Occurrence and diversity of arthropod-transmitted pathogens in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in western Austria, and possible vertical (transplacental) transmission of Hepatozoon canis

Bartonella rochalimae in a flea collected from a Mephitis macroura in Sonora Mexico

PURPOSE

At least thirty species of wild carnivores have been recorded harboring Bartonella, and one of the most common pathogenic species infecting them is Bartonella rochalimae, which can cause endocarditis in humans and dogs. This bacterium can infect various mammals including wild carnivores, as well as ectoparasitic vectors such as fleas and ticks. Here we report the presence of B. rochalimae, in a Pulex simulans flea collected from a Mephitis macroura skunk in the municipality of Santa Cruz in Sonora, Mexico.

METHODS

Fleas were collected from a M. macroura in Sonora, Mexico, in October 2019. They were identified to species level and subsequently tested for the presence of Bartonella using molecular tools including conventional PCR, sequencing, and phylogenetic analysis.

RESULTS

A total of 10 P. simulans fleas (one male, nine females) were collected from the M. macroura skunk. The PCR and phylogenetic analysis indicated a prevalence of 10% (1/10) and a sequence clustered with the clade of B. rochalimae.

CONCLUSIONS

We confirmed the presence of B. rochalimae in a P. simulans flea collected from a M. macroura skunk in the area of Santa Cruz, Sonora, Mexico. Based on our results and previous studies in northern Mexico, which are consistent, it is necessary to continue monitoring Bartonella in M. macroura skunks and their fleas, since they could be important reservoirs of this bacterium in northern Mexico.

Molecular Detection and Genetic Variability of Hepatozoon canis in Golden Jackals (Canis aureus L. 1758) in Serbia

Hepatozoon canis is a protozoan tick-borne parasite infecting domestic and wild canids, including foxes, wolves, and jackals. It is mainly found in dogs but has also been detected in several wild carnivores, including foxes, wolves, and jackals. Host transmission primarily occurs through the ingestion of infected ticks, typically Rhipicephalus sanguineus, with documented instances of transplacental transmission from infected females to cubs. In Serbia, the golden jackal is common throughout the country, and its population has increased in recent years. Previous research has documented the presence of several vector-borne pathogens in the jackal population in Serbia, so we conducted this study to determine the presence, prevalence, and genetic variability of H. canis. Over eleven years (2010-2020), 114 animal samples were collected from 23 localities in Serbia. A total of 90/114 (78.95%) jackals were positive for H. canis, and they came from 22 localities. Among 15 juveniles, almost half (6/15 (40%)) tested positive for H. canis. In addition to the high prevalence, high genetic variability of the pathogen was also found. According to the mutated positions, four sequence types (S4-S7) of H. canis were determined. Based on our earlier research on the grey wolf and on this study, it can be observed that various sequence types of H. canis circulate within wild canid populations in Serbia. The prevalence of H. canis infection in wild carnivores raises significant concerns for wildlife conservation and animal health. Infected animals may act as reservoirs for the disease, posing a potential risk to domestic animals by acting as a source of infection.

Tick-Borne Pathogens in Dermacentor reticulatus Ticks from Bosnia and Herzegovina

Dermacentor (D.) reticulatus ticks carry and transmit a wide range of pathogens to vertebrate hosts. Limited information is available about the existence of emerging tick-borne pathogens and the distribution of D. reticulatus in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The study aimed to investigate the occurrence and distribution of D. reticulatus and to detect the presence of Anaplasma spp., Borrelia (B.) burgdorferi s.l., Rickettsia spp., and Babesia spp. in samples originating from questing ticks and ticks collected from domestic animals in various regions of Bosnia and Herzegovina. A total of 402 collected D. reticulatus ticks were widely distributed throughout the country. Of the 41 pools consisting of 205 individual D. reticulatus ticks, 21 (51.2%) indicated the presence of Rickettsia spp., 17 (41.4%) of Babesia spp., 2 (4.8%) of Anaplasma spp., and 1 (2.4%) of B. burgdorferi s.l. after real-time PCR screening. Our study indicates that D. reticulatus has significantly expanded its distribution and host range in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Moreover, our results represent the first detection of Babesia spp. in D. reticulatus in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Given the demonstrated presence of emerging pathogens in questing and feeding ticks, there is an urge to establish a surveillance system for ticks and tick-borne pathogens in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Opening the Black Box of Host Range, Vectorial Diversity, and Genetic Variants of Genus Anaplasma: The Contributing Factors Toward Its Zoonosis

Background: Genus Anaplasma of the family Anaplasmataceae possesses bacteria of hematopoietic origin, which are obligate intracellular Gram-negative bacteria transmitted mainly by tick vectors. The members of this group of infectious agents are not new as etiological agents of animal diseases worldwide. However, now, reports of their zoonotic potential have gained currency to study these pathogens. The emergence of new species of Anaplasma and the spread of existing species to new areas and hosts highlight the importance of monitoring and improving diagnostic and treatment options for zoonotic diseases caused by Anaplasma. Conclusion: This review focuses on the general and distinctive characteristics of Anaplasma spp., with particular emphasis on the novel species and their diverse spectrum of hosts as potential risk factors impacting its emerging zoonosis.

Hepatozoon (Eucoccidiorida: Hepatozoidae) in wild mammals of the Americas: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

The study of parasites provides insight into intricate ecological relationships in ecosystem dynamics, food web structures, and evolution on multiple scales. Hepatozoon Eucoccidiorida: Hepatozoidae) is a genus of protozoan hemoparasites with heteroxenous life cycles that switch infections between vertebrates and blood-feeding invertebrates. The most comprehensive review of the genus was published 26 years ago, and currently there are no harmonized data on the epizootiology, diagnostics, genotyping methods, evolutionary relationships, and genetic diversity of Hepatozoon in the Americas.

METHODS

Here, we provide a comprehensive review based on the PRISMA method regarding Hepatozoon in wild mammals within the American continent, in order to generate a framework for future research.

RESULTS

11 out of the 35 countries of the Americas (31.4%) had data on Hepatozoon, with Carnivora and Rodentia orders having the most characterizations. Bats, ungulates, and shrews were the least affected groups. While Hepatozoon americanum, H. americanum-like, H. canis, H. didelphydis, H. felis, H. milleri, H. griseisciuri, and H. procyonis correspond to the identified species, a plethora of genospecies is pending for a formal description combining morphology and genetics. Most of the vectors of Hepatozoon in the Americas are unknown, but some flea, mite, and tick species have been confirmed. The detection of Hepatozoon has relied mostly on conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and the implementation of specific real time PCR for the genus needs to be employed to improve its diagnosis in wild animals in the future. From a genetic perspective, the V4 region of the 18S rRNA gene has been widely sequenced for the identification of Hepatozoon in wild animals. However, mitochondrial and apicoplast markers should also be targeted to truly determine different species in the genus. A phylogenetic analysis of herein retrieved 18S ribosomal DNA (rDNA) sequences showed two main clades of Hepatozoon: Clade I associated with small mammals, birds, and herpetozoa, and Clade II associated with Carnivora. The topology of the tree is also reflected in the haplotype network.

CONCLUSIONS

Finally, our review emphasizes Hepatozoon as a potential disease agent in threatened wild mammals and the role of wild canids as spreaders of Hepatozoon infections in the Americas.

The first report on Hepatozoon canis in dogs and wolves in Poland: clinical and epidemiological features

BACKGROUND

Canine hepatozoonosis caused by Hepatozoon canis is a common infection in dogs, with frequent case reports from the Mediterranean region and more recently from several Central European countries, such as Hungary and Germany. Despite the high prevalence of H. canis in red foxes, no infections have been reported to date in dogs in Poland. We describe here the first autochthonous cases of H. canis infection in dogs, including their clinical features, and report the prevalence of H. canis in grey wolves from different regions of Poland.

METHODS

Thin smears prepared from blood samples collected from dogs were evaluated by microscopic examination. A total of 60 wolves and 47 dogs were tested. Infections were confirmed by PCR and sequencing.

RESULTS

Gamonts of H. canis were found in > 50% of the neutrophils of two dogs and in < 10% of the neutrophils in another five dogs. Molecular typing by PCR sequencing of the 18S ribosomal RNA gene fragment confirmed infections in 11 dogs from different regions of Poland, in 2.7% of dogs attending veterinary practices in central Poland and in 35% of wolves from various geographical regions of Poland. Clinical features manifested mostly in older dogs, and the most common signs were anaemia and apathy. Young dogs usually remained asymptomatic.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first report of H. canis infection in dogs and wolves in Poland. Although the exact vector of the parasite is not known, veterinary practitioners should be aware of this new parasitosis and should consider appropriate diagnostics to confirm/exclude this infection. Further studies are needed to understand the transmission routes of H. canis in domestic and wild canids in Poland.

First Molecular Evidence of Babesia vogeli, Babesia vulpes, and Theileria ovis in Dogs from Kyrgyzstan

Tick-borne parasitic diseases cause mild to severe infections among vertebrate hosts, including dogs. Species in the genus Babesia are important tick-borne pathogens and have worldwide distributions. Although there are data on the prevalence and distribution of Babesia species among dogs around the world, there is no information available in Kyrgyzstan, according to a literature review. In this study, 337 dogs were screened by nested PCR for the presence of the 18S small subunit ribosomal RNA (18S SSU rRNA) gene of piroplasm species. Overall prevalence was 6.23% (21/337) for Babesia/Theileria spp. DNA sequencing of positively tested samples revealed that eighteen samples were infected with Babesia vogeli (B. vogeli) (5.34%), two samples with B. vulpes (0.59%), and one sample with Theileria ovis (T. ovis) (0.29%). The phylogenetic analyses and nucleotide sequences in contrast with those present in GenBank revealed that two nucleotide substitutions (594th and 627th) were found between B. vogeli isolates, including ours, indicating that the mutation is relatively rare. The sequences of other pathogens obtained in this study confirmed 100% nucleotide identity with B. vulpes and T. ovis sequences in GenBank. To the best of our knowledge, B. vogeli, B. vulpes, and T. ovis were detected for the first time in dogs from Kyrgyzstan, and it is thought that results will contribute to the understanding of the epidemiology of canine tick-borne pathogens in the country.

Detection and Molecular Characterization of Canine Babesiosis Causative Agent Babesia canis in Naturally Infected Dogs in the Dobrogea Area (Southeastern Romania)

Canine babesiosis is an emerging tick-borne disease of major veterinary concern in Europe. Its prevalence has increased in the last two decades and is spreading rapidly toward the north. The aim of this study was to investigate the genetic diversity of Babesia spp. strains isolated from naturally infected dogs in a tick-endemic area (Dobrogea) in southeastern Romania. For this purpose, a total of twenty-three samples from dogs diagnosed with various clinical forms of babesiosis, evaluated by means of clinical history, physical examination, and hematological tests, were subjected to a molecular investigation using PCR, sequencing analysis, and genetic characterization. A microscopic examination of thin Diff-quick-stained blood smears revealed large intra-erythrocytic Babesia piroplasms in all dogs. The PCR and sequencing analysis results indicated the presence of Babesia canis in 22 dogs (95.7%) and Babesia vogeli in 1 dog (4.3%). Among the B. canis isolates, two genotypes were distinguished based on two nucleotide substitutions (GA→AG) observed in the 18S rRNA gene sequences (at positions 609 and 610), with the AG genotype predominating (54.5% of samples), while the GA variant was identified in 9.1% of samples. In the remaining isolates (36.4%), both variants were identified. The B. vogeli-positive dog also tested positive for antibodies against Ehrlichia canis and displayed severe disease. This study reports, for the first time, the presence of genetically heterogenic B. canis strains in dogs with clinical babesiosis in Romania. These findings provide a basis for future studies on the relationship between the genetic structure of the causative agents of canine babesiosis in Romania and the course of the disease.

Arthropod-Borne Pathogens in Wild Canids

Wild canids, as well as other wild animal species, are largely exposed to bites by ticks and other hematophagous vectors where the features favoring their presence and spread are found in wooded and semi-wooded areas. Much of the information about arthropod-borne infections concerns domestic and companion animals, whereas data about these infections in wild canids are not exhaustive. The present study is a narrative review of the literature concerning vector-borne infections in wild canids, highlighting their role in the epidemiology of arthropod-borne bacteria and protozoa.

Candidatus Neoehrlichia mikurensis and Hepatozoon sp. in voles (Microtus spp.): occurrence and evidence for vertical transmission

Candidatus Neoehrlichia mikurensis (CNM) and Hepatozoon spp. are important vector-borne parasites of humans and animals. CNM is a relatively recently discovered pathogen of humans. Hepatozoon are parasites of reptiles, amphibians and mammals, commonly found in rodents and carnivores worldwide. The present study aimed to determine the prevalence of CNM and Hepatozoon spp. in three species of Microtus and to assess the occurrence of vertical transmission in naturally-infected voles. Molecular techniques were used to detect pathogen DNA in blood and tissue samples of captured voles and their offspring. The prevalence of CNM in the vole community ranged 24-47% depending on Microtus species. The DNA of CNM was detected in 21% of pups from three litters of six infected Microtus dams (two Microtus arvalis and one M. oeconomus) and in 3/45 embryos (6.6%) from two litters of eight CNM-infected pregnant females. We detected Hepatozoon infection in 14% of M. arvalis and 9% of M. oeconomus voles. Hepatozoon sp. DNA was detected in 48.7% of pups from seven litters (6 M. arvalis and 1 M. oeconomus) and in two embryos (14.3%) obtained from one M. arvalis litter. The high prevalence of CNM infections in the Microtus spp. community may be a result of a relatively high rate of vertical transmission among naturally infected voles. Vertical transmission was also demonstrated for Hepatozoon sp. in M. arvalis and M. oeconomus. Our study underlines the significance of alternative routes of transmission of important vector-borne pathogens.

Diversity of Hepatozoon species in wild mammals and ticks in Europe

BACKGROUND

Hepatozoon spp. are tick-borne parasites causing subclinical to clinical disease in wild and domestic animals. Aim of this study was to determine Hepatozoon prevalence and species distribution among wild mammals and ticks in Europe.

METHODS

Samples of wild mammals and ticks, originating from Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Belgium and the Netherlands, were tested with PCR to amplify a ~ 670-bp fragment of the small subunit ribosomal RNA gene.

RESULTS

Of the 2801 mammal samples that were used for this study, 370 (13.2%) tested positive. Hepatozoon canis was detected in samples of 178 animals (3 Artiodactyla, 173 Carnivora, 1 Eulipotyphia, 1 Lagomorpha), H. martis in 125 (3 Artiodactyla, 122 Carnivora), H. sciuri in 13 (all Rodentia), Hepatozoon sp. in 47 (among which Hepatozoon sp. Vole isolate, all Rodentia) and H. ayorgbor in 4 (all Rodentia). Regarding origin, 2.9% (6/208) tested positive from Austria, 2.8% (1/36) from Bosnia and Herzegovina, 14.6% (173/1186) from Croatia and 13.9% (190/1371) from Belgium/the Netherlands. Of the 754 ticks collected, 0.0% (0/35) Hyalomma sp., 16.0% (4/25) Dermacentor spp., 0.0% (0/23) Haemaphysalis spp., 5.3% (24/50) Ixodes and 1.4% (3/221) Rhipicephalus spp. tested positive for Hepatozoon (4.2%; 32/754), most often H. canis (n = 22).

CONCLUSIONS

Hepatozoon canis is most present in mammals (especially in Carnivora such as gray wolves and golden jackals) and ticks, followed by H. martis, which was found merely in stone martens and pine martens. None of the rodent-associated Hepatozoon spp. were detected in the ticks, suggesting the possible implication of other arthropod species or non-vectorial routes in the transmission cycle of the hemoprotozoans in rodents. Our findings of H. canis in ticks other than R. sanguineus add to the observation that other ticks are also involved in the life cycle of Hepatozoon. Now that presence of Hepatozoon has been demonstrated in red foxes, gray wolves, mustelids and rodents from the Netherlands and/or Belgium, veterinary clinicians should be aware of the possibility of spill-over to domestic animals, such as dogs.

Wild Mesocarnivores as Reservoirs of Endoparasites Causing Important Zoonoses and Emerging Bridging Infections across Europe

Mesocarnivores are small- or mid-sized carnivore species that display a variety of ecologies and behaviours. In Europe, wild mesocarnivores are represented by the red fox (Vulpes vulpes), the golden jackal (Canis aureus), the European wildcat (Felis silvestris), the Mustelidae of the genera Meles, Martes, Mustela, Lutra, the invasive species of raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides), raccoons (Procyon lotor), and American mink (Neogale vison). These abundant animals thrive in various habitats and often develop their activity close to human settlements. Thus, they may play an important role in the introduction, maintenance, and transmission of major parasitic zoonoses and promote bridging infections with domestic animals. Against this background, this article reports and discusses some of the most important endoparasites of wild mesocarnivores living in Europe, on the basis of their actual role as reservoirs, spreaders, or sentinels. The data derived from epizootiological studies in different European countries, and the proven or speculated implications of the detected endoparasites in human and domestic animals' health, are discussed. Through older and recent literature review, the state-of-the-art knowledge on the occurrence and prevalence of the parasites under consideration is presented, showing further, warranted investigations and the need for surveillance and vigilance.

Canine babesiosis in Austria in the 21st century - A review of cases

A retrospective study on 699 cases of canine babesiosis presented to veterinary clinics in eastern Austria were evaluated for the location where infection had presumably taken place. Of these, 542 (77.54%) had acquired the infection in Austria, while the majority of non-autochthonous cases came from neighboring countries, most notable Hungary. Both groups were recorded primarily in Vienna, eastern Lower Austria and Burgenland, but cases from the southern (Styria, Carinthia) and western (Upper Austria, Tyrol, Salzburg) provinces of the country were also recorded. Records were made all year round, with most cases in spring (46.6%) and fall (48.4%). The annual cases ranged from four to 58 (mean: 31.8) with large fluctuations and no visible trend for an in- or decrease. The tick vector of Babesia canis, Dermacentor reticulatus, is present in Austria but displays a very patchy distribution, and its occurrence and activity are not readily foretold, which might be a reason why its presumably increasing density in Europe is not reflected by increased incidences of canine babesiosis. Another factor that may influence the numbers of cases per year could be the application (or non-application) of acaricidal or repellent compounds. A limitation of this study is that bias is exerted by the location of the participating clinics, and by the unknown rate of infections that does not induce clinical symptoms and is likely not presented in veterinary practices and clinics. The data, however, clearly show that at least the lowlands of Austria are endemic for B. canis, and appropriate tick control must be advised all year round.

Red fox (Vulpes vulpes) play an important role in the propagation of tick-borne pathogens

The red fox (Vulpes vulpes) is the most widespread free-living carnivore in the world. Over the years, foxes have been recognized as hosts for a number of tick-borne pathogens. However, their role as reservoirs for zoonotic tick-borne diseases is poorly understood. The aim of our study was to investigate tick-borne pathogens in the red fox population in the Czech Republic. Out of 117 red foxes, 110 (94.02%) individuals tested positive for the presence of at least one pathogen by the combined PCR and sequencing approach. Hepatozoon canis was the most frequently detected pathogen (n = 95; 81.2%), followed by Babesia vulpes (n = 75; 64.1%). Babesia canis was not detected in our study. Four (3.42%) red foxes were positive for Candidatus Neoehrlichia sp., 3 (2.56%) for Anaplasma phagocytophilum, and one red fox (0.85%) tested positive for the presence of Ehrlichia sp. DNA. Overall, DNA of spirochetes from the Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. complex was detected in 8.6% of the foxes and B. miyamotoi in 5.12% of the samples. As a carnivore found in all ecosystems of Central Europe, foxes obviously contribute to transmission of tick-borne pathogens such as A. phagocytophilum, B. burgdorferi s.l., and B. myiamotoi. In addition, foxes apparently harbour a community of pathogens, associated with this host in local ecological context, dominated by H. canis and B. vulpes (possibly also Candidatus Neoehrlichia sp.). These species have the potential to spread to the domestic dog population and should be included in the differential diagnosis of febrile diseases with hematologic abnormalities in dogs.

Molecular analysis of blood-associated pathogens in European wildcats (Felis silvestris silvestris) from Germany

European wildcats (Felis silvestris silvestris) have not been investigated in large numbers for blood-associated pathogens in Germany, because wildcats, being a protected species, may not be hunted, and the collection of samples is therefore difficult. Thus, spleen tissue and whole blood from 96 wildcats from Germany found as roadkill or dead from other causes in the years 1998–2020 were examined for the prevalence of blood associated pathogens using molecular genetic tools. PCR was used to screen for haemotrophic Mycoplasma spp., Hepatozoon spp., Cytauxzoon spp., Bartonella spp., Filarioidea, Anaplasmataceae, and Rickettsiales, and positive samples were subsequently sequenced. Phylogenetic analyses were performed for Mycoplasma spp. and Hepatozoon spp. by calculating phylogenetic trees and DNA haplotype networks. The following pathogens were found: Candidatus Mycoplasma haematominutum (7/96), Mycoplasma ovis (1/96), Hepatozoon silvestris (34/96), Hepatozoon felis (6/96), Cytauxzoon europaeus (45/96), and Bartonella spp. (3/96). This study elucidates the prevalence of blood-associated pathogens in wildcats from Germany.

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European wildcats from Germany carry different blood-associated pathogens.

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Pathogens can also affect domestic cats.

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Transmision by vectors or other transmisison routes are possible.

Host specificity and genetic diversity of Bartonella in rodents and shrews from Eastern China

Bartonella are vector-borne gram-negative facultative intracellular bacteria causing emerging infectious diseases worldwide, and two thirds of known Bartonella species are carried by rodents. We captured rodents, shrews and rodent ectoparasitic mites in rural areas of Qingdao City, Shandong Province, China from 2012 to 2021 and used the animal spleen tissues for the PCR amplification of Bartonella gltA and rpoB genes. PCR showed 9.4% (40/425) rodents, and 5.1% (12/235) shrews were positive for Bartonella. Seven Bartonella species including three novel species were identified in five rodent species and one shrew species, indicating the abundance and genetic diversity of Bartonella in rodents and shrews. The infection rate of each Bartonella species in the animal species was as below: novel Candidatus Bartonella crocidura in shrews Crocidura lasiura (5.1%, 12/235); novel Candidatus Bartonella cricetuli in hamsters Tscherskia triton (20%, 9/45); novel Candidatus Bartonella muris in striped field mice Apodemus agrarius (4.2%, 7/168) and house mice Mus musculus (1.5%, 2/135); Bartonella fuyuanensis in striped field mice (8.9%, 15/168) and house mice (0.7%, 1/135); Bartonella rattimassiliensis and Bartonella tribocorum in brown rats Rattus norvegicus (6.7%, 3/45 and 4.2%, 2/45, respectively); Bartonella queenslandensis in Chinese white-bellied rat Niviventer confucianus (12.5%, 1/8). These results suggest that Bartonella infected a variety of rodent and shrew species with high infection rate, but each Bartonella specie is restricted to infect only one or a few genetically closely related rodent species. In addition, Candidatus Bartonella cricetuli, Candidatus Bartonella muris and Bartonella coopersplainsensis were found in chigger Walchia micropelta (33.3%, 3/9), and B. fuyuanensis were found in chigger Leptotrombidium intermedium (4.1%, 1/24), indicating chiggers may be reservoirs of Bartonella. In conclusion, abundant genetic diversified Bartonella species are found to infect rodents, shrews and chiggers, but each Bartonella species has a strict rodent animal host specificity; and chigger mites may play a role in Bartonella transmission.

Occurrence and bacterial loads of Bartonella and haemotropic Mycoplasma species in privately owned cats and dogs and their fleas from East and Southeast Asia

Bartonella spp. and haemoplasmas are pathogens of veterinary and medical interest with ectoparasites mainly involved in their transmission. This study aimed at molecular detection of Bartonella spp. and haemoplasmas in cats (n = 93) and dogs (n = 96), and their related fleas (n = 189) from countries in East and Southeast Asia. Ctenocephalides felis was the dominant flea species infesting both cats (97.85%) and dogs (75%) followed by Ctenocephalides orientis in dogs (18.75%) and rarely in cats (5.2%). Bartonella spp. DNA was only detected in blood samples of flea‐infested cats (21.51%) (p < .0001, OR = 27.70) with Bartonella henselae more frequently detected than Bartonella clarridgeiae in cat hosts (15.05%, 6.45%) and their associated fleas (17.24%, 13.79%). Out of three Bartonella‐positive fleas from dogs, two Ct. orientis fleas carried Bartonella vinsonii subsp. berkhoffii and Bartonella clarridgeiae, while the 3rd flea (Ct. felis) carried Candidatus Bartonella merieuxii. Felines represented a risk factor for Bartonella spp. infections, where fleas collected from cats (32.25%) presented an increased likelihood for Bartonella spp. occurrence (p < .0001, OR = 14.76) than those from dogs (3.13%). Moreover, when analysing infectious status, higher Bartonella spp. DNA loads were detected in fleas from bacteraemic cats compared to those from non‐bacteraemic ones (p < .05). The haemoplasma occurrence was 16.13% (15/93) and 4.17% (4/96) in cat and dog blood samples from different countries (i.e. Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Taiwan and Thailand), with cats more at risk of infection (p < .01, OR = 5.96) than dogs. Unlike Bartonella spp., there was no evidence for flea involvement in the hemoplasmas' transmission cycle, thus supporting the hypothesis of non‐vectorial transmission for these pathogens. In conclusion, client‐owned cats and dogs living in East and Southeast Asia countries are exposed to vector‐borne pathogens with fleas from cats playing a key role in Bartonella spp. transmission, thus posing a high risk of infection for humans sharing the same environment.

Molecular investigation and clinical management of Hepatozoon Canis infection in an Indian jackal - a case report

BACKGROUND

Hepatozoonosis is a common tick-borne illness reported from all over the world. The infection has been well documented in dogs and cats, and has also been identified in wild canids and felids. India is home to many canid species; however, the incidence of Hepatozoonosis in wild canids is rarely reported. A wide variety of protocols have been discussed for the clinical management of the infection in companion animals; however, the suitability of treatment protocols in wild canids is understudied. The current case report highlights the clinical management of Hepatozoonosis in an Indian jackal and molecular investigation to provide vital insights into the epidemiology of the disease.

CASE PRESENTATION

A paraplegic Indian jackal was rescued from Melghat Tiger Reserve, Maharashtra, India. The animal had extensive decubital ulcers on the left pin bone and could not walk; however, the animal was active and dragged the hindlimb during locomotion. The vital parameters, blood and serum investigations were normal. Post physiotherapy, massage and infrared therapy, the animal could walk but started knuckling, resulting in injuries. Eight weeks into rehabilitation, the animal had a steep fall in haemoglobin concentration, platelet count, weight loss and was diagnosed with Hepatozoonosis. Considering the altered vital parameters, the jackal was rationally treated with Doxycyclin @ 20 mg/Kg O.D. (Once Daily) for 45 days along with supportive therapy. The jackal recovered after the treatment and led a normal life.

CONCLUSION

Mono-drug regime using Doxycycline was effective in the alleviation of H.canis infection in jackal. The drug was effective in alleviating the clinical presentation without alteration of vital parameters. The molecular investigation provided qualitative inputs in understanding the epidemiology of Hepatozoon in wild canids.

First detection and molecular identification of Babesia gibsoni and Hepatozoon canis in an Asiatic wild dog (Cuon alpinus) from Thailand

Babesia spp. and Hepatozoon spp. are apicomplexan parasites that infect a wide range of domestic and wild animals. The life cycle of these parasites requires a tick vector as a definitive host and various vertebrates as reservoir hosts. The objective of this study was to detect and characterize Babesia spp. and Hepatozoon spp. in an Asiatic wild dog (Cuon alpinus) from a natural habitat in northeastern Thailand. Heart and spleen samples of an adult male wild dog were screened for Babesia spp. and Hepatozoon spp. by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) of the partial fragment of 18S ribosomal RNA gene sequence. Both Babesia sp. and Hepatozoon sp. were detected in the spleen of the wild dog. Nucleotide sequence and phylogenetic analyses showed that the detected parasites were Babesia gibsoni and Hepatozoon canis. This is the first report of B. gibsoni and H. canis in the Asiatic wild dog from Thailand using PCR. Our results indicate that wild dogs can serve as a potential reservoir of the protozoan parasites and that they may play an important role in the transmission of these parasites to other wild or domestic canids.

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The Asiatic wild dog (Cuon alpinus) is involved in the cycle of tick-borne pathogens (TBP).

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This is the first report of Babesia gibsoni and Hepatozoon canis co-infection in an Asiatic wild dog.

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Wild dogs may be a source of TBP for other wild and domestic canids.

A Unique Case of Fatal Coinfection Caused by Leptospira spp. and Hepatozoon canis in a Red Fox Cub (Vulpes vulpes)

Red foxes are the most abundant wild carnivore species in Europe commonly exposed to pathogenic Leptospira and Hepatozoon canis. Despite high seroprevalence, the clinical disease caused by these pathogens in red foxes has never been reported. Herein, we report the first-ever case of a fatal Leptospira spp. and H. canis coinfection in a two-month-old red fox cub with acute haemolytic anaemia, mild bronchopneumonia, intraalveolar haemorrhage, and tubulonephrosis. The presence of pathogenic Leptospira spp. DNA was detected in the kidney and lung tissues of the infected animal. In contrast to our previous knowledge, we believe that such fatal cases due to concomitant infection by Leptospira spp. and H. canis, especially in young animals, may commonly occur in nature. However, further studies are required to identify other factors that possibly contribute to the severity and the pathogenic effect of Leptospira spp. and H. canis infections in red foxes.

Co-infection with Babesia canis and Babesia gibsoni in a dog

A four-year-old intact male Boxer, that had a history of travelling to Serbia, was referred for lethargy and anaemia. Shortly before the dog was referred, it was diagnosed twice with an infection with Babesia canis and was treated with imidocarb both times. A blood smear evaluation was indicative of the presence of intraerythrocytic piroplasms. After receiving inconclusive results regarding the type of piroplasm, the dog was diagnosed with simultaneous infections with B. canis and Babesia gibsoni via real-time polymerase chain reaction (rt-PCR) testing. The dog was treated with imidocarb, atovaquone and azithromycin, and in a follow-up examination, the PCR results were negative for B. canis and B. gibsoni. Several weeks later, the dog was presented again, and a PCR was positive for B. gibsoni. After atovaquone and azithromycin failed to eliminate the parasites, a therapy attempt using metronidazole, clindamycin and doxycycline was initiated. Six months after diagnosis, the treatment appeared successful in eliminating B. gibsoni. This case report describes the clinical findings of the co-infection and the initiated diagnostic and therapeutic approaches.

Dirofilaria spp. and Angiostrongylus vasorum: Current Risk of Spreading in Central and Northern Europe

In the past few decades, the relevance of Dirofilaria immitis and Dirofilaria repens, causing cardiopulmonary and subcutaneous dirofilariosis in dogs and cats, and of Angiostrongylus vasorum, causing canine angiostrongylosis, has steadily increased in Central and Northern Europe. In this review, a summary of published articles and additional reports dealing with imported or autochthonous cases of these parasites is provided for Central (Austria, Czechia, Germany, Hungary, Luxemburg, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Switzerland) and Northern (Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden) Europe. Research efforts focusing on Dirofilaria spp. and A. vasorum have varied by country, and cross-border studies are few. The housing conditions of dogs, pet movements, the spread of competent vectors, and climate change are important factors in the spread of these nematodes. Dogs kept outside overnight are a major factor for the establishment of Dirofilaria spp. However, the establishment of invasive, diurnal, synanthropic, competent mosquito vectors such as Aedes albopictus may also influence the establishment of Dirofilaria spp. The drivers of the spread of A. vasorum remain not fully understood, but it seems to be influenced by habitats shared with wild canids, dog relocation, and possibly climatic changes; its pattern of spreading appears to be similar in different countries. Both Dirofilaria spp. and A. vasorum merit further monitoring and research focus in Europe.

Prevalence of Vector-Borne Pathogens in Reproductive and Non-Reproductive Tissue Samples from Free-Roaming Domestic Cats in the South Atlantic USA

Reservoir to multiple species of zoonotic pathogens, free-roaming cats (FRCs) interact with domestic and wild animals, vectors, and humans. To assess the potential for feline vector-borne pathogens to be vertically transmitted, this study surveyed ear tip and reproductive tissues of FRCs from two locations in the South Atlantic United States for Anaplasma, Bartonella, Ehrlichia, hemotropic Mycoplasma, and Rickettsia species. We collected ovary (n = 72), uterus (n = 54), testicle (n = 74), and ear tip (n = 73) tissue from 73 cats, and fetal (n = 20) and placental (n = 19) tissue from 11 queens. Pathogen DNA was amplified utilizing qPCR, confirmed by sequencing. Cats were more frequently Bartonella henselae positive on reproductive tissues (19%, 14/73) than ear tip (5%, 4/73; p = 0.02). B. henselae was amplified from fetus (20%, 4/20) and placenta samples (11%, 2/19). Bartonella spp. infection was more common in cats from North Carolina (76%, 26/34) than Virginia (13%, 5/39; p < 0.0001). Fourteen percent (10/73) of both ear tip and reproductive tissues were positive for hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. Anaplasma, Ehrlichia, and Rickettsia spp. DNA was not amplified from any cat/tissue. These findings suggest that B. henselae preferentially infected cats' reproductive tissue and reinforces the importance of investigating the potential for B. henselae vertical transmission or induction of reproductive failure.

Lack of evidence of vertical transmission of Karyolysus blood parasites in Iberian green lizards (Lacerta schreiberi)

To understand the spread of parasite and the persistence of infection in an ecological environment, it is essential to investigate their transmission possibilities. Vertical transmission of pathogens from mother to offspring is a fundamental opportunity, notwithstanding a relatively under-researched topic, especially in wildlife animals. We studied whether there is vertical transmission of a haemogregarinid blood parasite of Iberian green lizard (Lacerta schreiberi). To study infection of mothers, embryos and freshly hatched juveniles, their blood smears and molecular analyses of their tail tissue were used. Examining blood smears, seventy-one percent of females were found to be infected, but molecular analyses of all mothers showed positive results for the blood parasite. Based on molecular data the parasite was identified as a Karyolysus species. In contrast, no parasite was found in the blood smears of the freshly hatched juveniles, and we could not detect Karyolysus in the embryos or tail tissue of offspring using molecular methods either. Based on our results, vertical transmission of Karyolysus blood parasites is unlikely in the Iberian green lizard.

Babesia pisicii n. sp. and Babesia canis Infect European Wild Cats, Felis silvestris, in Romania

Haemoparasites of the genus Babesia infect a wide range of domestic and wild animals. Feline babesiosis is considered endemic in South Africa, while data on Babesia spp. infection in felids in Europe is scarce. Using samples from 51 wild felids, 44 Felis silvestris and 7 Lynx lynx, the study aimed to determine the presence and genetic diversity of Babesia spp. in wild felids in Romania by analyzing the 18S rDNA and two mitochondrial markers, cytochrome b (Cytb) and cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) genes. By 18S rDNA analyses, Babesia spp. DNA was detected in 20 European wild felids. All sequences showed 100% similarity to B. canis by BLAST analysis. Conversely, Cytb and COI analyses revealed the presence of two Babesia spp., B. pisicii n. sp., which we herein describe, and B. canis. The pairwise comparison of both mitochondrial genes of B. pisicii n. sp. showed a genetic distance of at least 10.3% from the most closely related species, B. rossi. Phylogenetic analyses of Cytb and COI genes revealed that B. pisicii n. sp. is related to the so-called "large" canid-associated Babesia species forming a separate subclade in a sister position to B. rossi.

Zoonotic Bartonella species in Eurasian wolves and other free-ranging wild mammals from Italy

Bartonellae are emerging vector-borne pathogens infecting humans, domestic mammals and wildlife. Ninety-seven red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), 8 European badgers (Meles meles), 6 Eurasian wolves (Canis lupus), 6 European hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus), 3 beech martens (Martes foina) and 2 roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) from Italian Nature Conservatory Parks were investigated for Bartonella infection. Several Bartonella species (9.84%; 95% CI: 4.55-15.12), including zoonotic ones, were molecularly detected among wolves (83.3%; 95% CI: 51-100.00), foxes (4.12%; 95% CI: 0.17-8.08), hedgehogs (33.33%; 95% CI: 0.00-71.05) and a roe deer. Bartonella rochalimae was the most common Bartonella species (i.e. in 4 foxes and 2 wolves) detected. Candidatus B. merieuxii and B. vinsonii subsp. berkhoffii were identified for the first time in wolves. Furthermore, Bartonella schoenbuchensis was identified in a roe deer and a new clone with phylogenetic proximity to B. clarridgeiae was detected in European hedgehogs. Zoonotic and other Bartonella species were significantly more frequent in Eurasian wolves (p < .0001), than in other free-ranging wild mammals, representing a potential reservoir for infection in humans and domestic animals.

Babesia spp. and Anaplasma phagocytophilum in free-ranging wild ungulates in central Austria

Free-ranging wild ungulates are widespread in Austria, and act as hosts (i.e. feeding hosts) for ticks, including Ixodes ricinus, and as reservoir hosts for pathogens transmitted by I. ricinus. Due to climate change, the abundance of I. ricinus might be increasing, which could potentially lead to higher prevalences of tick-borne pathogens, such as Babesia spp. and Anaplasma phagocytophilum, some known for their zoonotic potential. Human babesiosis is classified as an emerging zoonosis, but sufficient data of these parasites in central Austria is lacking. In order to assess the abundance of vector-borne pathogens, blood of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus; n = 137), red deer (Cervus elaphus; n = 37), mouflons (Ovis gmelini; n = 2) and chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra; n = 1), was collected and tested for pathogen DNA in two different sampling sites in central Austria. DNA of tick-borne pathogens was detected in 15.5 % (n = 27) of these animals. Babesia capreoli (n = 22 in roe deer; n = 1 in mouflon), Babesia divergens (n = 1, in red deer), and Anaplasma phagocytophilum (n = 4, in roe deer) were detected. DNA sequencing of the 18S rRNA gene of two C. capreolus samples from Upper Austria featured another new genotype of Babesia, which differs in one nucleotide position to B. divergens and B. capreoli, and is intermediate between the main genotypes of B. capreoli and B. divergens within the partial gene sequence analyzed. This study thus confirms that B. capreoli, B. divergens, and A. phagocytophilum are present in free-ranging ungulates in central Austria. Further testing over a longer period is recommended in order to assess the impact of climate change on the prevalence of blood parasites in central Austria.

Absence of blood parasites and other vector-borne pathogens in Alpine marmots (Marmota marmota) in Western Austria

The importance of vectors and vector-borne diseases (VBDs) is increasing on a global scale. Many vectors and pathogens benefit from global warming and can spread to novel habitats where they were formerly not present, including higher altitudes. Various vector-borne pathogens (VBPs), such as Anaplasma phagocytophilum, have been reported in, for instance, red foxes and wild ungulates in the Western Austrian Alps. However, these animals are known to migrate to lower regions in the winter season, and therefore, it is of interest to investigate if VBPs are also present in mammals faithful to their higher altitude alpine habitat all year round. Blood parasites and other VBPs, namely. Trypanosomatidae, piroplasms, Hepatozoon spp., filarioid helminths, Anaplasmataceae, and Rickettisa spp., were thus analysed with PCR in 148 alpine marmots (Marmota marmota). None of the marmots' blood samples was positive for these VBPs, indicating a low abundance or absence of competent vectors in the alpine region. Alpine marmots seem to be naïve for VBPs (at least in our study area). An overview of VBD agents in other marmot species is given.

The red fox (Vulpes vulpes), a possible reservoir of Babesia vulpes, B. canis and Hepatozoon canis and its association with the tick Dermacentor reticulatus occurrence

The red fox (Vulpes vulpes) is known to be a reservoir host of various vector-borne protozoan parasites. Yet, the impact of these parasitic infections on the health status of the red fox is unknown. In this study, we compared the prevalence of haemoprotozoa in juvenile and adult foxes from four regions in Poland. The abundance of questing adult Dermacentor reticulatus ticks was shown to differ between regions and include a tick-endemic and non-endemic region, as well as two zones in which D. reticulatus recently expanded: an eastern and a western zone. Spleen and kidney enlargement indices were compared between infected, co-infected and non-infected foxes to evaluate pathogenic output of parasitic infections. Blood samples were collected from 383 necropsied red foxes and 25 live-trapped red fox cubs. The weights of spleens, kidneys and bodies were recorded for each necropsied individual. Blood and spleen DNA samples were screened by PCR to detect 18S rRNA and cox1 gene fragments of Babesia spp., and 18S rRNA of Hepatozoon spp. Prevalence of infection and mean organ weight indices were compared in relation to fox age and sex, origin (zone) and infection status. Hepatozoon canis (174/381; 45.7%) and Babesia vulpes (117/381; 30.7%) were the dominant pathogens infecting adult foxes. Babesia canis DNA was detected in 9 (2.4%) individuals. Two fox cubs from Western Poland were infected with B. vulpes (2/14; 14%), while H. canis infection (16/25; 59%) was detected in cubs from all three regions where trapping was carried out. Infection with B. vulpes was associated with significantly higher weights of spleens and kidneys. Spleen weight/ body weight and mean kidney weight/ body weight indices were shown as relevant in evaluating changes occurring during infection with B. vulpes. Babesia and Hepatozoon spp. infections differed in red foxes from D. reticulatus-endemic, non-endemic and newly inhabited areas. The prevalence of B. canis in foxes from four regions of Poland reflects the prevalence recorded in questing adult D. reticulatus collected in these areas. This finding suggests a contribution of red foxes to the establishment of new foci of B. canis-infected D. reticulatus ticks in areas recently invaded by this tick species. Spleen and kidney enlargement was identified in foxes infected with B. vulpes, particularly in individuals co-infected with B. vulpes and H. canis.

Hepatozoon canis in hunting dogs from Southern Italy: distribution and risk factors

Hepatozoon canis is a hemoprotozoan organism that infects domestic and wild carnivores throughout much of Europe. The parasite is mainly transmitted through the ingestion of infected ticks containing mature oocysts. The aims of the present survey were to determine the prevalence of H. canis in hunting dogs living in Southern Italy and to assess potential infection risk factors. DNA extracted from whole blood samples, collected from 1433 apparently healthy dogs living in the Napoli, Avellino, and Salerno provinces of Campania region (Southern Italy), was tested by a quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) assay to amplify H. canis. Furthermore, the investigated dog population was also screened by qPCR for the presence of Ehrlichia canis, a major tick-borne pathogen in Southern Italy, in order to assess possible co-infections. Two hundred dogs were H. canis PCR-positive, resulting in an overall prevalence of 14.0% (CI 12.2–15.9). Breed category (P < 0.0001), hair coat length (P = 0.015), and province of residence (P < 0.0001) represented significant risk factors for H. canis infection. The presence of H. canis DNA was also significantly associated with E. canis PCR positivity (P < 0.0001). Hunting dogs in Campania region (Southern Italy) are frequently exposed to H. canis, and the infection is potentially associated with close contact with wildlife. Further studies are needed to assess the pathogenic potential of H. canis, as well as the epidemiological relationships between hunting dogs and wild animal populations sharing the same habitats in Southern Italy.

Identical 18S rRNA haplotypes of Hepatozoon canis in dogs and foxes in Brandenburg, Germany

Hepatozoon canis is a blood parasite of the suborder Adeleorina infecting wild and domestic canids. Transmission occurs by oral uptake of Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato vector ticks infected with H. canis, but vertical transmission is also assumed to be possible. In German foxes, a high prevalence of H. canis has previously been reported despite the fact that R. sanguineus s.l. is not endemic. In the absence of knowledge about local transmission pathways, foxes should be considered to be possible reservoirs of H. canis and contribute to infection of domestic dogs. The present study aimed to determine how often foxes and dogs are infected in Brandenburg (Germany) and if identical or different H. canis 18S rRNA haplotypes are found in these host species. Hepatozoon spp. were detected by PCR in 46/1050 (4.4 %) of dog blood and 176/201 (77.6 %) of fox spleen samples from Brandenburg. Sequencing of 19 dog and 56 fox samples identified all as H. canis. For nine positive dogs, owners stated that they had never left Germany suggesting that autochthonous transmission occurs not only in foxes but also in dogs. Sequences for seven of these possible autochthonous cases were obtained and six were identical to the predominant haplotype found in the foxes. Haplotype network analysis confirmed that many dogs, including some without travel history, carried the same or very similar 18S rRNA haplotypes as the foxes suggesting that both hosts participate in the same epidemiological cycle.

Hepatozoon Infecting Bats in the Southeastern Brazilian Rainforest

Tick-borne protozoans of the genus Hepatozoon are obligate hemoparasites that can infect domestic and wild terrestrial vertebrates. Main hepatozoonosis affects canids and involves mainly Hepatozoon canis and Hepatozoon americanum. However, molecular studies revealed the capacity of H. canis to infect a wide range of wild mammals. In July 2018, we conducted an epidemiological survey for tick-borne pathogens in wild hosts, assaying Hepatozoon sp. occurrence in 34 bats captured in different habitats within a conservation unit in the state of Espírito Santo, southeastern Brazil. Blood and spleen tissue DNA samples were submitted to PCR amplifications of Babesia/Theileria and Hepatozoon 18S rRNA gene and 21% (7/34) were positive for Hepatozoon sp. Phylogenetic inferences grouped the obtained sequences from Seba's short-tailed bat (Carollia perspicillata) with the H. canis cluster, and from the great fruit-eating bat (Artibeus lituratus) with rodent-associated Hepatozoon cluster. Further studies are needed to characterize the epidemiological role of Seba's short-tailed bat and the great fruit-eating bat in the wild transmission cycle of these hemoparasites in Brazil.

Molecular survey of tick-borne pathogens reveals a high prevalence and low genetic variability of Hepatozoon canis in free-ranging grey wolves (Canis lupus) in Germany

Wild carnivores are important hosts for ixodid ticks and presumed reservoirs for several tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) of medical and veterinary importance. However, little is known about the role that the European grey wolf (Canis lupus) plays in the enzootic cycle of TBPs. The recent recolonization of Central European lowland, including some regions in Germany, by the grey wolf, opened up an excellent opportunity for studying the impact of the wolf population on pathogen diversity and transmission dynamics. Therefore, in the present study, we investigated spleen samples collected from 276 grey wolves in 11 federal states in Germany for common TBPs by molecular methods. In total, 127 grey wolves (46.0 %) were found to be positive for Hepatozoon canis. Only two genetic variants of this protozoan parasite (herein designated as G1 and G2) were found to circulate among the grey wolves, which can be potentially shared between populations of domestic and other wild carnivores in the country. Two grey wolves were positive for Anaplasma phagocytophilum (0.7 %), and both were co-infected with H. canis G1 genotype. The presence of other pathogens could not be confirmed by PCR and sequencing. This study represents the first one reporting H. canis in a grey wolf population worldwide, and it provides highly relevant information, which may contribute to a better understanding of the epidemiology of TBPs and the pathogen transmission dynamics among the reintroduced population of grey wolves and other carnivores.

Molecular Survey on Vector-Borne Pathogens in Alpine Wild Carnivorans

In Europe, free-ranging wildlife has been linked to the emergence of several vector-borne diseases such as rodents for Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. In particular, wild carnivorans are one of the most important sources of emerging zoonotic pathogens worldwide, although little information is available regarding the epidemiology of vector-borne parasites in these animals. Thus, the aim of this paper was to investigate the prevalence of Babesia spp., Anaplasma spp., Ehrlichia spp., Hepatozoon spp. and Leishmania infantum in alpine wild canids and mustelids from Italy. For this study, spleen samples of 157 foxes (Vulpes vulpes), 45 badgers (Meles meles), and 33 wolves (Canis lupus) collected between 2009 and 2017 in Northwest Italy were examined by using conventional PCR. Logistic regression was used to identify possible risk factors for pathogen infections. DNA of any of the tested pathogens was found in more than 90% of the analyzed animals. In particular, Babesia spp. showed significantly higher prevalence in foxes (89.7%) and badgers (89.6%) than in wolves, while the latter were considerably more infected with Hepatozoon canis (75.8%) than foxes (5.1%). None of the badger tested positive for Hepatozoon spp., although they showed high prevalence of Leishmania infantum (53.3%). Sequencing results revealed the presence, among others, of Babesia vulpes, Babesia sp. isolate badger type A and B, and Anaplasma phagocytophilum. Moreover, previously unreported pathogen/host associations were observed, such as Babesia capreoli in wolves and badgers. The prevalence of vector-borne pathogens observed in the present study is one of the highest reported so far, suggesting the importance of free-ranging carnivorans in the epidemiology and maintenance of the sylvatic cycle of the pathogens. Moreover, several of these pathogens are of particular importance regarding human (A. phagocytophilum, L. infantum) and pet health (L. infantum, B. vulpes).

Adult Hyalomma marginatum tick positive for Rickettsia aeschlimannii in Austria, October 2018

We report on a non-indigenous adult Hyalomma marginatum tick in Austria carrying the human pathogenic Rickettsia aeschlimannii; presumably introduced as a nymph via migratory birds and completed the moulting within the same year. It was negative for Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever virus, but the finding of R. aeschlimannii represents a potential threat for humans due to its zoonotic character. Awareness of invasive tick species and carried pathogens should be improved in central and northern Europe.

Molecular detection of Anaplasma phagocytophilum in wild carnivores in north-eastern Poland

Background

Anaplasma phagocytophilum is an obligate parasitic intracellular bacterium. It is the causative agent of granulocytic anaplasmosis, with effects on human and animal health. In Europe, the pathogen is mainly transmitted among a wide range of vertebrate hosts by blood-sucking arthropods. The aim of this study was to determine the presence of A. phagocytophilum in wild carnivores, viz raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides), badgers (Meles meles), foxes (Vulpes vulpes), martens (Martes sp.) and European polecats (Mustela putorius), using molecular methods.

Methods

In the present study, 174 spleen samples were collected from adult, wild carnivores hunted in the years 2013–2016. A short fragment (383 bp) of the 16S ribosomal RNA gene partial sequence was used as a marker to identify A. phagocytophilum in spleen samples collected from carnivores using nested PCR.

Results

The prevalence of A. phagocytophilum in wild carnivores was 31.61% (55/174). Seven sequences of A. phagocytophilum were generated from two raccoon dogs, two badgers, one marten, one red fox and one European polecat. Six identical nucleotide sequences were obtained from one raccoon dog, two badgers, one marten, one red fox and one European polecat (A. phagocytophilum sequences 1: MH328205–MH328209, MH328211), and these were identical to many A. phagocytophilum sequences in the GenBank database (100% similarity). The second sequence (A. phagocytophilum sequence 2: MH328210) obtained from the raccoon dog shared 99.74% identity with A. phagocytophilum sequence 1.

Conclusions

To our knowledge, this is the first study to use molecular methods to determine the presence of A. phagocytophilum in wild carnivores, viz raccoon dog, badger, marten and European polecat, in Poland. The detected A. phagocytophilum sequences (1 and 2) were closely related with those of A. phagocytophilum occurring in a wide range of wild and domestic animals and vectors.

Candidatus Neoehrlichia sp. (FU98) and Borrelia burgdorferi Sensu Lato in Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes) from Serbia

Human activities such as deforestation, urbanization, and environmental pollution lead to a reduction in the spatial boundary between wild animals, domestic animals and humans. These activities increase the risk for the emergence of pathogens from the sylvatic cycle in the population of domestic animals and humans. Foxes are recognized as potential reservoirs for a number of bacterial pathogens of medical and public health concern. The aim of the present study was to investigate the prevalence and spatial distribution of bacterial tick-borne pathogens from the Anaplasmataceae family, Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (s.l.), Rickettsia spp., Coxiella burnetii, Francisella tularensis, Bartonella spp., in the red fox population from Serbia and to discuss the obtained results from the epidemiological point of view. Legally hunted red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) from 14 localities in Serbia were included in the study and spleen samples from 129 animals were tested with conventional PCR assays for the presence of bacterial tick-borne pathogens. DNA of Candidatus Neoehrlichia sp. (FU98), Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto, Borrelia lusitaniae, and Borrelia garinii was detected in 6 (4.7%), 1 (0.8%), 2 (1.6%) and 1 (0.8%) animals, respectively. Co-infection by Candidatus Neoehrlichia sp. (FU98) and B. garinii was detected in one animal. All samples were negative for other tested bacterial tick-borne pathogens. The results of the present study indicate the potential role of foxes in natural cycles of Candidatus Neoehrlichia sp. (FU98) and causative agents of Lyme borreliosis in the investigated areas. Further research is required to elucidate the role of foxes in the epidemiology of these and other tick-borne zoonotic pathogens in the Republic of Serbia.

Screening of wild ruminants from the Kaunertal and other alpine regions of Tyrol (Austria) for vector-borne pathogens

Knowledge about vector-borne pathogens important for human and veterinary medicine in wild ruminants in Tyrol (Austria) is scarce. Blood samples from Alpine ibex (Capra ibex; n = 44), Alpine chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra; n = 21), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus; n = 18) and red deer (Cervus elaphus; n = 6) were collected over a period of 4 years (2015–2018) in four regions in North Tyrol, with a primary focus on the Kaunertal. Blood spots on filter paper were tested for the presence of DNA of vector-borne pathogens (Anaplasmataceae, Piroplasmida, Rickettsia and filarioid helminths). Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Babesia capreoli were detected in two of 89 (2.3%) blood samples. Rickettsia spp., Theileria spp. and filarioid helminths were not documented. One Alpine chamois was positive for A. phagocytophilum and B. capreoli. Moreover, an ibex from the Kaunertal region was positive for A. phagocytophilum. While the ibex was a kid less than 1 year old, the chamois was an adult individual. Further research is recommended to evaluate effects of climate change on infection rates of North Tyrolean wild ruminants by these pathogens and the distribution of their vectors.

The role of healthy dog carriers of Babesia microti-like piroplasms

BACKGROUND

While in Europe Babesia canis has been traditionally held responsible for canine piroplasmosis, Babesia microti-like piroplasm (Bml) infection is being ever more observed in dogs, with the first clinical cases reported in northwestern Spain. This study examines the epidemiological role of healthy dogs living in endemic areas of Bml infection in Spain. The data obtained were used to describe the clinical status and map the geographical distribution of Bml infection in healthy dogs in northwestern Spain.

RESULTS

Blood samples and ticks were taken from 756 healthy dogs representatively across the whole Galicia region (northwestern Spain): stray (n = 211), hunting dogs (n = 333) and pets (n = 212). Blood samples were tested by microscopy parasite observation, nested PCR-RFLP and sequencing. Piroplasm infection prevalences in healthy dogs from northwestern Spain were 17.1% (129/756) by PCR and 3.4% (26/756) by microscopy observation. The species found by PCR were: 2.2% (17/756) for B. canis and 15.1% (114/756) for Bml. Co-infection with B. canis and Bml was noted in 2 dogs. The higher prevalences detected were Bml in hunting dogs (25.5%; 85/333) and B. canis in stray dogs (6.6%; 14/211). In fox-hunting dogs from any area and dogs from the A Coruña Province, significantly higher prevalences of Bml infection were detected (P < 0.001). Upon physical examination, tick infestation was observed: 130 ticks in 18 hunting and three pet dogs. These were subsequently identified as Rhipicephalus sanguineus (s.l.) (49.2%), Ixodes hexagonus (38.5%), Ixodes ricinus (6.9%) and Dermacentor reticulatus (5.4%). Among the more prevalent ticks infesting healthy carrier dogs were I. hexagonus, followed by D. reticulatus and I. ricinus.

CONCLUSIONS

Babesia canis and Bml were the only piroplasm species found infecting healthy dogs in Galicia, the prevalence of Bml being higher than of B. canis. Factors correlated with a higher Bml infection risk were being a hunting dog and living in the A Coruña Province. Healthy dogs travelling to other countries could act as carriers and probably contribute to the spread of Bml infection in dogs and wild carnivores throughout Europe.

First evidence of tick-borne protozoan pathogens, Babesia sp. and Hepatozoon canis, in red foxes (vulpes vulpes) in Serbia

Tick-borne haematozoans cause severe diseases in domestic animals, and some of them have zoonotic potential. The results of previous studies in Europe point to the important role of foxes in natural endemic cycles of several tick-borne pathogens, including protozoa. The aim of the present research was to acquire information on the prevalence and distribution of tick-borne protozoan parasites among foxes in Serbia. Legally hunted foxes from 14 localities throughout Serbia were analysed. Spleen samples were collected from 129 animals and tested for the presence of Babesia spp. and Hepatozoon spp. by PCR. In total, 79/129 (61.2%) of the tested foxes were positive for H. canis, while the presence of two Babesia species was confirmed: B. vulpes (37/129, 28.7%) and B. canis (1/129, 0.8%). Coinfection with B. vulpes and H. canis was present in 26/129 (20.2%) foxes and one animal (1/129, 0.8%) was co-infected by B. canis and H. canis. The results of this study indicate the important role of foxes in the epizootiology of B. vulpes and H. canis in the Republic of Serbia and stress the need for further research to clarify all elements of the enzootic cycle of the detected pathogens, including other reservoirs, vectors, and transmission routes.

Comparative Ecology of Bartonella and Brucella Infections in Wild Carnivores

Phylogenetic sister clades Bartonella and Brucella within the order Rhizobiales present some common biological characteristics as well as evident differences in adaptations to their mammalian reservoirs. We reviewed published data on Bartonella and Brucella infections in wild carnivores to compare the ecology of these bacteria in relatively similar host environments. Arthropod vectors are the main mechanism for Bartonella species transmission between mammalian hosts. The role of arthropods in transmission of Brucella remains disputed, however experimental studies and reported detection of Brucella in arthropods indicate potential vector transmission. More commonly, transmission of Brucella occurs via contact exposure to infected animals or the environment contaminated with their discharges. Of 26 species of carnivores tested for both Bartonella and Brucella, 58% harbored either. Among them were bobcats, African lions, golden jackals, coyotes, wolves, foxes, striped skunks, sea otters, raccoons, and harbor seals. The most common species of Bartonella in wild carnivores was B. henselae, found in 23 species, followed by B. rochalimae in 12, B. clarridgeiae in ten, and B. vinsonii subsp. berkhoffii in seven. Among Brucella species, Br. abortus was reported in over 30 terrestrial carnivore species, followed by Br. canis in seven. Marine carnivores, such as seals and sea lions, can host Br. pinnipedialis. In contrast, there is no evidence of a Bartonella strain specific for marine mammals. Bartonella species are present practically in every sampled species of wild felids, but of 14 Brucella studies of felids, only five reported Brucella and those were limited to detection of antibodies. We found no reports of Bartonella in bears while Brucella was detected in these animals. There is evident host-specificity of Bartonella species in wild carnivores (e.g., B. henselae in felids and B. vinsonii subsp. berkhoffii in canids). A co-adaptation of Brucella with terrestrial wild carnivore hosts is not as straightforward as in domestic animals. Wild carnivores often carry the same pathogens as their domesticated relatives (cats and dogs), but the risk of exposure varies widely because of differences in biology, distribution, and historical interactions.

Diversity of Anaplasma and Ehrlichia/Neoehrlichia Agents in Terrestrial Wild Carnivores Worldwide: Implications for Human and Domestic Animal Health and Wildlife Conservation

Recently, the incidence and awareness of tick-borne diseases in humans and animals have increased due to several factors, which in association favor the chances of contact among wild animals and their ectoparasites, domestic animals and humans. Wild and domestic carnivores are considered the primary source of tick-borne zoonotic agents to humans. Among emergent tick-borne pathogens, agents belonging to family Anaplasmataceae (Order Rickettsiales) agents stand out due their worldwide distribution and zoonotic potential. In this review we aimed to review the genetic diversity of the tick-transmitted genera Ehrlichia, Anaplasma and "Candidatus Neoehrlichia sp." in wild carnivores Caniformia (Canidae, Mustelidae and Ursidae) and Feliformia (Felidae, Hyanidae, Procyonidae and Viverridae) worldwide, discussing the implications for human and domestic animal health and wildlife conservation. Red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) have been identified as hosts for Anaplasma spp. (A. phagocytophilum, Anaplasma ovis, A. platys), Ehrlichia canis and "Candidatus Neoehrlichia sp." (FU98 strain) and may contribute to the maintaenance of A. phagocytophilum in Europe. Raccoons (Procyon lotor) have been reported as hosts for E. canis, A. bovis, "Candidatus Neoehrlichia lotoris" and A. phagocytophilum, and play a role in the maintenance of A. phagocytophilum in the USA. Raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides) may play a role as hosts for A. bovis and A. phagocytophilum. New Ehrlichia and/or Anaplasma genotypes circulate in wild canids and felids from South America and Africa. While Ehrlichia sp. closely related to E. canis has been reported in wild felids from Brazil and Japan, Anaplasma sp. closely related to A. phagocytophilum has been detected in wild felids from Brazil and Africa. Red foxes and mustelids (otters) are exposed to E. canis in countries located in the Mediaterranean basin, probably as a consequence of spillover from domestic dogs. Similarly, E. canis occurs in procyonids in North (raccoons in USA, Spain) and South (Nasua nasua in Brazil) Hemispheres, in areas where E. canis is frequent in dogs. While "Candidatus Neoehrlichia lotoris" seems to be a common and specific agent of raccoons in the USA, "Candidatus Neoehrlichia sp." (FU98 strain) seems to show a broader range of hosts, since it has been detected in red fox, golden jackal (Canis aureus) and badger (Meles meles) in Europe so far. Brown (Ursus arctos) and black (Ursus americanus) bears seem to play a role as hosts for A. phagocytophilum in the North Hemisphere. Anaplasma bovis has been detected in wild Procyonidae, Canidae and Felidae in Asia and Brazil. In order to assess the real identity of the involved agents, future works should benefit from the application of MLST (Multi Locus Sequence Typing), WGS (Whole Genome Sequencing) and NGS (Next Generation Sequencing) technologies aiming at shedding some light on the role of wild carnivores in the epidemiology of Anaplasmataceae agents.

An Australian dog diagnosed with an exotic tick-borne infection: should Australia still be considered free from Hepatozoon canis?

Recent molecular and sero-surveillance studies of the tick-borne pathogen Hepatozoon canis have identified new hosts, potential vector species, and have revealed that H. canis is more widespread than previously thought. We report the first diagnosed case of canine hepatozoonosis in Australia from a Maremma Sheepdog in Sarina, Queensland. Hepatozoon canis was detected with blood smear examination and 18S rRNA sequencing. It is unknown when or how the organism was introduced into Australia, which raises questions about border biosecurity policies and the H. canis infection status of its potential vectors and hosts in Australia. Surveillance for this pathogen is required to determine whether H. canis has established in Australia.

Ticks are more suitable than red foxes for monitoring zoonotic tick-borne pathogens in northeastern Italy

BACKGROUND

Northeastern Italy is a hotspot for several tick-borne pathogens, transmitted to animals and humans mainly by Ixodes ricinus. Here we compare the results of molecular monitoring of ticks and zoonotic TBPs over a six-year period, with the monitoring of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in an endemic area.

RESULTS

In the period 2011-2016, 2,578 ticks were collected in 38 sites of 20 municipalities of Belluno Province. Individual adults (264), pooled larvae (n = 330) and nymphs (n = 1984) were screened for tick-borne encephalitis virus, Borrelia burgdorferi (s.l.), Rickettsia spp., Babesia spp., Anaplasma phagocytophilum and "Candidatus Neoehrlichia mikurensis" by specific SYBR green real-time PCR assays and sequencing. The spleens of 97 foxes, culled in the period 2015-2017 during sport hunting or population control programs, were also screened. Overall, nine different pathogens were found in I. ricinus nymph and adult ticks: Rickettsia helvetica (3.69%); R. monacensis (0.49%); four species of the B. burgdorferi (s.l.) complex [B. afzelii (1.51%); B. burgdorferi (s.s.) (1.25%); B. garinii (0.18%); and B. valaisiana (0.18%)]; A. phagocytophilum (3.29%); "Candidatus N. mikurensis" (1.73%); and Babesia venatorum (0.04%). Larvae were collected and screened in the first year only and two pools (0.6%) were positive for R. helvetica. Tick-borne encephalitis virus was not found in ticks although human cases do occur in the area. The rate of infection in ticks varied widely according to tick developmental stage, site and year of collection. As expected, adults were the most infected, with 27.6% harboring at least one pathogen compared to 7.3% of nymphs. Pathogens with a minimum infection rate above 1% were recorded every year. None of the pathogens found in ticks were detectable in the foxes, 52 (54%) of which were instead positive for Babesia cf. microti (also referred to as Babesia microti-like, "Theileria annae", "Babesia annae" and "Babesia vulpes").

CONCLUSIONS

The results show that foxes cannot be used as sentinel animals to monitor tick-borne pathogens in the specific epidemiological context of northeastern Italy. The high prevalence of Babesia cf. microti in foxes and its absence in ticks strongly suggests that I. ricinus is not the vector of this pathogen.

A survey of Babesia spp. and Hepatozoon spp. in wild canids in Israel

Background

Babesia spp. and Hepatozoon spp. are apicomplexan parasites that infect a variety of animals, including canids. Their life-cycle includes an invertebrate hematophagous vector as a definitive host and vertebrates as intermediate hosts. The aims of this study were to investigate the prevalence and risk factors for Babesia spp. and Hepatozoon spp. infections in wild golden jackals (Canis aureus) and red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in Israel and to compare spleen with blood sample polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for the detection of infection.

Results

Blood and spleen samples from 109 golden jackals and 21 red foxes were tested by PCR for the detection of Babesia spp. and Hepatozoon spp. using primers for the 18S ribosomal (r) RNA gene. Hepatozoon canis was detected in 50/109 (46%) of the jackals and 9/21 (43%) of the foxes. “Babesia vulpes” (the Babesia microti-like piroplasm) was detected in 4/21 (19%) of the foxes and in none of the jackals. A previously unknown genotype termed Babesia sp. MML related to Babesia lengau (96–97% identity) was detected in 1/109 (1%) of the jackals and 4/21 (19%) of the foxes. Further characterization of this genotype carried out by PCR of the rRNA internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) indicated that it had only 87% identity with the B. lengau ITS2. Sex (male or female), age (juvenile or adult) and geographic zone (North, Central or South Israel) were not found to be significant risk factors for these protozoan infections. The prevalence of “B. vulpes” and Babesia sp. MML infections was significantly higher in foxes compared to jackals (χ² = 15.65, df = 1, P < 0.005), while there was no statistically significant difference in the rate of H. canis infection between these two canid species. A fair agreement beyond chance between identification in the blood and spleen of H. canis was found in 21 animals from which both blood and spleen samples were available (k = 0.33).

Conclusions

This study describes a high prevalence of H. canis infection in foxes and jackals and is the first report of “B. vulpes” infection in Israel, an area where Ixodes spp. are rare. It describes infection with a previously unknown genotype of Babesia related to B. lengau from Africa.