Health effects of exposure to e-waste

Process intensification for sustainable extraction of metals from e-waste: challenges and opportunities

The electrical and electronic waste is expected to increase up to 74.7 million metric tons by 2030 due to the unparalleled replacement rate of electronic devices, depleting the conventional sources of valuable metals such as rare earth elements, platinum group metals, Co, Sb, Mo, Li, Ni, Cu, Ag, Sn, Au, and Cr. Most of the current techniques for recycling, recovering, and disposing of e-waste are inappropriate and therefore contaminate the land, air, and water due to the release of hazardous compounds into the environment. Hydrometallurgy and pyrometallurgy are two such conventional methods used extensively for metal recovery from waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). However, environmental repercussions and higher energy requirements are the key drawbacks that prevent their widespread application. Thus, to ensure the environment and elemental sustainability, novel processes and technologies must be developed for e-waste management with enhanced recovery and reuse of the valued elements. Therefore, the goal of the current work is to examine the batch and continuous processes of metal extraction from e-waste. In addition to the conventional devices, microfluidic devices have been also analyzed for microflow metal extraction. In microfluidic devices, it has been observed that the large specific surface area and short diffusion distance of microfluidic devices are advantageous for the efficient extraction of metals. Additionally, cutting-edge technologies have been proposed to enhance the recovery, reusability, and recycling of e-waste. The current study may support decision-making by researchers in deciding the direction of future research and moving toward sustainable development.

A Critical Review on the Recovery of Base and Critical Elements from Electronic Waste-Contaminated Streams Using Microbial Biotechnology

Pollution by end-of-life electronics is a rapid ever-increasing threat and is a universal concern with production of million metric tons of these wastes per annum. Electronic wastes (E-waste) are rejected electric or electronic equipment which have no other applications. The aggrandized unproper land filling of E-waste may generate hazardous effects on living organisms and ecosystem. At present, millions of tons of E-waste await the advancement of more efficient and worthwhile recycling techniques. Recovery of base and critical elements from electronic scraps will not only reduce the mining of these elements from natural resources but also reduces the contamination caused by the hazardous chemicals (mostly organic micropollutants) released from these wastes when unproperly disposed of. Bioleaching is reported to be the most eco-friendly process for metal recycling from spent electronic goods. A detailed investigation of microbial biodiversity and a molecular understanding of the metabolic pathways of bioleaching microorganisms will play a vital function in extraction of valuable minerals from the end-of-life scraps. Bioleaching technique as an economic and green technology costs around 7 USD per kg for effective reusing of E-waste as compared to other physical and chemical techniques. This review provides a summary of worldwide scenario of electronic pollutants; generation, composition and hazardous components of electronic waste; recycling of valuable elements through bioleaching; mechanism of bioleaching; microorganisms involved in base and critical element recovery from E-waste; commercial bioleaching operations; and upcoming aspects of this eco-friendly technique.

A Comprehensive, Valid, and Reliable Tool to Assess the Degree of Responsibility of Digital Health Solutions That Operate With or Without Artificial Intelligence: 3-Phase Mixed Methods Study

BACKGROUND

Clinicians' scope of responsibilities is being steadily transformed by digital health solutions that operate with or without artificial intelligence (DAI solutions). Most tools developed to foster ethical practices lack rigor and do not concurrently capture the health, social, economic, and environmental issues that such solutions raise.

OBJECTIVE

To support clinical leadership in this field, we aimed to develop a comprehensive, valid, and reliable tool that measures the responsibility of DAI solutions by adapting the multidimensional and already validated Responsible Innovation in Health Tool.

METHODS

We conducted a 3-phase mixed methods study. Relying on a scoping review of available tools, phase 1 (concept mapping) led to a preliminary version of the Responsible DAI solutions Assessment Tool. In phase 2, an international 2-round e-Delphi expert panel rated on a 5-level scale the importance, clarity, and appropriateness of the tool's components. In phase 3, a total of 2 raters independently applied the revised tool to a sample of DAI solutions (n=25), interrater reliability was measured, and final minor changes were made to the tool.

RESULTS

The mapping process identified a comprehensive set of responsibility premises, screening criteria, and assessment attributes specific to DAI solutions. e-Delphi experts critically assessed these new components and provided comments to increase content validity (n=293), and after round 2, consensus was reached on 85% (22/26) of the items surveyed. Interrater agreement was substantial for a subcriterion and almost perfect for all other criteria and assessment attributes.

CONCLUSIONS

The Responsible DAI solutions Assessment Tool offers a comprehensive, valid, and reliable means of assessing the degree of responsibility of DAI solutions in health. As regulation remains limited, this forward-looking tool has the potential to change practice toward more equitable as well as economically and environmentally sustainable digital health care.

Tools to foster responsibility in digital solutions that operate with or without artificial intelligence: A scoping review for health and innovation policymakers

BACKGROUND

Digital health solutions that operate with or without artificial intelligence (D/AI) raise several responsibility challenges. Though many frameworks and tools have been developed, determining what principles should be translated into practice remains under debate. This scoping review aims to provide policymakers with a rigorous body of knowledge by asking: 1) what kinds of practice-oriented tools are available?; 2) on what principles do they predominantly rely?; and 3) what are their limitations?

METHODS

We searched six academic and three grey literature databases for practice-oriented tools, defined as frameworks and/or sets of principles with clear operational explanations, published in English or French from 2015 to 2021. Characteristics of the tools were qualitatively coded and variations across the dataset identified through descriptive statistics and a network analysis.

FINDINGS

A total of 56 tools met our inclusion criteria: 19 health-specific tools (33.9%) and 37 generic tools (66.1%). They adopt a normative (57.1%), reflective (35.7%), operational (3.6%), or mixed approach (3.6%) to guide developers (14.3%), managers (16.1%), end users (10.7%), policymakers (5.4%) or multiple groups (53.6%). The frequency of 40 principles varies greatly across tools (from 0% for 'environmental sustainability' to 83.8% for 'transparency'). While 50% or more of the generic tools promote up to 19 principles, 50% or more of the health-specific tools promote 10 principles, and 50% or more of all tools disregard 21 principles. In contrast to the scattered network of principles proposed by academia, the business sector emphasizes closely connected principles. Few tools rely on a formal methodology (17.9%).

CONCLUSION

Despite a lack of consensus, there is a solid knowledge-basis for policymakers to anchor their role in such a dynamic field. Because several tools lack rigour and ignore key social, economic, and environmental issues, an integrated and methodologically sound approach to responsibility in D/AI solutions is warranted.

E-waste management, treatment options and the impact of heavy metal extraction from e-waste on human health: Scenario in Vietnam and other countries

Ho Chi Minh (HCM) City is the most important urban region of Vietnam, Southeast Asia. In recent times, the quantity of electronic waste (e-waste) has been growing by several thousand tonnes every year. In this research, some of the existing and developing technologies being employed for the recycling of e-waste have been reviewed. Accordingly, the paper has been divided into three sections namely, e-waste treatment technologies in Ho Chi Minh City, the effect of heavy metals on human health and the extraction of metals from e-waste using pyrolysis, hydrometallurgy, bioleaching, mechanical, and air classifier methods, respectively. The extraction of precious metals and heavy metals such as Cd, Cr, Pb, Hg, Cu, Se, and Zn from e-waste can be hazardous to human health. For example, lead causes hazards to the central and peripheral nervous systems, blood system and kidneys; copper causes liver damage; chronic exposure to cadmium ends up causing lung cancer and kidney damage, and mercury can cause brain damage. Thus, this study examines the key findings of many research and review articles published in the field of e-waste management and the health impacts of metal pollution.

A systematic review of the health effects of lead exposure from electronic waste in children

Introduction

Electronic waste (e-waste) is an emerging human and environmental problem. Lead (Pb) is one of the most dangerous chemicals for human health, and it is the most prevalent heavy metal pollutant in e-waste. Despite the rapid growth of e-waste globally and the health effects of Pb, there is little information regarding the effects of Pb exposure from e-waste on children. Therefore, the aim of this review was to provide concise information on the health effects of Pb exposure from e-waste on children.

Methods

A comprehensive search of databases was undertaken using PubMed/MEDLINE, Cochrane Library, Science Direct, HINARI, African Journal Online (AJOL), and additional sources were searched up to November 25, 2022. Eligibility criteria were determined using Population, Exposure, Comparator, and Outcome (PECO). The guidelines for Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) were used during the article selection process. The protocol of this systematic review was registered in the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (Registration ID: CRD42022377028). The Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) quality appraisal checklist was used to assess the quality of the included studies.

Results

From a total of 1,150 identified studies, 20 full-text studies were included in the systematic review. All most included studies were conducted in China recycling area for e-waste. The included studies were conducted with an exposed group versus a reference group. The majority of the included studies found that blood Pb levels were ≥5 μg/dl and that Pb exposures from e-waste were affecting children's health, such as a decrease in serum cortisol levels, inhibition of hemoglobin synthesis, impact on neurobehavioral development, affect physical development, etc.

Conclusion

Lead exposure had a significant impact on children's health as a result of informal e-waste recycling. Therefore, formalizing the informal sector and raising public health awareness are important steps toward reducing Pb exposure from e-waste. Moreover, the concerned stakeholders, like national and international organizations, should work together to effectively manage e-waste.

Ocupational health risks of informal e-waste activities on major landfills and e-village in Lagos State, Nigeria

The study examines occupational health risks of informal e-waste activities on major landfills and e-village in Lagos state, Nigeria. The concept of informality guided the study based on primary and secondary data sources. We adopted a non-probabilistic sampling technique. Thus purposive sampling was used in selecting the main landfills and the computer village in Lagos state as study sites. We used descriptive and inferential statistics to analyze the data at a p = 0.05% confidence level. Wounds and cuts accounted for over nine-tenths (92%) of the main form of injuries experienced by 300 e-workers selected by convenience sampling on the three main landfills and the e-village in Lagos. Subjects of concern include job designation of e-workers across respondents. There was a significant association between e-waste activity and occupational health risks (X² = 20.341). E-waste workers use primitive methods that expose them to harmful substances and pollute the environment. Thus, we propose the formalization of the informal e-waste sector and the development of an eco-friendly environment that integrates health benefits for the workers.

E-waste scenario in South-Asia: an emerging risk to environment and public health

Over the past decade, e-waste generation has been accelerated in the world as never before, particularly South-Asia is confronted with an enormous risk of e-waste intensification owing to both locally generated and internationally imported. There has been a gradual increase of e-waste generated in South-Asia and in 2019, 4,057 Kilo tons (kt) of e-waste was generated, which is about 16% of the Asian region. Though there is an urgent requirement to rectify the catastrophic accumulation of e-waste and for its effective eco-friendly management, inadequate legal implementation and poor enforcement, lack of awareness, weak formal e-waste collection and recycling process allow for escalating problems associated with e-waste, particularly towards the environmental and public health concern. Under these circumstances, this paper has been written by reviewing the available research findings, since 2000 to find out the current scenario of South-Asia. Unfortunately, the problem is also not seen as a hot topic to address by the researchers, there are only 106 research studies conducted in South-Asia. Out of that, a considerable number of studies were conducted only in India (54%), Bangladesh (23%), and Pakistan (16%). Sri Lanka, Nepal, and Bhutan shared the rest. As a matter of fact, many more studies are needed on environmental and human health effects, legal implementations, awareness and novel managerial strategies etc. to assist policymakers and other relevant authorities in making their decisions. Similarly, rather than facing threats alone, fighting against as a region would be ideal, which also helps to restrict intra movement of e-waste among the South-Asian countries.

Respiratory Disorders Related to e-Waste Exposure among Workers in the Informal Sector in a Sub-Saharan African City: An Exposed Nonexposed Study

Introduction

Exposure to electrical and electronic equipment waste (e-waste) has become a growing health concern. The objective of this study was to measure the effect of exposure to e-waste on respiratory symptoms and on lung function parameters in workers involved in informal recycling activities in Cotonou city, Benin.

Methods

This was a cross-sectional study, in which exposed e-waste workers in Cotonou city were randomly selected. A matching nonexposed group based on age and sex was recruited from the general population. Respiratory symptoms were investigated using a questionnaire adapted from the British Medical Research Council's standardized respiratory questionnaire. Participants underwent lung function test using a portable spirometer (MIR SPIROBANK). Data were analyzed with STATA version 15 software.

Results

The overall prevalence of respiratory symptoms in e-waste workers was statistically higher in the exposed group (33.1% vs. 21.6%; p = 0.027). Chest tightness (11.8% vs. 2.1%; p = 0.003) and breathlessness (6.8% vs. 1.4%; p = 0.018) were the most reported symptoms by e-waste workers. Lung function testing showed a higher proportion of disorders among e-waste workers (25.0% vs. 14.9%, p = 0.029), with a higher proportion of probable restrictive (10.8% vs. 2.7, p = 0.005) and mixed (4.1% vs. 0%, p = 0.013) ventilatory disorders. Handling or working with e-waste was found associated with a significant reduction in forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) by 0.4 L (95% CI: 0.3-0.6) and forced vital capacity (FVC) by 0.75 L (95% CI: 0.6-0.9) after adjustment for age, BMI, smoking habits, asthma history, and daily income.

Conclusion

Work involving e-waste is associated with a higher prevalence of respiratory symptoms and with an increased risk of FEV1 and FVC decline, as well as of lung function impairment, particularly of restrictive disorders. Further studies to better clarify this association are needed. Awareness on this major public health threat should be raised in other sub-Saharan and Asian urban areas.

HBM4EU Occupational Biomonitoring Study on e-Waste-Study Protocol

Workers involved in the processing of electronic waste (e-waste) are potentially exposed to toxic chemicals. If exposure occurs, this may result in uptake and potential adverse health effects. Thus, exposure surveillance is an important requirement for health risk management and prevention of occupational disease. Human biomonitoring by measurement of specific biomarkers in body fluids is considered as an effective method of exposure surveillance. The aim of this study is to investigate the internal exposure of workers processing e-waste using a human biomonitoring approach, which will stimulate improved work practices and contribute to raising awareness of potential hazards. This exploratory study in occupational exposures in e-waste processing is part of the European Human Biomonitoring Initiative (HBM4EU). Here we present a study protocol using a cross sectional survey design to study worker’s exposures and compare these to the exposure of subjects preferably employed in the same company but with no known exposure to industrial recycling of e-waste. The present study protocol will be applied in six to eight European countries to ensure standardised data collection. The target population size is 300 exposed and 150 controls. Biomarkers of exposure for the following chemicals will be used: chromium, cadmium and lead in blood and urine; brominated flame retardants and polychlorobiphenyls in blood; mercury, organophosphate flame retardants and phthalates in urine, and chromium, cadmium, lead and mercury in hair. In addition, the following effect biomarkers will be studied: micronuclei, epigenetic, oxidative stress, inflammatory markers and telomere length in blood and metabolomics in urine. Occupational hygiene sampling methods (airborne and settled dust, silicon wristbands and handwipes) and contextual information will be collected to facilitate the interpretation of the biomarker results and discuss exposure mitigating interventions to further reduce exposures if needed. This study protocol can be adapted to future European-wide occupational studies.

Environment in Children's Health: A New Challenge for Risk Assessment

In the last few years, many studies have focused on the effects of environmental contaminant exposure during the prenatal period or infancy as predictors of health outcomes in the future. In these time windows, due to their rapid growth, and physiologic and metabolic development, we can observe a higher vulnerability to the effects of environment, with respect to adulthood. The evidence of possible influences, partly mediated by epigenetic mechanisms, involve neurobehavioral responses and immune, endocrine, and respiratory systems, acting directly on the child or indirectly when mediated by placental transfer or breast feeding. In particular, due to a greater intake of air, food, and fluids relative to body weight, crawling behaviors and short stature, the risk of excessive exposure is greater in children. However, data on the long-term implications of early exposures are scarce. Additionally, so that physicians and institutions for child care and assistance of pregnant women can take actions to counteract the effects of chemical pollution (i.e., by educational opportunities), a risk assessment perspective that responds to the biocomplexity of the human being is needed. The present paper provides an overview of physiologic and behavioral characteristics during the perinatal period and in childhood, suggesting in a more integrated way, the need of a new risk-assessment approach to managing chronic disease in pediatric patients.

A Systematic Review of E-Waste Generation and Environmental Management of Asia Pacific Countries

Due to the rapid increase in the use of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) worldwide, e-waste has become a critical environmental issue for many governments around the world. Several studies have pointed out that failure to adopt appropriate recycling practices for e-waste may cause environmental disasters and health concerns to humans due to the presence of hazardous materials. This warrants the need for a review of the existing processes of e-waste management. In view of the growing e-waste generation in the Asia Pacific region and the importance of e-waste management, this study critically reviews previous research on e-waste generation and management practices of major e-waste producing nations (Australia, China, India, Indonesia, and Malaysia) in the Asia Pacific region, provides an overview of progress made and identifies areas for improvement. To fulfil the aims of this research, previous studies from 2005 to 2020 are collected from various databases. Accordingly, this study focuses on e-waste generation and environmental management of these countries. This study found that e-waste management practices of the selected countries need to be enhanced and recommends several best practices for effectively managing e-waste.

Electronic Waste, an Environmental Problem Exported to Developing Countries: The GOOD, the BAD and the UGLY

Electronic waste (e-waste) is a rapidly developing environmental problem particularly for the most developed countries. There are technological solutions for processing it, but these are costly, and the cheaper option for most developed countries has been to export most of the waste to less developed countries. There are various laws and policies for regulating the processing of e-waste at different governance scales such as the international Basel Convention, the regional Bamoko Convention, and various national laws. However, many of the regulations are not fully implemented and there is substantial financial pressure to maintain the jobs created for processing e-waste. Mexico, Brazil, Ghana Nigeria, India, and China have been selected for a more detailed study of the transboundary movements of e-waste. This includes a systematic review of existing literature, the application of the Driver, Pressure, State, Impact, Response (DPSIR) framework for analysing complex problems associated with social ecological systems, and the application of the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) for evaluating the environmental impact of electronic devices from their manufacture through to their final disposal. Japan, Italy, Switzerland, and Norway have been selected for the LCA to show how e-waste is diverted to developing countries, as there is not sufficient data available for the assessment from the selected developing countries. GOOD, BAD and UGLY outcomes have been identified from this study: the GOOD is the creation of jobs and the use of e-waste as a source of raw materials; the BAD is the exacerbation of the already poor environmental conditions in developing countries; the UGLY is the negative impact on the health of workers processing e-waste due to a wide range of toxic components in this waste. There are a number of management options that are available to reduce the impact of the BAD and the UGLY, such as adopting the concept of a circular economy, urban mining, reducing loopholes and improving existing policies and regulations, as well as reducing the disparity in income between the top and bottom of the management hierarchy for e-waste disposal. The overarching message is a request for developed countries to help developing countries in the fight against e-waste, rather than exporting their environmental problems to these poorer regions.

Environmental health risk assessment of heavy metal exposure among children living in an informal e-waste processing village in Viet Nam

This study was conducted to compare the exposure levels of five heavy metals via different pathways based on the field samplings and questionnaire surveys of children residing in an informal e-waste processing village and a reference village in Viet Nam. The findings revealed that levels of the total average daily intake (ADI) of the five heavy metals collected from a child at the exposed village were 3.90 times higher (p < 0.01) than that of a child at the reference village. Ingestion of cooked rice was the largest contributor to the total ADI of the children tested at both villages. However, the risks from water drinking and dermal contact of soil were negligible. The total non-carcinogenic risk and carcinogenic risk in an exposed child were significantly higher (p < 0.01) than their respective risks in a reference child. The non-carcinogenic risk to an exposed child was likely to occur, while the risk to a reference child was negligible. The carcinogenic risks found in children from both of the villages, however, were higher than the acceptable values, indicating the potential health risks to the children from both villages. The susceptibility of children to heavy metal contaminations shown in this study suggests that a mitigating measure need to be initiated jointly by a public agency and a private organization to prevent children from the risks of being exposed to the contaminants.

E-waste lead exposure and children's health in China

China is one of the countries worldwide confronted with serious e-waste pollution and associated detrimental health effects, which has aroused public, academic and governmental concerns. Most local residents are exposed to hazardous substances such as lead (Pb) and other persistent organic pollutants because of informal e-waste recycling activities. This study reviews recent studies on children exposed to e-waste Pb in China focusing on health-related effects in children (e.g. growth and development, cardiovascular, immune, nervous, respiratory, reproductive, skeletal, and urinary systems) and evaluating the evidence for the association between e-waste Pb exposure and the children health outcomes in China. Children are one of most sensitive and vulnerable groups when facing e-waste Pb exposure. Previous data indicate that exposure to e-waste Pb has adverse effect on human health such as delayed and damaged physical and nervous development. It is the time to take effective measures, such as upgrading e-waste recycling technology, enhancing government policy guidance and support, and strengthening environmental protection and health awareness of the local inhabitants, to prevent the adverse effects of e-waste.

Waste-cleaning waste: synthesis of ZnO porous nano-sheets from batteries for dye degradation

This paper describes a clean approach of waste-cleaning waste. Two-dimensional (2D) ZnO porous nano-sheets were synthesized from end-of-life zinc-carbon batteries via a simple homogeneous precipitation-calcination route, and the as-synthesized product was applied as photocatalyst for the purpose of photodegradation of methylene blue/MB aqueous solution under UV-Vis irradiation. Precipitation at ambient temperature resulted in the formation of the crystalline phase of zinc hydroxide nitrate hydrate [Zn₅(OH)₈(NO₃)₂(H₂O)₂], which was then transformed to ZnO through calcination. FE-SEM studies revealed the resulting ZnO had the morphology of porous nano-sheets with thickness of up to 100 nm. The photocatalytic activity tests proved that the batteries-derived ZnO porous nano-sheets can be a promising candidate for photodegradation of organic pollutant in industrial waste water. The results presented here confirm a possibility of utilization waste batteries as a resource of photodegrading MB in wastewater treatment, hereby an opportunity to deliver environmental benefits. Graphical abstract.

Decreased vaccine antibody titers following exposure to multiple metals and metalloids in e-waste-exposed preschool children

We explored acquired immunity resulting from vaccination in 3 to 7-year-old children, chronically exposed to multiple heavy metals and metalloids, in an e-waste recycling area (Guiyu, China). Child blood levels of ten heavy metals and metalloids, including lead (Pb), arsenic (As), mercury (Hg), chromium (Cr), cadmium (Cd), manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn) and selenium (Se), and seven vaccine antibodies (diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus, hepatitis B, Japanese encephalitis, polio, measles) were measured. The exposed group had higher levels of blood Pb, Mn, Cu, Zn and Cr compared to the reference group (P < 0.05). Levels of all vaccine antibodies in the exposed group were significantly lower than in the reference group (P < 0.01). All vaccine antibodies negatively correlated with blood concentrations of Cu, Zn and Pb, based on spearman rank correlation analysis. Multiple logistic regression and univariate analyses identified the location of residence (Guiyu), high blood Pb (>10 μg/dL) and high blood Cu and Zn (upper median value of each group) to be inversely associated with seven antibody titers. Antibody titers increased with age, BMI, high blood Mn (>15 μg/L), and high blood Cd and Ni (upper median value of each group). Results suggest multiple heavy metal and metalloid exposure, especially to Pb, Zn and Cu, may be a risk factor inhibiting the development of child immunity, resulting in decreased child antibody levels against vaccines.

Environmental pollution of electronic waste recycling in India: A critical review

The rapid growth of the production of electrical and electronic products has meant an equally rapid growth in the amount of electronic waste (e-waste), much of which is illegally imported to India, for disposal presenting a serious environmental challenge. The environmental impact during e-waste recycling was investigated and metal as well as other pollutants [e.g. polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)] were found in excessive levels in soil, water and other habitats. The most e-waste is dealt with as general or crudely often by open burning, acid baths, with recovery of only a few materials of value. As resulted of these process; dioxins, furans, and heavy metals are released and harmful to the surrounding environment, engaged workers, and also residents inhabiting near the sites. The informal e-waste sectors are growing rapidly in the developing countries over than in the developed countries because of cheapest labor cost and week legislations systems. It has been confirmed that contaminates are moving through the food chain via root plant translocation system, to the human body thereby threatening human health. We have suggested some possible solution toward in which plants and microbes combine to remediate highly contaminated sites.

Children's health in Latin America: the influence of environmental exposures

BACKGROUND

Chronic diseases are increasing among children in Latin America.

OBJECTIVE AND METHODS

To examine environmental risk factors for chronic disease in Latin American children and to develop a strategic initiative for control of these exposures, the World Health Organization (WHO) including the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), the Collegium Ramazzini, and Latin American scientists reviewed regional and relevant global data.

RESULTS

Industrial development and urbanization are proceeding rapidly in Latin America, and environmental pollution has become widespread. Environmental threats to children's health include traditional hazards such as indoor air pollution and drinking-water contamination; the newer hazards of urban air pollution; toxic chemicals such as lead, asbestos, mercury, arsenic, and pesticides; hazardous and electronic waste; and climate change. The mix of traditional and modern hazards varies greatly across and within countries reflecting industrialization, urbanization, and socioeconomic forces.

CONCLUSIONS

To control environmental threats to children's health in Latin America, WHO, including PAHO, will focus on the most highly prevalent and serious hazards-indoor and outdoor air pollution, water pollution, and toxic chemicals. Strategies for controlling these hazards include developing tracking data on regional trends in children's environmental health (CEH), building a network of Collaborating Centres, promoting biomedical research in CEH, building regional capacity, supporting development of evidence-based prevention policies, studying the economic costs of chronic diseases in children, and developing platforms for dialogue with relevant stakeholders.

E-waste: a global hazard

BACKGROUND

Waste from end-of-life electrical and electronic equipment, known as e-waste, is a rapidly growing global problem. E-waste contains valuable materials that have an economic value when recycled. Unfortunately, the majority of e-waste is recycled in the unregulated informal sector and results in significant risk for toxic exposures to the recyclers, who are frequently women and children.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to document the extent of the problems associated with inappropriate e-waste recycling practices.

METHODS

This was a narrative review that highlighted where e-waste is generated, where it is recycled, the range of adverse environmental exposures, the range of adverse health consequences, and the policy frameworks that are intended to protect vulnerable populations from inappropriate e-waste recycling practices.

FINDINGS

The amount of e-waste being generated is increasing rapidly and is compounded by both illegal exportation and inappropriate donation of electronic equipment, especially computers, from developed to developing countries. As little as 25% of e-waste is recycled in formal recycling centers with adequate worker protection. The health consequences of both direct exposures during recycling and indirect exposures through environmental contamination are potentially severe but poorly studied. Policy frameworks aimed at protecting vulnerable populations exist but are not effectively applied.

CONCLUSIONS

E-waste recycling is necessary but it should be conducted in a safe and standardized manor. The acceptable risk thresholds for hazardous, secondary e-waste substances should not be different for developing and developed countries. However, the acceptable thresholds should be different for children and adults given the physical differences and pronounced vulnerabilities of children. Improving occupational conditions for all e-waste workers and striving for the eradication of child labor is non-negotiable.

Blood lead levels and associated factors among children in Guiyu of China: a population-based study

OBJECTIVES

Children's health problems caused by the electronic waste (e-waste) lead exposure in China remains. To assess children's blood lead levels (BLLs) in Guiyu of China and investigate risk factors of children's elevated BLLs in Guiyu.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

842 children under 11 years of age from Guiyu and Haojiang were enrolled in this population-based study during 2011-2013. Participants completed a lifestyle and residential environment questionnaire and their physical growth indices were measured, and blood samples taken. Blood samples were tested to assess BLLs. Children's BLLs between the two groups were compared and factors associated with elevated BLLs among Guiyu children were analyzed by group Lasso logistic regression model.

RESULTS

Children living in Guiyu had significant higher BLLs (7.06 µg/dL) than the quantity (5.89 µg/dL) of Haojiang children (P<0.05). Subgroup analyses of BLLs exceeding 10 µg/dL showed the proportion (24.80%) of high-level BLLs for Guiyu children was greater than that (12.84%) in Haojiang (P<0.05). Boys had greater BLLs than girls, irrespectively of areas (P<0.05). The number of e-waste piles or recycling workshops around the house (odds ratio, 2.28; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.37 to 3.87) significantly contributed to the elevated BLLs of children in Guiyu, and girls had less risk (odds ratio, 0.51; 95% CI, 0.31 to 0.83) of e-waste lead exposure than boys.

CONCLUSIONS

This analysis reinforces the importance of shifting e-waste recycling piles or workshops to non-populated areas as part of a comprehensive response to e-waste lead exposure control in Guiyu. To correct the problem of lead poisoning in children in Guiyu should be a long-term mission.