during sample processing, rapid turnover of oxidized protein or a combination of all factors.

Effect of Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation on apoptotic process and oxidative stress in fibroblast cell of hybrid crucian carp compared with those of Carassius cuvieri and Carassius auratus red var

Bacterial LPS is a heat-stable endotoxin and wall components of gram negative bacteria, which can exhibit a toxicological effect on physiology and biochemical activities of fish. In this study, we investigated the effect of LPS exposure on cell viability, oxidative stress, caspase activity and immune-related gene expressions in cultured fin cell lines of red crucian carp, white crucian carp and their hybrid offspring. LPS stimulation could reduce fish cell viability, whereas gene expression levels and promoter activities in inflammatory signals increased dramatically. Moreover, enhanced levels of intracellular oxidative stress and decreased levels of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) were observed in LPS-induced fish cells. N-Acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) could alleviate LPS-stimulated reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and caspase-3 activity in fish cells. These results suggested that ROS-mediated cytotoxic stress was involved in LPS-induced inflammation and mitochondrial damage in cultured fish cells.

Protective effect of neurotensin receptor-1 agonist PD 149163 against lipopolysaccharide-induced gut toxicity in mice

The interaction between neuroendocrine and immune components of the gut maintains the organism's physical and psychological health. Its disruption may reflect in disease conditions such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and mental illness. The lipopolysaccharide (LPS) disrupts the endocrine-immune homeostasis resulting in gut toxicity. The Neurotensin receptor-1 (NTR-1) agonist PD 149163 (PD) acts as an atypical antipsychotic drug in psychiatric illness, but its role in modulating gut pathophysiology remains unknown. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to evaluate the protective effect of PD against LPS-induced gut toxicity. Swiss albino female mice (12 weeks) were divided into six groups (n = 6/group): (I) Control, (II) LPS (1 mg/kg, for 5 days), (III) LPS (1 mg/kg, for 5 days)+PD low (100 µg/kg, for 21 days), (IV) LPS (1 mg/kg, for 5 days)+PD high (300 µg/kg, for 21 days), (V) PD low (100 µg/kg, for 21 days), and (VI) PD high (300 µg/kg, for 21 days). Drugs were given intraperitoneal in the morning. PD administration prevented the LPS-induced gut inflammation observed in damage of epithelial barrier, disruption of goblet cells, and condensation of lamina propria (LP). The LPS-induced oxidative stress characterized by decreased superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity and increased lipid hydroperoxide (LOOH) (p < 0.001 for both), and enhanced interleukine-6 (IL-6) & tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) (p < 0.001 for both) as well as immunointensity of NT (p < 0.01) and NTR-1 (p < 0.05) were reversed and normalized to control after PD treatment. Thus, the anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative, and cell proliferation properties of PD modulate the gut toxicity in LPS-challenged mice.

Energy management and mitochondrial dynamics in cerebral cortex during endotoxemia

Mitochondria play an essential role in inflammatory processes such as sepsis or endotoxemia, contributing to organ-cellular redox metabolism, emerging as the energy hub of the cell, and as an important center of action of second messengers. In this work, we aimed to elucidate the energy state, redox balance, and mitochondrial remodeling status in cerebral cortex in an experimental model of endotoxemia. Female Sprague-Dawley rats were subjected to a single dose of LPS (ip 8 mg kg-1 body weight) for 6 h. State 3 O2 consumption was observed increased, ATP production and P/O ratio were observed decreased, probably indicating an inefficient oxidative phosphorylation process. O2- production and both systemic and tissue NO markers were observed increased in treated animals. The existence of nitrated proteins suggests an alteration in the local redox balance and possible harmful effects over energetic processes. Increases in PGC-1α and mtTFA expression, and in OPA-1 expression, suggest an increase in de novo formation of mitochondria and fusion of pre-existing mitochondria. The observed elongation of mitochondria correlates with the occurrence of mild mitochondrial dysfunction and increased levels of systemic NO. Our work presents novel results that contribute to unravel the mechanism by which the triad endotoxemia-redox homeostasis-energy management interact in the cerebral cortex, leading to propose a relevant mechanism for future developing therapeutics with the aim of preserving this organ from inflammatory and oxidative damage.

Thiamine Alleviates High-Concentrate-Diet-Induced Oxidative Stress, Apoptosis, and Protects the Rumen Epithelial Barrier Function in Goats

High-concentrate diets are continually used in ruminants to meet the needs of milk yield, which can lead to the occurrence of subacute rumen acidosis in ruminants. This study investigated the protective effects of dietary thiamine supplementation on the damage of the ruminal epithelium barrier function in goats fed a high-concentrate diet. Twenty-four healthy Boer goats (live weight of 35.62 ± 2.4 kg; age, 1 year) were randomly assigned into three treatments, with eight goats in each treatment, consuming one of three diets: a low-concentrate diet (CON; concentrate/forage, 30:70), a high-concentrate diet (HC; concentrate/forage, 70:30), or a high-concentrate diet with 200 mg of thiamine/kg of dry matter intake (HCT; concentrate/forage, 70:30) for 12 weeks. The additional dose of thiamine was based on our previous study wherein thiamine ameliorates inflammation. Compared with HC treatment, the HCT treatment had markedly higher concentrations of glutathione, superoxide dismutase, and glutathione peroxidase and total antioxidant capacity (P < 0.05) in plasma and rumen epithelium. The results showed that the apoptosis index was lower (P < 0.05) in the HCT treatment than in that of the HC treatment. Compared with the HC treatment, permeability and the electrophysiology parameter short circuit current for ruminal epithelial tissue were significantly decreased (P < 0.05) in the HCT treatment. The immunohistochemical results showed that the expression distribution of tight junctions including claudin-1, claudin-4, occludin, and zonula occludin-1 (ZO-1) was greater (P < 0.05) in the HCT treatments than in the HC treatment. The mRNA expression in the rumen epithelium of ZO-1, occludin, claudin-1, B-cell lymphoma/leukemia 2, nuclear factor erythroid-2 related factor 2 (Nrf2), superoxide dismutase 2 (SOD2), glutathione peroxidase 1, and the phase II metabolizing enzymes quinone oxidoreductase and heme oxygenase in the HCT group was significantly increased in comparison with the HC diet treatment (P < 0.05), whereas the mRNA expression of caspase 3, caspase 8, caspase 9, bcl-2 associated X protein, lipopolysaccharide binding protein, toll-like receptor 4, nuclear factor kappa-B (NFκB), tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin-1β, interleukin, and tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 6 decreased significantly in the HCT treatment (P < 0.05). Compared with the HC treatment, the HCT diet significantly increased the protein expression of ZO-1, occludin, claudin-1, NQO1, HO-1, SOD2, serine/threonine kinase, p-Akt, Nrf2, and p-Nrf2; conversely, the expression of NFκB-related proteins p65 and pp65 was significantly decreased (P < 0.05). In addition, thiamine relieved the damage on the ruminal epithelium caused by the HC diet. The results show that dietary thiamine supplementation improves the rumen epithelial barrier function by regulating Nrf2-NFκB signaling pathways during high-concentrate-diet feeding.

Metabolic Spectrum of Liver Failure in Type 2 Diabetes and Obesity: From NAFLD to NASH to HCC

Liver disease is the spectrum of liver damage ranging from simple steatosis called as nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) to hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Clinically, NAFLD and type 2 diabetes coexist. Type 2 diabetes contributes to biological processes driving the severity of NAFLD, the primary cause for development of chronic liver diseases. In the last 20 years, the rate of non-viral NAFLD/NASH-derived HCC has been increasing rapidly. As there are currently no suitable drugs for treatment of NAFLD and NASH, a class of thiazolidinediones (TZDs) drugs for the treatment of type 2 diabetes is sometimes used to improve liver failure despite the risk of side effects. Therefore, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of the development and progression of NAFLD and NASH are important issues. In this review, we will discuss the pathogenesis of NAFLD/NASH and NAFLD/NASH-derived HCC and the current promising pharmacological therapies of NAFLD/NASH. Further, we will provide insights into "adipose-derived adipokines" and "liver-derived hepatokines" as diagnostic and therapeutic targets from NAFLD to HCC.

Lipopolysaccharides induce a RAGE-mediated sensitization of sensory neurons and fluid hypersecretion in the upper airways

Thoracic dorsal root ganglia (tDRG) contribute to fluid secretion in the upper airways. Inflammation potentiates DRG responses, but the mechanisms remain under investigation. The receptor for advanced glycation end-products (RAGE) underlies potentiation of DRG responses in pain pathologies; however, its role in other sensory modalities is less understood. We hypothesize that RAGE contributes to electrophysiological and biochemical changes in tDRGs during inflammation. We used tDRGs and tracheas from wild types (WT), RAGE knock-out (RAGE-KO), and with the RAGE antagonist FPS-ZM1, and exposed them to lipopolysaccharides (LPS). We studied: capsaicin (CAP)-evoked currents and action potentials (AP), tracheal submucosal gland secretion, RAGE expression and downstream pathways. In WT neurons, LPS increased CAP-evoked currents and AP generation, and it caused submucosal gland hypersecretion in tracheas from WT mice exposed to LPS. In contrast, LPS had no effect on tDRG excitability or gland secretion in RAGE-KO mice or mice treated with FPS-ZM1. LPS upregulated full-length RAGE (encoded by Tv1-RAGE) and downregulated a soluble (sRAGE) splice variant (encoded by MmusRAGEv4) in tDRG neurons. These data suggest that sensitization of tDRG neurons contributes to hypersecretion in the upper airways during inflammation. And at least two RAGE variants may be involved in these effects of LPS.

Trehalose and N-Acetyl Cysteine Alleviate Inflammatory Cytokine Production and Oxidative Stress in LPS-Stimulated Human Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells

Background: Evidence has shown that inflammation and oxidative stress are implicated in the development of a great number of human diseases. Trehalose possesses various biological effects including antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. However, there is little data on the effects of trehalose on human cells including peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Here, we aimed to investigate whether trehalose could attenuate oxidative stress and inflammation induced by lipopolysaccharides (LPS) in PBMCs.Methods: The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and RT-PCR were used to assess the levels of inflammatory cytokines. To investigate the phosphorylation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and NF-κB, western blot analysis was utilized. Oxidant-antioxidant markers were assessed using ELISA and colorimetric procedures.Results: The results revealed that trehalose significantly mitigated the effect of LPS on the phosphorylation of JNK and NF-κB-P65 (p < .00). This mitigation was associated with significantly reduced levels of inflammatory cytokines IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-1β and increased levels of anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 (P < .05). The antioxidant N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) also showed similar effects on JNK and NF-κB-P65 phosphorylation and inflammatory cytokines (p < .00). Furthermore, trehalose alleviated oxidative stress in LPS-stimulated PBMCs as it reversed the altered levels of malondialdehyde and total thiols (p ≤ .05) and restored the activity of antioxidant enzymes glutathione peroxidase and manganese superoxide dismutase (p < .001).Conclusion: The results of this study indicated that trehalose prevented inflammation and oxidative stress in the LPS-stimulated PBMCs, providing evidence for the benefits of trehalose as a potential therapeutic agent in inflammatory conditions.Abbreviations: LPS: Lipopolysaccharide; NAC: N-Acetyl cysteine; ROS: Reactive oxygen species; IL-6: Interleukin-6; TNF-α: Tumor necrosis factor-alpha; SOD: Superoxide dismutase; GPx: Glutathione peroxidase; MDA: Malondialdehyde; MAPK: Mitogen-activated protein kinases; JNK: c-Jun N-terminal kinase; NF-κB: Nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells.

Chitosan-coated rosmarinic acid nanoemulsion nasal administration protects against LPS-induced memory deficit, neuroinflammation, and oxidative stress in Wistar rats

Rosmarinic acid (RA) lipid-nanotechnology-based delivery systems associate with mucoadhesive biopolymers for nasal administration has arisen as a new promising neuroprotective therapy for neurodegenerative disorders (ND). We have previously demonstrated the glioprotective effect of chitosan-coated RA nanoemulsions (RA CNE) against lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced damage in rat astrocyte primary culture. Here, we further investigate the protective effect of RA CNE nasal administration on LPS-induced memory deficit, neuroinflammation, and oxidative stress in Wistar rats, since these in vivo studies were crucial to understand the impact of developed delivery systems in the RA neuroprotective effects. The animals were treated through nasal route with RA CNE (2 mg·mL-1), free RA (2 mg·mL-1), blank CNE, and saline (control and LPS groups) administrations (n.a., 100 μL per nostril) twice a day (7 a.m./7 p.m.) for six days. On the sixth day, the animals received the last treatments and LPS was intraperitoneally (i.p.) administrated (250 μg·kg-1). Overall results, proved for the first time that the RA CNE nasal administration elicits a neuroprotective effect against LPS-induced damage, which was associated with increased 1.6 times recognition index, decreased 5.0 and 1.9 times in GFAP+ cell count and CD11b expression, respectively, as well as increased 1.7 times SH in cerebellum and decreased 3.9 times TBARS levels in cerebral cortex in comparison with LPS group. RA CNE treatment also facilitates RA bioavailability in the brain, confirmed by RA quantification. Free RA also demonstrates a protective effect in some studied parameters, although no RA was quantified in the brain.

Bioactive role of plant stress hormone methyl jasmonate against lipopolysaccharide induced arthritis

The current investigation was carried out to screen antiarthritic potential of Methyl Jasmonate (MJ) against lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induced arthritis. Cartilage damage was induced in experimental animals by intraplantar administration of LPS (1 mg/kg) and antiarthritic effect of MJ was screened in two doses of MJ-1 (20 mg/kg), MJ-2 (40 mg/kg) by intraperitoneally administration. Indomethacin (30 mg/kg p.o.) was used as standard drug. The severity of arthritis was evaluated by assessing arthritis score, secondary lesions, motility test, stair climbing ability, and dorsal flexion pain score method. The estimation of blood cytokine tumor necrosis factor- aplha (TNF-α),interleukine (IL-2 and IL-6) and thymus/spleen index was carried out to access the severity of inflammation. Estimation of hepaticenzymatic antioxidant activity superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione (GSH), glutathione peroxidase (GPx)and radiological examination was carried out on 28^th day. Results indicated that MJ showed significant reduction in severity of arthritis by decreasing arthritis score, secondary lesions where as significant increase in motility, climbing ability and flexion pain score was observed. Significant decreased in blood cytokine viz. TNF-α, IL-2, IL-6 andthymus/spleen index was observed in MJ treated animals in dose dependent manner. MJ treated animals showed significant increased and restoration of hepatic antioxidant enzymatic activityof SOD, CAT, GSH, GPx where asradiological examination indicates protective effect on joint structure as compared to LPS treated rats. These current studies conclude that MJ has protective role in arthritis.

Short Term Usage of Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Ameliorate Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Inflammatory Response and Oxidative Stress in the Neonatal Rat Hippocampal Tissue

Objective: To investigate the effect of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω-3 PUFAs) on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammatory response and oxidative stress in neonatal rat brain.

Methods: Ninety-six 3-day-old Sprague Dawley rats were divided into four groups: control (saline/saline), LPS/ω-3, LPS/ω-6, and LPS/saline (n = 24/group). All rats, except those in the control group, were intraperitoneally challenged once with LPS (0.6 mg/kg) and were treated with ω-3 PUFAs, ω-6 PUFAs, or saline at 15 mL/kg for 1 or 5 consecutive days beginning on the day of LPS-challenge. Rats in the control group underwent the same procedures and received saline (vehicle). After 1 or 5 days of treatment, 12 rats from each group were sacrificed and their hippocampuses were collected. The expression of inflammation-related genes as well as the levels of oxidative stress markers in hippocampal tissues were determined.

Results: After 1 or 5 days of treatment, the expression of toll-like receptor 4 and multiple proinflammatory cytokines were significantly decreased in the LPS/ω-3 group compared with those in the LPS/saline group. The activities of superoxide dismutase and glutathione (GSH) were significantly elevated, whereas amounts of malondialdehyde and oxidized glutathione (GSSG) and the ratio of GSSG/GSH were remarkably lowered in the LPS/ω-3 group compared with those in the LPS/saline group after 1 day of treatment. Opposite effects were observed in the LPS/ω-6 group.

Conclusion: ω-3 PUFAs may protect rat brain tissue against LPS-induced inflammatory response and oxidative stress.

Protective effect of Alpha-Linolenic acid on Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Orchitis in mice

Previous studies have demonstrated that polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) have anti-inflammatory effects. One specific PUFA, alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), shows both anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. In the testes, inflammatory mediators are known to increase when orchitis is induced by bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS). This study aimed to determine whether the anti-inflammatory properties of ALA could have a protective effect against LPS-induced orchitis in mice. The mice were divided into untreated control, orchitis and ALA-treated orchitis groups. Orchitis was induced by intraperitoneal injection of LPS. The ALA-treated group was administered ALA by gavage three days before intraperitoneal LPS injection. Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), cytosolic phospholipase A2 (cPLA2), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) enzymes and nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) in the testes, as well as serum interleukin 6 (IL-6) and tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), were analysed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) tests. LPS administration increased the expression of several inflammatory mediators, including IL-6, TNF-α and NF-κB, as well as the COX-2, cPLA2 and iNOS enzymes. ALA administration significantly prevented the LPS-induced increases in these inflammatory mediators and enzymes (p < .05). The anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects of ALA may make it a useful candidate for the treatment of orchitis caused by bacterial LPS.

MicroRNA-155 deficiency attenuates inflammation and oxidative stress in experimental autoimmune prostatitis in a TLR4-dependent manner

To explore the mechanism of microRNA-155 (miR-155) deficiency, protecting against experimental autoimmune prostatitis (EAP) in a toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)-dependent manner. After wild-type (WT) and miR-155^-/- mice were injected with complete Freund's adjuvant and prostate antigen to establish EAP model, half were randomly selected for injection with lipopolysaccharide (LPS, a TLR4 ligand). The following experiments were then performed: von Frey filaments, hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining, real time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), Western blotting, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). And the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) and the level of Malondialdehyde (MDA) were detected by corresponding kits.miR-155^-/- mice with prostatitis exhibited the attenuated pelvic tactile allodynia/hyperalgesia and the suppressed TLR4/nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) pathway as compared with the WT mice with prostatitis. In addition, LPS enhanced the upregulation of miR-155 and the activation of the TLR4/NF-κB pathway in the prostatic tissues of WT mice with EAP. Furthermore, prostatitis mice had aggravated inflammation scores accompanying the increased interleukin (IL)-1β, tumor necrosis factor-α, IL-6, interferon-γ, IL-12, and MDA in prostatic tissues with the decreased IL-10, SOD and GSH-Px, and the unaltered IL-4. Compared with the mice from the WT + EAP group and the miR-155^-/- + EAP + LPS group, mice from the miR-155^-/- + EAP group had decreased inflammation and oxidative stress. miR-155 deficiency ameliorated pelvic tactile allodynia/hyperalgesia in EAP mice and improved inflammation and oxidative stress in prostatic tissues in a TLR4-dependent manner involving NF-κB activation, thereby exerting a therapeutic effect in chronic prostatitis treatment.

Glioprotective Effect of Chitosan-Coated Rosmarinic Acid Nanoemulsions Against Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Inflammation and Oxidative Stress in Rat Astrocyte Primary Cultures

Rosmarinic acid (RA) is a natural polyphenolic compound with a well-documented neuroprotective effect mainly associated with its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities. Recently, our research group developed and optimized chitosan-coated RA nanoemulsions (RA CNE) intended to be used for nasal delivery as a new potential neuroprotective therapy. In this sense, the present study aimed to evaluate the protective and/or therapeutic potential of RA CNE in inflammation/oxidative stress induced by LPS (1 μg mL-1) in rat astrocyte primary cultures. In summary, pre-treatment with RA CNE before exposure to LPS (protective protocol) reduced significantly the LPS-induced alterations in astrocyte cell viability, proliferation, and cell death by necrosis, which was not observed in therapeutic protocol. RA CNE protective protocol also enhanced anti-oxidative status by ~ 50% by decreasing oxygen reactive species production and nitric oxide levels and preventing total thiol content decrease. Finally, our results demonstrate the protective effect of RA CNE in migratory activation and GFAP expression of reactive astrocytes. Overall, our findings indicate for the first time the RA CNE glioprotective potential, associated with an increase in cell viability and proliferation, a preventive effect on cellular death by necrosis, migratory ability and hypertrophic reactive astrocytes, and the reparation of astrocyte redox state.

Caffeine May Abrogate LPS-Induced Oxidative Stress and Neuroinflammation by Regulating Nrf2/TLR4 in Adult Mouse Brains

Herein, we assayed the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential of caffeine in a lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-injected mouse model of neurodegeneration and synaptic impairment. For this purpose, LPS was injected for two weeks on an alternate-day basis (250 µg/kg/i.p. for a total of seven doses), while caffeine was injected daily for four weeks (30 mg/kg/i.p/four weeks). According to our findings, there was a significant increase in the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS), as evaluated from the levels of lipid peroxidation (LPO) and ROS assays. Also, we evaluated the expression of nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and the enzyme hemeoxygenase 1 (HO-1) in the mouse groups and found reduced expression of Nrf2 and HO-1 in the LPS-treated mice brains, but they were markedly upregulated in the LPS + caffeine co-treated group. We also noted enhanced expression of toll-Like Receptor 4 (TLR4), phospho-nuclear factor kappa B (p-NF-kB), and phospho-c-Jun n-terminal kinase (p-JNK) in the LPS-treated mice brains, which was significantly reduced in the LPS + caffeine co-treated group. Moreover, we found enhanced expression of Bcl2-associated X, apoptosis regulator (Bax), and cleaved caspase-3, and reduced expression of B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) in the LPS-treated group, which were markedly reversed in the LPS + caffeine co-treated group. Furthermore, we analyzed the expression of synaptic proteins in the treated groups and found a marked reduction in the expression of synaptic markers in the LPS-treated group; these were significantly upregulated in the LPS + caffeine co-treated group. In summary, we conclude that caffeine may inhibit LPS-induced oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and synaptic dysfunction.

Radiosynthesis and Preclinical Evaluation of 11C-VA426, a Cyclooxygenase-2 Selective Ligand

Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) is involved in the inflammatory response, and its recurrent overexpression in cancers as well as in neurodegenerative disorders has made it an important target for therapy. For this reason, noninvasive imaging of COX-2 expression may represent an important diagnostic tool. In this work, a COX-2 inhibitor analogue, VA426 [1-(4-fluorophenyl)-3-(2-methoxyethyl)-2-methyl-5-(4-(methylsulfonil)phenyl)-1H-pyrrole], was synthesized and radiolabelled with the 11C radioisotope. The ex vivo biodistribution profile of 11C-VA426 was evaluated in the brain and periphery of healthy rats and mice and in brain and periphery of inflammation models, based on the administration of LPS. 11C-VA426 synthesis with the tBuOK base showed optimal radiochemical yield (15 ± 2%) based on triflate activity, molar activity (range 37-148 GBq/μmol), and radiochemical purity (>95%). Ex vivo biodistribution studies showed a fast uptake of radioactivity but a rapid washout, except in regions expressing COX-2 (lungs, liver, and kidney) both in rats and in mice, with maximum values at 30 and 10 minutes p.i., respectively. LPS administration did not show significant effect on radioactivity accumulation. Celecoxib competition experiments performed in rats and mice treated with LPS produced a general target unrelated reduction of radioactivity concentration in all peripheral tissues and brain areas examined. Finally, in agreement with the negative results obtained from biodistribution experiments, radiometabolites analysis revealed that 11C-VA426 is highly unstable in vivo. This study indicates that the compound 11C-VA426 is not currently suitable to be used as radiopharmaceutical for PET imaging. This family of compounds needs further implementation in order to improve in vivo stability.

Comparison of olive leaf, olive oil, palm oil, and omega-3 oil in acute kidney injury induced by sepsis in rats

Background

Hypotension, increased production of reactive oxygen species, and inflammation are all observed in experimental models of sepsis induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS).

Purpose

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of an ethanolic extract of Brazilian olive leaf (Ex), Brazilian olive oil (Olv), Ex + Olv (ExOlv), and palm oil (Pal) in comparison to the effects of omega-3 fish oil (Omg) in a rat model of sepsis-induced acute kidney injury.

Materials

Wistar rats were divided into seven groups (seven per group), which were either untreated (control) or treated with LPS, LPS + Ex, LPS + ExOlv, LPS + Olv, LPS + Omg, or LPS + Pal.

Results

Lower values of creatinine clearance and blood pressure were observed in the LPS-treated group, and these values were not affected by Ex, Olv, ExOlv, Pal, or Omg treatment. Mortality rates were significantly lower in rats exposed to LPS when they were also treated with Ex, ExOlv, Olv, Pal, or Omg. These treatments also decreased oxidative stress and inflammation (Tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin-1 beta) and increased interleukin-10 levels and cell proliferation, which were associated with decreased apoptosis in kidney tissue.

Conclusion

Ex and Pal treatments were beneficial in septic rats, since they increased survival rate and did not aggravate inflammation. However, the most effective treatments for septic rats were Olv in comparison to Omg. These natural food substances could enable the development of effective therapeutic interventions to sepsis.

Antidepressive effects of kaempferol mediated by reduction of oxidative stress, proinflammatory cytokines and up-regulation of AKT/β-catenin cascade

Kaempferol (KFL), the major constituent of various fruits and vegetables, could attenuate oxidaitve stress and inflammation. The aims of the present study were to explore the ameliorative abilities of KFL on the depressive-like behaviors in a chronic social defeat stress (CSDS) mouse model, and to determine the potential mechanisms on oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and AKT/β-catenin signaling pathway. Three behavioral tests, sucrose preference test (SPT), social interaction test (SIT), and tail suspension test (TST), were used to evaluate the antidepressive effects of KFL in CSDS mice. Activity levels of antioxidant enzyme, superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), catalase (CAT), glutathione s-transferase (GST), and concentrations of malonaldehyde (MDA) and protein carbonylation in the prefrontal cortex were assessed by commercial kits, respectively. Elisa was used to detect the levels of interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α). Q-PCR was used to determine the mRNA level of CD-11b. Furthermore, activity level of AKT/β-catenin signaling in the prefrontal cortex of CSDS mice was investigated by western blot. In addition, LY294002, a PI3-K inhibitor, was used to investigate the role of AKT/β-catenin signaling in the antidepressant effects of KFL. Social defeat stress reduced the bodyweights, sucrose consumptions, social interaction times, and the tail suspension mobility times in mice. CSDS mice were also exhibited remarkablely increased levels in oxidative stress markers, inflammatory mediators, and decreased activity of AKT/β-catenin cascade in the prefrontal cortex, which were reversed by treatment with KFL. Interestingly, LY294002 appeared to partly inhibit the overall KFL-mediated protective effects in the CSDS mice. These results confirmed that KFL exerted antidepressive effects, which might be mediated, at least in part, by enhanced antioxidant abilities and anti-inflammation effects via up-regulation AKT/β-catenin cascade activity in the prefrontal cortex of CSDS mice. Thus, KFL might be a promising, effective, and safe food medicine for depression treatment.

Iso-α-acids, Hop-Derived Bitter Components of Beer, Attenuate Age-Related Inflammation and Cognitive Decline

With the aging population rapidly increasing worldwide, preventive measures and treatments for age-related cognitive decline and dementia are of utmost importance. We have previously demonstrated that the consumption of iso-α-acids (IAA), which are hop-derived bitter compounds in beer, prevents the formation of disease pathology in a transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). However, the effect of IAA consumption on age-related cognitive decline is unknown. In the present study, we examined the effect of long-term and short-term dietary consumption of IAA, on age-related memory impairments and inflammation in the hippocampus of aged mice. When compared with young mice, aged mice showed impairment in spatial working memory during the Y-maze spontaneous alternation test, impairment in object recognition memory during the novel object recognition test (NORT), a pro-inflammatory hippocampal microglial phenotype with increased CD86 expression and inflammatory cytokine production, increased levels of glutamate and amyloid β_1–42, and decreased levels of dopamine (DA). In aged mice fed IAA for 3 months, the age-related alterations in memory, microglial inflammation, and glutamate, amyloid β_1–42, and DA levels were all significantly attenuated. Additionally, the oral administration of IAA for 7 days in aged mice with memory impairment, also improved spatial and object recognition memory. These results suggest that IAA consumption prevents inflammation in the hippocampus and ameliorates age-related cognitive decline.

Attenuation of lipopolysaccharide-induced lung inflammation by ascorbic acid in rats: Histopathological and ultrastructural study

Introduction:

Lipopolysaccharide is a bacterial endotoxin that induces acute lung injury in experimental animals, which is similar to acute respiratory distress syndrome in humans. The induced tissue trauma ends in fibrosis. Understanding the pathogenesis is important in the prevention and treatment of the complications. This study was assigned to investigate the long-term lipopolysaccharide-induced lung injury and the postulated protective effect of ascorbic acid on these changes.

Materials and methods:

Twenty-four adult male albino rats were divided into three groups. Group I was the controls, group II received lipopolysaccharide and group III received lipopolysaccharide and ascorbic acid. After 30 days of starting treatment, lung tissue samples were obtained.

Results:

Group II lung tissues showed marked thickening of the alveolar septa with collapsed alveolar sacs, detached bronchial epithelium, inflammatory cell infiltration and excessive deposition of collagen. Group III showed mild thickening of the alveolar walls, scanty inflammatory cell infiltration, mild parabronchial fibrosis and less marked collagen deposition. α-Smooth muscle actin staining of group II showed marked expression of the actin-positive cells. Less potential expression of the dye was found in group III. Ultrastructural examination of group II showed evident structural changes in pneumocytes with capillary basement membrane irregularity and interruption compared to uniform basement membrane in group III with less prominent intracellular changes in pneumocytes.

Conclusion:

Ascorbic acid attenuated the inflammatory response and fibrosis in the lungs of rats treated with lipopolysaccharide as evidenced by the histological, immunohistochemical and ultrastructural studies.

Acute effects of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in kidney of rats and preventive role of vitamin E and sodium selenite

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) as an endotoxin forms part of the cell wall of gram-negative bacteria and is responsible for initiating an acute inflammation after entering the living tissue. In this study, male rats were divided into eight groups: control group, vitamin E (VE) treatment group (200 mg/kg body weight (b.w.)), sodium selenite (SS) treatment (0.35 mg/kg b.w.) group, VE + SS treatment group (200 + 0.35 mg/kg b.w.), LPS treatment group (10 mg/kg b.w.), LPS + VE (10+200 mg/kg b.w.), LPS + SS treatment (10 + 0.35 mg/kg b.w.), and LPS + SS + VE treatment (10 + 0.35 + 200 mg/kg b.w.) group. Oxidative stress parameters, pathological changes, immunohistochemical analyses, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase deoxyuridine triphosphate nick end-labeling (TUNEL) assay, and changes in DNA structure with comet assay of the kidney were investigated at the end 6 h comparatively with the control group. When LPS-treated group was compared with the control group, antioxidant enzyme activities were decreased and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, changes in histological and DNA structure and apoptosis were increased significantly at the end of 6 h. However, when LPS + SS and/or VE-treated group were compared with the LPS-treated group, superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione- S-transferase activities were increased and MDA levels were decreased significantly at the end of the treatment period. Light investigations figured out pathological changes in kidneys of LPS- and LPS + SS and/or VE-treated groups. There was a decrease in the number of proliferating cell nuclear antigen-positive cells and an increase in the number of TUNEL-positive apoptotic cells in the wall of the distal and proximal tubules. As a result, it was observed that the combined use of antioxidants was more protective than their use alone against LPS.

Neuroimmunological Implications of Subclinical Lipopolysaccharide from Salmonella Enteritidis

Mounting evidence has indicated that lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is implicated in neuroimmunological responses, but the body’s response to subclinical doses of bacterial endotoxin remains poorly understood. The influence of a low single dose of LPS from Salmonella Enteritidis, which does not result in any clinical symptoms of intoxication (subclinical lipopolysaccharide), on selected cells and signal molecules of the neuroimmune system was tested. Five juvenile crossbred female pigs were intravenously injected with LPS from S. Enteritidis (5 μg/kg body weight (b.w.)), while five pigs from the control group received sodium chloride in the same way. Our data demonstrated that subclinical LPS from S. Enteritidis increased levels of dopamine in the brain and neuropeptides such as substance P (SP), galanin (GAL), neuropeptide Y (NPY), and active intestinal peptide (VIP) in the cervical lymph nodes with serum hyperhaptoglobinaemia and reduction of plasma CD4 and CD8 T-lymphocytes seven days after lipopolysaccharide administration. CD4 and CD8 T-lymphocytes from the cervical lymph node and serum interleukin-6 and tumour necrosis factor α showed no significant differences between the control and lipopolysaccharide groups. Subclinical lipopolysaccharide from S. Enteritidis can affect cells and signal molecules of the neuroimmune system. The presence of subclinical lipopolysaccharide from S. Enteritidis is associated with unknown prolonged consequences and may require eradication and a deeper search into the asymptomatic carrier state of Salmonella spp.

Dl-3-n-Butylphthalide improves lipopolysaccharide-induced depressive-like behavior in rats: involvement of Nrf2 and NF-κB pathways

RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES

Dl-3-n-Butylphthalide (NBP), a small molecule compound extracted from the seeds of Apium graveolens, possesses a large range of biological effects. Here, we attempted to explore the therapeutic effects of NBP on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced major depressive disorder (MDD) and gain further insight into the underlying mechanisms of the antidepressant effects of NBP.

METHODS

We evaluated the effect of NBP against LPS-induced behavioral changes in rats. We also examined the inflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis markers and analyzed the Nrf2 and NF-κB pathways in the hippocampus of rats following repeated peripheral immune challenge by LPS for 2 weeks (500 μg/kg every other day).

RESULTS

Our results indicated that repeated LPS administration induced the rats to a depressive-like state and activated inflammatory response, oxidative stress, and apoptosis reactions in the hippocampus. NBP treatment attenuated the LPS-induced abnormal behavior and ameliorated pathogenic processes in rats with MDD. NBP reduced the inflammatory response with inhibited expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines including IL-1β and IL-6 and downregulated the NF-κB signal pathway. Concurrent with the anti-inflammation action, NBP reduced LPS-induced oxidative reactions in the hippocampus and enhanced Nrf2-targeted signals, as evidenced by increased transcription of antioxidant enzymes and decreased malondialdehyde (MDA) production. In addition, NBP inhibited LPS-induced neuronal apoptosis in the rat brain, as evidenced by decreased apoptosis marker Caspase-3 production and TUNEL assay.

CONCLUSIONS

These results provide more insight into pathogenesis of MDD and firstly demonstrated the potential antidepressant actions of NBP.

Comparative effect of melatonin and quercetin in counteracting LPS induced oxidative stress in bone marrow mononuclear cells and spleen of Funambulus pennanti

A majority of cellular diseases, independent of their origin, are characterized by a dramatic increase in Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) in response to stress. In most cases, the uncontrolled detrimental ROS outburst is difficult to handle for the cellular machinery and eventually leads to cell mortality. In this study, we compare the antioxidant efficacy of quercetin and melatonin to find out a better alternative against lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induced tissue injury by oxidative stress in Funambulus pennanti. Transient exposure to LPS significantly increased ROS generation and lipid peroxidation levels in bone marrow mononuclear cells (MNCs) and spleen which was further corroborated by decreased activities of SOD, CAT and Gpx enzymes. It also downregulate the expression of cellular oxidative stress response proteins Nrf-2 and HO-1 in spleen and decreases the proliferation of bone marrow derived Granulocyte macrophage-colony forming unit cells (GM-CFU). Both melatonin and quercetin pre-treatments rescued these effects, however, our results indicated that the efficacy of melatonin to overcome oxidative stress was significantly better than quercetin. Our findings support the idea that melatonin is a better antioxidant and immunomodulator as compared to other alternatives and perhaps may be employed in the development of effective therapeutics against ROS dominated diseases.

Pretreatment With Risperidone Ameliorates Systemic LPS-Induced Oxidative Stress in the Cortex and Hippocampus

Risperidone (RIS), an atypical antipsychotic has been found to show anti-inflammatory effect against lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammation. In vitro study has revealed that RIS inhibits the LPS-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation. We investigated the antioxidant effects of RIS on LPS-induced oxidative stress markers in Swiss albino mice. Ten weeks old male Swiss albino mice (30 ± 2 g) were pretreated with either distilled water (control) or RIS (3 mg/kg) for 7 days. On day 8, animals were challenged with a single dose of LPS (0.8 mg/kg) while control animals received distilled water only. The animals were sacrificed after 24 h of LPS administration and tissue samples were collected. RIS administration significantly (p < 0.05) reduced the LPS-induced elevated levels of lipid peroxidation product malondialdehyde (MDA), advanced protein oxidation products, and nitric oxide (NO) in the cortex. Catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) levels were also diminished while the level of glutathione (GSH) was enhanced. Hippocampus data showed that RIS significantly (p < 0.05) reduced the LPS-induced increased levels of MDA and NO, and SOD activity. Our results suggest that LPS-induced neuronal oxidative damage can be alleviated by the pretreatment with RIS and the effect is shown presumably by scavenging of the ROS by risperidone as an antioxidant.

Trigonelline insulates against oxidative stress, proinflammatory cytokines and restores BDNF levels in lipopolysaccharide induced cognitive impairment in adult mice

Neuroinflammation is said to play a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). Trigonelline (TRG) is a naturally occurring alkaloid, commonly isolated from fenugreek and coffee beans. In the present study, we investigated whether TRG exerts neuroprotective action against LPS mediated cognitive impairment. Mice pretreated with TRG (50 and 100 mg/kg po) were administered with LPS (250 μg/kg ip) for 7 days. Memory was assessed in the Morris water maze (MWM) and Y maze. LPS administration caused poor memory retention in MWM and Y maze paradigms, and resulted in marked oxidative stress as evidenced by decrease in superoxide dismutase (SOD), reduced glutathione (GSH) levels and increased lipid peroxidation in the hippocampus and cortex. Cholinergic involvement during neuroinflammation was evaluated by measuring levels of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) enzyme. TRG treatment at both the doses reversed LPS induced behavioral and memory disturbances, significantly decreased the oxidative stress and AChE levels in both the hippocampus and cortex. LPS administration also elevated the tumour necrosis factor (TNF-α) and interleukin -6 (IL-6) levels, whereas brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels were significantly depleted. TRG pretreatment led to decreased TNF-α and IL-6 levels and caused a significant upregulation of BDNF levels. In conclusion, present study highlights the promising neuroprotective role of TRG against LPS mediated cognitive impairment which could be attributed to reduced oxidative stress, inhibition of proinflammatory cytokines and restoration of BDNF levels.

Antarctic Krill Oil Diet Protects against Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Oxidative Stress, Neuroinflammation and Cognitive Impairment

Oxidative stress and neuroinflammation are implicated in the development and pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Here, we investigated the anti-inflammatory and antioxidative effects of krill oil. Oil from Euphausia superba (Antarctic krill), an Antarctic marine species, is rich in eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). We examined whether krill oil diet (80 mg/kg/day for one month) prevents amyloidogenesis and cognitive impairment induced by intraperitoneal lipopolysaccharide (LPS) (250 µg/kg, seven times daily) injections in AD mice model and found that krill oil treatment inhibited the LPS-induced memory loss. We also found that krill oil treatment inhibited the LPS-induced expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and decreased reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde levels. Krill oil also suppresses IκB degradation as well as p50 and p65 translocation into the nuclei of LPS-injected mice brain cells. In association with the inhibitory effect on neuroinflammation and oxidative stress, krill oil suppressed amyloid beta (1–42) peptide generation by the down-regulating APP and BACE1 expression in vivo. We found that eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) (50 and 100 µM) dose-dependently decreased LPS-induced nitric oxide and ROS generation, and COX-2 and iNOS expression as well as nuclear factor-κB activity in cultured microglial BV-2 cells. These results suggest that krill oil ameliorated impairment via anti-inflammatory, antioxidative, and anti-amyloidogenic mechanisms.

Resveratrol enhances vascular reactivity in mice following lipopolysaccharide challenge via the RhoA-ROCK-MLCP pathway

The aim of the present study was to identify whether sepsis-induced vascular hyporeactivity is associated with microcirculation disturbance and multiple organ injuries. The current study assessed the impact of resveratrol (Res) treatment on lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge mediated vascular hyporeactivity. Effects of Res treatment (30 mg/kg; i.m.) at 1 h following LPS stimulation (5 mg/kg; i.v.) on the survival time, mean arterial pressure (MAP), and maximal difference of MAP (ΔMAP) to norepinephrine (NE; 4.2 µg/kg) in mice were observed. The reactivity to gradient NE of isolated mesenteric arterioles and the association with the RhoA-RhoA kinase (ROCK)-myosin light chain phosphatase (MLCP) pathway were investigated by myography, and the signaling molecule protein levels were assessed using ELISA. Res treatment prolonged the survival time of mice subjected to LPS challenge, but did not prevent the LPS-induced hypotension and increase in ΔMAP. Res treatment and RhoA agonist U-46619 incubation prevented LPS-induced vascular hyporeactivity ex vivo, which were suppressed by incubation with ROCK inhibitor Y-27632. LPS-induced vascular hyporeactivity was not affected by the MLCP inhibitor okadaic acid incubation, but was further downregulated by the co-incubation of OA plus Y-27632. The inhibiting effect of Y-27632 on Res treatment was eradicated by incubation with U-46619. Furthermore, RhoA inhibitor C3 transferase did not significantly inhibit the enhancing role of Res treatment, which was further increased by U-46619 plus C3 transferase co-incubation. In addition, Res treatment eradicated the LPS-induced decreases in p-RhoA and p-Mypt1 levels and increases in MLCP levels. The results of the present study indicate that post-treatment of Res significantly ameliorates LPS-induced vascular hyporeactivity, which is associated with the activation of the RhoA-ROCK-MLCP pathway.

Response of Selenium and Selenogenome in Immune Tissues to LPS-Induced Inflammatory Reactions in Pigs

Circulating concentration of the essential trace element selenium (Se) was significantly lower in inflammatory disorders. Although Se plays physiological roles mainly through the function of 25 selenoproteins, the response of the selenogenome in immune tissues during inflammatory reactions remains unclear. The objective of this study was to determine the Se retention and selenogenome expression in immune tissues during the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammatory response in porcine. A total of 12 male pigs were randomly divided into two groups and injected with LPS or saline. After 4 h postinjection, blood samples were collected and pigs were euthanized. Pigs challenged with LPS had 36.8 and 16.6 % lower (P < 0.05) Se concentrations in the serum and spleen, respectively, than those injected with saline. Moreover, the activities of GPX decreased (P < 0.05) by 23.4, 26.6, and 30.4 % in the serum, thymus, and lymph node, respectively, in the pigs injected with LPS. Furthermore, the LPS challenge altered (P < 0.05) the mRNA expression of 14, 16, 10, and 6 selenoprotein genes in the liver, spleen, thymus, and lymph node, respectively. Along with 10 previously reported selenoprotein genes, the response of Txnrd2, Txnrd3, Sep15, Selh, Seli, Seln, Selo, Selt, Selx, and Sephs2 to inflammatory reaction in immune tissues were newly illustrated in this study. In conclusion, the LPS-induced inflammatory response impaired Se metabolism and was associated with dysregulation of the selenogenome expression in immune tissues.

Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of cauliflower leaf powder-enriched diet against LPS induced toxicity in rabbits

Brassicaphytochemicals exert a broad spectrum of health-promoting activities.