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Hyllestad S, Lyngstad TM, Lindstrøm JC, White RA, Andreassen M, Svendsen C. Estimating the risk of gastrointestinal illness associated with drinking tap water in Norway: a prospective cohort study. BMC Public Health 2024; 24:2107. [PMID: 39103854 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-024-19607-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2024] [Accepted: 07/26/2024] [Indexed: 08/07/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The delivery of safe drinking water has high public health relevance, as reflected in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG6). Several precautionary actions have reduced the burden associated with infectious diseases in high-income countries; however, pollution in source waters, inadequate disinfection, and premise plumbing, along with an increased awareness that intrusion in the drinking water distribution system, represents risk factors for gastrointestinal illness linked to consume of drinking water. Sporadic cases of waterborne infections are expected to be underreported since a sick person is less likely to seek healthcare for a self-limiting gastrointestinal infection. Hence, knowledge on the true burden of waterborne diseases is scarce. The primary aim with the present study was to estimate the risk of gastrointestinal illness associated with drinking tap water in Norway. METHODS We conducted a 12-month prospective cohort study where participants were recruited by telephone interview after invitation based on randomised selection. A start up e-survey were followed by 12 monthly SMS questionnaires to gather information on participants characteristics and drinking tap water (number of 0.2L glasses per day), incidence, duration and symptoms associated with gastrointestinal illness. Associations between the exposure of drinking tap water and the outcome of risk of acute gastrointestinal illness (AGI) were analysed with linear mixed effects models. Age, sex, education level and size of the drinking water supply were identified as potential confounders and included in the adjusted model. RESULTS In total, 9,946 persons participated in this cohort study, accounting for 11.5% of all invited participants. According to the data per person and month (99,446 monthly submissions), AGI was reported for 5,508 person-months (5.5 per 100 person-months). Severe AGI was reported in 819 person-months (0.8 per 100 person-months). Our study estimates that 2-4% of AGI in Norway is attributable to drinking tap water. CONCLUSIONS This is the largest cohort study in Norway estimating the burden of self-reported gastrointestinal infections linked to the amount of tap water drunk in Norway. The data indicate that waterborne AGI is not currently a burden in Norway, but the findings need to be used with caution. The importance of continued efforts and investments in the maintenance of drinking water supplies in Norway to address the low burden of sporadic waterborne cases and to prevent future outbreaks needs to be emphasised.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne Hyllestad
- Department of Infection Control and Preparedness, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, P.O. Box 222, Skøyen, Oslo, 0213, Norway.
| | - Trude Marie Lyngstad
- Department of Infection Control and Preparedness, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, P.O. Box 222, Skøyen, Oslo, 0213, Norway
| | | | - Richard Aubrey White
- Department of Infection Control and Vaccines, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
| | - Monica Andreassen
- Department of Chemical Toxicology, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
| | - Camilla Svendsen
- Department of Chemical Toxicology, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
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Miura T, Kadoya SS, Miura Y, Takino H, Akiba M, Sano D, Masuda T. Pepper mild mottle virus intended for use as a process indicator for drinking water treatment: Present forms and quantitative relations to norovirus and rotavirus in surface water. WATER RESEARCH 2024; 257:121713. [PMID: 38733963 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2024.121713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2023] [Revised: 03/19/2024] [Accepted: 05/01/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024]
Abstract
Pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV) has been proposed as a potential indicator of human enteric viruses in environmental water and for viral removal during drinking water treatment. To investigate the occurrence and present forms of PMMoV and quantitative relations to norovirus GII and rotavirus A (RVA) in surface waters, 147 source water samples were collected from 21 drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) in Japan between January 2018 and January 2021, and the concentrations of viruses in suspended and dissolved fractions were measured using real-time RT-PCR. PMMoV was detected in 81-100 % of samples in each sample month and observed concentrations ranged from 3.0 to 7.0 log10 copies/L. The concentrations of PMMoV were higher in dissolved fraction compared to suspended fractions, while different partitioning was observed for NoV GII depending on seasons. The concentrations of PMMoV were basically higher than those of norovirus GII (1.9-5.3 log10 copies/L) and RVA (1.9-6.6 log10 copies/L), while in 18 samples, RVA presented higher concentrations than PMMoV. Partial regions of VP7, VP4, and VP6 of the RVA in the 18 samples were amplified using nested PCR, and the genotypes were determined using an amplicon-based next-generation sequencing approach. We found that these source water samples included not only human RVA but also various animal RVA and high genetic diversity due to the existence of animal RVA was associated with a higher RVA concentration than PMMoV. Our findings suggest that PMMoV can be used as an indicator of norovirus GII and human RVA in drinking water sources and that the indicator performance should be evaluated by comparing to zoonotic viruses as well as human viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takayuki Miura
- Department of Environmental Health, National Institute of Public Health, Wako, Japan.
| | - Syun-Suke Kadoya
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tohoku University, Japan; Department of Urban Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yohei Miura
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tohoku University, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Takino
- Department of Environmental Health, National Institute of Public Health, Wako, Japan
| | - Michihiro Akiba
- Department of Environmental Health, National Institute of Public Health, Wako, Japan
| | - Daisuke Sano
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tohoku University, Japan
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Díaz De Oleo D, McIntyre L, Randall N, Nayak R, Manning L. A socio-technical approach to food safety incident analysis using the AcciMap model in the hospitality sector. Food Control 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2022.108849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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Koppanen M, Kesti T, Kokko M, Rintala J, Palmroth M. An online flow-imaging particle counter and conventional water quality sensors detect drinking water contamination in the presence of normal water quality fluctuations. WATER RESEARCH 2022; 213:118149. [PMID: 35151088 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2022.118149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2021] [Revised: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 01/31/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Contamination detection in drinking water is crucial for water utilities in terms of public health; however, current online water quality sensors can be unresponsive to various possible contaminants consisting of particulate and dissolved content or require a constant supply of reagents and sample preparation. We used a two-line test environment connected to a drinking water distribution system with flow-imaging particle counters and conventional sensors to assess their responses to the injection of contaminants into one line, including stormwater, treated wastewater, wastewater, well water, and Escherichia coli, while simultaneously measuring responses to normal water quality fluctuations in the other line. These water quality fluctuations were detected with all of the conventional sensors (except conductivity) and with 3 out of 5 of the size- and shape-derived particle classes of the flow-imaging particle counter. The flow-imaging particle counter was able to detect all of the studied contaminants, e.g. municipal wastewater at 0.001% (v/v), while the oxidation-reduction potential sensor outperformed other conventional sensors, detecting the same wastewater at 0.03% (v/v). The presence of particles less than 1 µm in size was shown to be a generic parameter for the detection of particulates present in the studied contaminants; however, they manifested a considerable response to fluctuations which led to lower relative response to contaminants in comparison to larger particles. The particle size and class distributions of contaminants were different from those of drinking water, and thus monitoring particles larger than 1 µm or specific particle classes of flow-imaging particle counter, which are substantially more abundant in contaminated water than in pure drinking water, can improve the detection of contamination events. Water utilities could optimize contamination detection by selecting water quality parameters with a minimal response to quality fluctuations and/or a high relative response to contaminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus Koppanen
- Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Tampere University, P.O. Box 541, FI-33101, Tampere, Finland.
| | - Tero Kesti
- Uponor Corporation, Kaskimäenkatu 2, FI-33900 Tampere, Finland
| | - Marika Kokko
- Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Tampere University, P.O. Box 541, FI-33101, Tampere, Finland
| | - Jukka Rintala
- Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Tampere University, P.O. Box 541, FI-33101, Tampere, Finland
| | - Marja Palmroth
- Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Tampere University, P.O. Box 541, FI-33101, Tampere, Finland
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Risk-Based Evaluation of Improvements in Drinking Water Treatment Using Cost-Benefit Analysis. WATER 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/w14050782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Reliable and safe drinking water supply requires adequate risk management. Decision support models can aid decisionmakers to effectively evaluate risk mitigation measures and allocate societal resources. Here, a Swedish case study illustrates how the installation of ultrafiltration membranes can be evaluated by combining risk assessment and cost-benefit analysis. Quantitative microbial risk assessment was used to assess several contamination sources and estimate the achieved risk reduction from waterborne pathogens using Campylobacter, Norovirus, and Cryptosporidium as reference pathogens. The societal value of the improved water quality was estimated in the cost-benefit analysis by monetising the gained quality adjusted life years and aesthetic water quality improvements. The calculated net present value (mean of 7 MEUR) indicated that the installation of the ultrafiltration membranes was a sound investment from a societal economic perspective. The ultrafiltration membranes reduced the annual probability of infection from 3 × 10−2 to 10−7, well below the U.S. EPA’s acceptable level, as well as improving the aesthetic quality of the drinking water. The results provide a novel example of the importance for water distributors to consider not only health-related metrics when evaluating treatment options or monitoring the drinking water quality, but to also consider the aesthetic quality of the drinking water.
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Pilevar M, Kim KT, Lee WH. Recent advances in biosensors for detecting viruses in water and wastewater. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2021; 410:124656. [PMID: 33308919 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.124656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2020] [Revised: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 11/20/2020] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
As there is a considerable number of virus particles in wastewater which cause numerous infectious diseases, it is necessary to eliminate viruses from domestic wastewater before it is released in the environment. In addition, on-site detection of viruses in wastewater can provide information on possible virus exposures in the community of a given wastewater catchment. For this purpose, the pre-detection of different strains of viruses in wastewaters is an essential environmental step. Epidemiological studies illustrate that viruses are the most challenging pathogens to be detected in water samples because of their nano sizes, discrete distribution, and low infective doses. Over the past decades, several methods have been applied for the detection of waterborne viruses which include polymerase chain reaction-based methods (PCR), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and nucleic acid sequence-based amplification (NASBA). Although they have shown acceptable performance in virus measurements, their drawbacks such as complicated and time-consuming procedures, low sensitivity, and high analytical cost call for alternatives. Although biosensors are still in an early stage for practical applications, they have shown great potential to become an alternative means for virus detection in water and wastewater. This comprehensive review addresses the different types of viruses found in water and the recent development of biosensors for detecting waterborne viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohsen Pilevar
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Construction Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816, USA
| | - Keug Tae Kim
- Department of Environmental & Energy Engineering, The University of Suwon, 17 Wauan-gil, Bongdam-eup, Hwaseong-si, Gyeonggi-do 18323, South Korea
| | - Woo Hyoung Lee
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Construction Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816, USA.
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Bartsch SM, O'Shea KJ, Lee BY. The Clinical and Economic Burden of Norovirus Gastroenteritis in the United States. J Infect Dis 2021; 222:1910-1919. [PMID: 32671397 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiaa292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2020] [Accepted: 05/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although norovirus outbreaks periodically make headlines, it is unclear how much attention norovirus may receive otherwise. A better understanding of the burden could help determine how to prioritize norovirus prevention and control. METHODS We developed a computational simulation model to quantify the clinical and economic burden of norovirus in the United States. RESULTS A symptomatic case generated $48 in direct medical costs, $416 in productivity losses ($464 total). The median yearly cost of outbreaks was $7.6 million (range across years, $7.5-$8.2 million) in direct medical costs, and $165.3 million ($161.1-$176.4 million) in productivity losses ($173.5 million total). Sporadic illnesses in the community (incidence, 10-150/1000 population) resulted in 14 118-211 705 hospitalizations, 8.2-122.9 million missed school/work days, $0.2-$2.3 billion in direct medical costs, and $1.4-$20.7 billion in productivity losses ($1.5-$23.1 billion total). The total cost was $10.6 billion based on the current incidence estimate (68.9/1000). CONCLUSION Our study quantified norovirus' burden. Of the total burden, sporadic cases constituted >90% (thus, annual burden may vary depending on incidence) and productivity losses represented 89%. More than half the economic burden is in adults ≥45, more than half occurs in winter months, and >90% of outbreak costs are due to person-to-person transmission, offering insights into where and when prevention/control efforts may yield returns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah M Bartsch
- Public Health Informatics, Computational, and Operations Research, City University of New York, New York City, New York, USA
| | - Kelly J O'Shea
- Public Health Informatics, Computational, and Operations Research, City University of New York, New York City, New York, USA
| | - Bruce Y Lee
- Public Health Informatics, Computational, and Operations Research, City University of New York, New York City, New York, USA
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Hyllestad S, Lund V, Nygård K, Aavitsland P, Vold L. The establishment and first experiences of a crisis advisory service for water supplies in Norway. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2020; 18:545-555. [PMID: 32833680 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2020.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Water supply systems, in particular small-scale water supply systems, are vulnerable to adverse events that may jeopardise safe drinking water. The consequences of contamination events or the failure of daily operations may be severe, affecting many people. In Norway, a 24-hour crisis advisory service was established in 2017 to provide advice on national water supplies. Competent and expert advisors from water suppliers throughout the country assist other water suppliers and individuals who may be in need of advice during an adverse event. This paper describes the establishment of this service and experiences from the first three years of its operation. Since the launch of the service, water suppliers across Norway have consulted it approximately one to two times a month for advice, in particular about contamination events and near misses. The outcomes have helped to improve guidance on water hygiene issues at the national level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne Hyllestad
- Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Section of Zoonotic, Food- and Waterborne Infections, P.O. Box 222 Skøyen, 0213 Oslo, Norway E-mail: ; University of Oslo, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Health and Society, Oslo, Norway
| | - Vidar Lund
- Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Section of Zoonotic, Food- and Waterborne Infections, P.O. Box 222 Skøyen, 0213 Oslo, Norway E-mail:
| | - Karin Nygård
- Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Section of Zoonotic, Food- and Waterborne Infections, P.O. Box 222 Skøyen, 0213 Oslo, Norway E-mail:
| | - Preben Aavitsland
- Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Section of Zoonotic, Food- and Waterborne Infections, P.O. Box 222 Skøyen, 0213 Oslo, Norway E-mail: ; University of Oslo, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Health and Society, Oslo, Norway
| | - Line Vold
- Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Section of Zoonotic, Food- and Waterborne Infections, P.O. Box 222 Skøyen, 0213 Oslo, Norway E-mail:
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Miura T, Gima A, Akiba M. Detection of Norovirus and Rotavirus Present in Suspended and Dissolved Forms in Drinking Water Sources. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2019; 11:9-19. [PMID: 30560490 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-018-9361-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2018] [Accepted: 12/10/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
We investigated the present forms of genogroup II norovirus and group A rotavirus in surface water used for drinking water production. River water samples (N = 15) collected at a drinking water treatment plant (DWTP) monthly from June 2017 to August 2018 were fractioned by filtration through 10- and 0.45-μm-pore-size membranes, and viruses present in suspended and dissolved forms were quantitatively detected. Norovirus GII was present in > 10-μm- and 0.45-10-μm-suspended and dissolved forms with detection rates of 33%, 60%, and 87%, respectively. Rotavirus A was detected more frequently than norovirus GII in each form (> 10 μm suspended, 73%; 0.45-10 μm suspended, 93%; dissolved, 100%). We also analyzed surface water samples from 21 DWTPs all over Japan in non-epidemic and epidemic seasons of gastroenteritis. Norovirus GII was detected in 48% and 81% of samples with the concentrations of up to 4.1 and 5.3 log10 copies/L in dissolved form in non-epidemic and epidemic seasons, respectively, and GII.4 Sydney 2012 was predominant genotype followed by GII.2. Rotavirus A was detected in 95% and 86% of samples with the maximum concentrations of 5.5 and 6.3 log10 copies/L in dissolved form in respective seasons. Concentration of norovirus GII was similar in 0.45-10-μm suspended and dissolved forms, while there was a significant difference for rotavirus A (P < 0.01, pared t test), indicating that rotavirus A was less associated with suspended solids in the surface water samples compared to norovirus GII. Our observations provide important implications for understanding of viral behavior in environmental waters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takayuki Miura
- Department of Environmental Health, National Institute of Public Health, 2-3-6 Minami, Wako, Saitama, 351-0197, Japan.
| | - Arisa Gima
- Department of Environmental Health, National Institute of Public Health, 2-3-6 Minami, Wako, Saitama, 351-0197, Japan
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Gustafsson O, Manukyan L, Mihranyan A. High-Performance Virus Removal Filter Paper for Drinking Water Purification. GLOBAL CHALLENGES (HOBOKEN, NJ) 2018; 2:1800031. [PMID: 31565340 PMCID: PMC6607295 DOI: 10.1002/gch2.201800031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2018] [Revised: 06/08/2018] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Access to drinking water is one of the greatest global challenges today. In this study, the virus removal properties of mille-feuille nanocellulose-based filter papers of varying thicknesses from simulated waste water (SWW) matrix are evaluated for drinking water purification applications. Filtrations of standard SWW dispersions at various total suspended solid (TSS) content are performed, including spiking tests with 30 nm surrogate latex particles and 28 nm ΦX174 bacteriophages. Filter papers of thicknesses 9 and 29 µm are used, and the filtrations are performed at two different operational pressures, i.e., 1 and 3 bar. The presented data using SWW matrix show, for the first time, that a filter paper made from 100% nanocellulose has the capacity to efficiently remove even the smallest viruses, i.e., up to 99.9980-99.9995% efficiency, at industrially relevant flow rates, i.e., 60-500 L m-2 h-1, and low fouling, i.e., V max > 103-104 L m-2. The filter paper presented in this work shows great promise for the development of robust, affordable, and sustainable water purification systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olof Gustafsson
- Nanotechnology and Functional MaterialsDepartment of Engineering SciencesUppsala UniversityBox 534,751 21UppsalaSweden
| | - Levon Manukyan
- Nanotechnology and Functional MaterialsDepartment of Engineering SciencesUppsala UniversityBox 534,751 21UppsalaSweden
| | - Albert Mihranyan
- Nanotechnology and Functional MaterialsDepartment of Engineering SciencesUppsala UniversityBox 534,751 21UppsalaSweden
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Bergion V, Lindhe A, Sokolova E, Rosén L. Risk-based cost-benefit analysis for evaluating microbial risk mitigation in a drinking water system. WATER RESEARCH 2018; 132:111-123. [PMID: 29316514 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2017.12.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2017] [Revised: 10/31/2017] [Accepted: 12/22/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Waterborne outbreaks of gastrointestinal diseases can cause large costs to society. Risk management needs to be holistic and transparent in order to reduce these risks in an effective manner. Microbial risk mitigation measures in a drinking water system were investigated using a novel approach combining probabilistic risk assessment and cost-benefit analysis. Lake Vomb in Sweden was used to exemplify and illustrate the risk-based decision model. Four mitigation alternatives were compared, where the first three alternatives, A1-A3, represented connecting 25, 50 and 75%, respectively, of on-site wastewater treatment systems in the catchment to the municipal wastewater treatment plant. The fourth alternative, A4, represented installing a UV-disinfection unit in the drinking water treatment plant. Quantitative microbial risk assessment was used to estimate the positive health effects in terms of quality adjusted life years (QALYs), resulting from the four mitigation alternatives. The health benefits were monetised using a unit cost per QALY. For each mitigation alternative, the net present value of health and environmental benefits and investment, maintenance and running costs was calculated. The results showed that only A4 can reduce the risk (probability of infection) below the World Health Organization guidelines of 10-4 infections per person per year (looking at the 95th percentile). Furthermore, all alternatives resulted in a negative net present value. However, the net present value would be positive (looking at the 50th percentile using a 1% discount rate) if non-monetised benefits (e.g. increased property value divided evenly over the studied time horizon and reduced microbial risks posed to animals), estimated at 800-1200 SEK (€100-150) per connected on-site wastewater treatment system per year, were included. This risk-based decision model creates a robust and transparent decision support tool. It is flexible enough to be tailored and applied to local settings of drinking water systems. The model provides a clear and holistic structure for decisions related to microbial risk mitigation. To improve the decision model, we suggest to further develop the valuation and monetisation of health effects and to refine the propagation of uncertainties and variabilities between the included methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viktor Bergion
- Chalmers University of Technology, Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, SE-41296 Gothenburg, Sweden.
| | - Andreas Lindhe
- Chalmers University of Technology, Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, SE-41296 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Ekaterina Sokolova
- Chalmers University of Technology, Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, SE-41296 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Lars Rosén
- Chalmers University of Technology, Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, SE-41296 Gothenburg, Sweden
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Moreira NA, Bondelind M. Safe drinking water and waterborne outbreaks. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2017; 15:83-96. [PMID: 28151442 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2016.103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The present work compiles a review on drinking waterborne outbreaks, with the perspective of production and distribution of microbiologically safe water, during 2000-2014. The outbreaks are categorised in raw water contamination, treatment deficiencies and distribution network failure. The main causes for contamination were: for groundwater, intrusion of animal faeces or wastewater due to heavy rain; in surface water, discharge of wastewater into the water source and increased turbidity and colour; at treatment plants, malfunctioning of the disinfection equipment; and for distribution systems, cross-connections, pipe breaks and wastewater intrusion into the network. Pathogens causing the largest number of affected consumers were Cryptosporidium, norovirus, Giardia, Campylobacter, and rotavirus. The largest number of different pathogens was found for the treatment works and the distribution network. The largest number of affected consumers with gastrointestinal illness was for contamination events from a surface water source, while the largest number of individual events occurred for the distribution network.
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Affiliation(s)
- N A Moreira
- Cranfield Water Science Institute, Cranfield University, Bedfordshire MK43 0AL, UK; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Chalmers, Sven Hultins gata 8, Göteborg 412 96, Sweden E-mail:
| | - M Bondelind
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Chalmers, Sven Hultins gata 8, Göteborg 412 96, Sweden E-mail:
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Guzman Herrador B, de Blasio BF, Carlander A, Ethelberg S, Hygen HO, Kuusi M, Lund V, Löfdahl M, MacDonald E, Martinez-Urtaza J, Nichols G, Schönning C, Sudre B, Trönnberg L, Vold L, Semenza JC, Nygård K. Association between heavy precipitation events and waterborne outbreaks in four Nordic countries, 1992-2012. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2016; 14:1019-1027. [PMID: 27959880 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2016.071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
We conducted a matched case-control study to examine the association between heavy precipitation events and waterborne outbreaks (WBOs) by linking epidemiological registries and meteorological data between 1992 and 2012 in four Nordic countries. Heavy precipitation events were defined by above average (exceedance) daily rainfall during the preceding weeks using local references. We performed conditional logistic regression using the four previous years as the controls. Among WBOs with known onset date (n = 89), exceedance rainfall on two or more days was associated with occurrence of outbreak, OR = 3.06 (95% CI 1.38-6.78), compared to zero exceedance days. Stratified analyses revealed a significant association with single household water supplies, ground water as source and for outbreaks occurring during spring and summer. These findings were reproduced in analyses including all WBOs with known outbreak month (n = 186). The vulnerability of single households to WBOs associated with heavy precipitation events should be communicated to homeowners and implemented into future policy planning to reduce the risk of waterborne illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernardo Guzman Herrador
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway E-mail:
| | - Birgitte Freiesleben de Blasio
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway E-mail: ; Oslo Centre for Biostatistics and Epidemiology, Department of Biostatistics, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Anneli Carlander
- Department of Monitoring and Evaluation, Public Health Agency of Sweden, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Steen Ethelberg
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Statens Serum Institute, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - Markku Kuusi
- Department of Infectious Disease Surveillance and Control, National Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Vidar Lund
- Department of Food, Water and Cosmetics, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
| | - Margareta Löfdahl
- Department of Monitoring and Evaluation, Public Health Agency of Sweden, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Emily MacDonald
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway E-mail: ; European Programme for Intervention Epidemiology Training (EPIET), European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Jaime Martinez-Urtaza
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Bath, UK; European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Gordon Nichols
- Gastrointestinal, Emerging and Zoonotic Diseases Department, Public Health England, London, UK; Norwich Medical School, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK; and Department of Hygiene & Epidemiology, University of Thessaly, Thessaly, Greece; European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Caroline Schönning
- Department of Monitoring and Evaluation, Public Health Agency of Sweden, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Bertrand Sudre
- European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Linda Trönnberg
- Department of Monitoring and Evaluation, Public Health Agency of Sweden, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Line Vold
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway E-mail:
| | - Jan C Semenza
- European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Karin Nygård
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway E-mail:
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14
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Dienus O, Sokolova E, Nyström F, Matussek A, Löfgren S, Blom L, Pettersson TJR, Lindgren PE. Norovirus Dynamics in Wastewater Discharges and in the Recipient Drinking Water Source: Long-Term Monitoring and Hydrodynamic Modeling. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2016; 50:10851-10858. [PMID: 27649279 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b02110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Norovirus (NoV) that enters drinking water sources with wastewater discharges is a common cause of waterborne outbreaks. The impact of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) on the river Göta älv (Sweden) was studied using monitoring and hydrodynamic modeling. The concentrations of NoV genogroups (GG) I and II in samples collected at WWTPs and drinking water intakes (source water) during one year were quantified using duplex real-time reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction. The mean (standard deviation) NoV GGI and GGII genome concentrations were 6.2 (1.4) and 6.8 (1.8) in incoming wastewater and 5.3 (1.4) and 5.9 (1.4) log10 genome equivalents (g.e.) L-1 in treated wastewater, respectively. The reduction at the WWTPs varied between 0.4 and 1.1 log10 units. In source water, the concentration ranged from below the detection limit to 3.8 log10 g.e. L-1. NoV GGII was detected in both wastewater and source water more frequently during the cold than the warm period of the year. The spread of NoV in the river was simulated using a three-dimensional hydrodynamic model. The modeling results indicated that the NoV GGI and GGII genome concentrations in source water may occasionally be up to 2.8 and 1.9 log10 units higher, respectively, than the concentrations measured during the monitoring project.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olaf Dienus
- Ryhov County Hospital , Medical Services, Clinical Microbiology, SE-551 85 Jönköping, Sweden
- Linköping University , Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Medical Microbiology, SE-581 85 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Ekaterina Sokolova
- Chalmers University of Technology , Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Water Environment Technology, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Fredrik Nyström
- Ryhov County Hospital , Medical Services, Clinical Microbiology, SE-551 85 Jönköping, Sweden
- Linköping University , Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Medical Microbiology, SE-581 85 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Andreas Matussek
- Ryhov County Hospital , Medical Services, Clinical Microbiology, SE-551 85 Jönköping, Sweden
| | - Sture Löfgren
- Ryhov County Hospital , Medical Services, Clinical Microbiology, SE-551 85 Jönköping, Sweden
| | - Lena Blom
- Chalmers University of Technology , Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Water Environment Technology, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden
- City of Gothenburg , Department of Sustainable Waste and Water, Box 123, SE-424 23 Angered, Sweden
| | - Thomas J R Pettersson
- Chalmers University of Technology , Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Water Environment Technology, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Per-Eric Lindgren
- Ryhov County Hospital , Medical Services, Clinical Microbiology, SE-551 85 Jönköping, Sweden
- Linköping University , Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Medical Microbiology, SE-581 85 Linköping, Sweden
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15
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Chen T, Gu H, Leung RKK, Liu R, Chen Q, Wu Y, Li Y. Evidence-Based interventions of Norovirus outbreaks in China. BMC Public Health 2016; 16:1072. [PMID: 27729034 PMCID: PMC5059926 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-016-3716-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2016] [Accepted: 09/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Background In resource-limited settings where laboratory capacity is limited and response strategy is non-specific, delayed or inappropriate intervention against outbreaks of Norovirus (NoV) are common. Here we report interventions of two norovirus outbreaks, which highlight the importance of evidence-based modeling and assessment to identify infection sources and formulate effective response strategies. Methods Spatiotemporal scanning, mathematical and random walk modeling predicted the modes of transmission in the two incidents, which were supported by laboratory results and intervention outcomes. Results Simulation results indicated that contaminated water was 14 to 500 fold more infectious than infected individuals. Asymptomatic individuals were not effective transmitters. School closure for up to a week still could not contain the outbreak unless the duration was extended to 10 or more days. The total attack rates (TARs) for waterborne NoV outbreaks reported in China (n = 3, median = 4.37) were significantly (p < 0.05) lower than worldwide (n = 14, median = 41.34). The low TARs are likely due to the high number of the affected population. Conclusions We found that school closure alone could not contain Norovirus outbreaks. Overlooked personal hygiene may serve as a hotbed for infectious disease transmission. Our results reveal that evidence-based investigations can facilitate timely interventions of Norovirus transmission. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12889-016-3716-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianmu Chen
- Office for Disease Control and Emergency Response, Changsha Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 149 Wei'er Road, Changsha, Hunan, People's Republic of China
| | - Haogao Gu
- School of Public Health, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, People's Republic of China
| | - Ross Ka-Kit Leung
- Office for Disease Control and Emergency Response, Changsha Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 149 Wei'er Road, Changsha, Hunan, People's Republic of China. .,School of Public Health, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, People's Republic of China. .,Stanley Ho Centre for Emerging Infectious Diseases, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, People's Republic of China.
| | - Ruchun Liu
- School of Public Health, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, People's Republic of China
| | - Qiuping Chen
- Hospital, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China.,Office for Disease Control and Emergency Response, Tianxin Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Changsha, Hunan, People's Republic of China
| | - Ying Wu
- Office for Disease Control and Emergency Response, Tianxin Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Changsha, Hunan, People's Republic of China
| | - Yaman Li
- School of Public Health, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, People's Republic of China
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16
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Petterson S, Grøndahl-Rosado R, Nilsen V, Myrmel M, Robertson LJ. Variability in the recovery of a virus concentration procedure in water: Implications for QMRA. WATER RESEARCH 2015; 87:79-86. [PMID: 26383122 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2015.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2015] [Revised: 09/01/2015] [Accepted: 09/02/2015] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Methods for analysing water for viruses are known to have variable and relatively poor recovery efficiencies. Quantitative method recovery data are needed to correct virus enumeration results so that estimates of virus concentrations in surface waters for QMRA are not too low. Obtaining quantitative data representing method recoveries for different pathogenic viruses is a significant challenge. In this study, we investigated the use of mengovirus process control data for quantifying recovery efficiency of human adenovirus (AdV) and noroviruses GI (NoVGI) and GII (NoVGII) from surface waters. Samples were collected from the inlet to a drinking water treatment plant on the Glomma River, Norway. Performance of the sample concentration procedure was quantified by comparing the virus concentrations found in concentrated and unconcentrated samples. The mean recovery of viruses (1.2%, 0.31%, 0.15% and 0.053% for mengovirus (n = 86), AdV (n = 20), NoVGI (n = 33) and NoVGII (n = 21) respectively) estimated in this study were lower than expected, and the between sample variability in estimated recovery was very high, spanning around 6 orders of magnitude for mengovirus. Within-sample correlation between the estimated recovery of mengovirus and human viruses was poor, and therefore sample specific mengovirus data could not be used to correct all human virus concentrations. Instead beta distributions were fitted to human virus-specific recovery estimates. The magnitude and variability of virus concentration when corrected for the variable recovery efficiency was orders of magnitude higher than the uncorrected concentration. Better estimates of virus concentration could be achieved if a sample-specific spiking control could be developed that mimicked closely the behaviour of human viruses in environmental samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan Petterson
- Water & Health Pty Ltd. P.O. Box 648, Salamander Bay 2317, Australia; Department of Mathematical Sciences and Technology, Faculty of Environmental Science and Technology, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Campus Ås, P.O. Box 5003, N-1432 ÅS, Norway.
| | - Ricardo Grøndahl-Rosado
- Department of Food Safety and Infection Biology, Faculty of Veterinary Science and Biomedicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Campus Adamstuen, P.O. Box 8146 Dep., N-0033 Oslo, Norway
| | - Vegard Nilsen
- Department of Mathematical Sciences and Technology, Faculty of Environmental Science and Technology, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Campus Ås, P.O. Box 5003, N-1432 ÅS, Norway
| | - Mette Myrmel
- Department of Food Safety and Infection Biology, Faculty of Veterinary Science and Biomedicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Campus Adamstuen, P.O. Box 8146 Dep., N-0033 Oslo, Norway
| | - Lucy J Robertson
- Department of Food Safety and Infection Biology, Faculty of Veterinary Science and Biomedicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Campus Adamstuen, P.O. Box 8146 Dep., N-0033 Oslo, Norway
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17
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Sokolova E, Petterson SR, Dienus O, Nyström F, Lindgren PE, Pettersson TJR. Microbial risk assessment of drinking water based on hydrodynamic modelling of pathogen concentrations in source water. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2015; 526:177-186. [PMID: 25931024 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.04.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2014] [Revised: 04/01/2015] [Accepted: 04/12/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Norovirus contamination of drinking water sources is an important cause of waterborne disease outbreaks. Knowledge on pathogen concentrations in source water is needed to assess the ability of a drinking water treatment plant (DWTP) to provide safe drinking water. However, pathogen enumeration in source water samples is often not sufficient to describe the source water quality. In this study, the norovirus concentrations were characterised at the contamination source, i.e. in sewage discharges. Then, the transport of norovirus within the water source (the river Göta älv in Sweden) under different loading conditions was simulated using a hydrodynamic model. Based on the estimated concentrations in source water, the required reduction of norovirus at the DWTP was calculated using quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA). The required reduction was compared with the estimated treatment performance at the DWTP. The average estimated concentration in source water varied between 4.8×10(2) and 7.5×10(3) genome equivalents L(-1); and the average required reduction by treatment was between 7.6 and 8.8 Log10. The treatment performance at the DWTP was estimated to be adequate to deal with all tested loading conditions, but was heavily dependent on chlorine disinfection, with the risk of poor reduction by conventional treatment and slow sand filtration. To our knowledge, this is the first article to employ discharge-based QMRA, combined with hydrodynamic modelling, in the context of drinking water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ekaterina Sokolova
- Chalmers University of Technology, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Water Environment Technology, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden.
| | - Susan R Petterson
- Norwegian University of Life Sciences NMBU, Department of Mathematical Sciences and Technology, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway; Water & Health Pty Ltd. P.O. Box 648 Salamander Bay, 2317, Australia
| | - Olaf Dienus
- Ryhov County Hospital, Medical Services, Clinical Microbiology, SE-551 85 Jönköping, Sweden
| | - Fredrik Nyström
- Ryhov County Hospital, Medical Services, Clinical Microbiology, SE-551 85 Jönköping, Sweden; Linköping University, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Medical Microbiology, SE-581 85 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Per-Eric Lindgren
- Ryhov County Hospital, Medical Services, Clinical Microbiology, SE-551 85 Jönköping, Sweden; Linköping University, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Medical Microbiology, SE-581 85 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Thomas J R Pettersson
- Chalmers University of Technology, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Water Environment Technology, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden
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18
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Biosensors for waterborne viruses: Detection and removal. Biochimie 2015; 115:144-54. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2015.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2014] [Accepted: 05/14/2015] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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19
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Grøndahl-Rosado RC, Yarovitsyna E, Trettenes E, Myrmel M, Robertson LJ. A One Year Study on the Concentrations of Norovirus and Enteric Adenoviruses in Wastewater and A Surface Drinking Water Source in Norway. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2014; 6:232-45. [PMID: 25086639 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-014-9161-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2014] [Accepted: 07/18/2014] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Enteric viruses transmitted via the faecal-oral route occur in high concentrations in wastewater and may contaminate drinking water sources and cause disease. In order to quantify enteric adenovirus and norovirus genotypes I and II (GI and GII) impacting a drinking source in Norway, samples of surface water (52), wastewater inlet (64) and outlet (59) were collected between January 2011 and April 2012. Samples were concentrated in two steps, using an electropositive disc filter and polyethylene glycol precipitation, followed by nucleic acid extraction and analysis by quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Virus was detected in 47/52 (90.4%) of surface water, 59/64 (92%) of wastewater inlet and 55/59 (93%) of wastewater outlet samples. Norovirus GI occurred in the highest concentrations in surface water (2.51e + 04) and adenovirus in wastewater (2.15e + 07). While adenovirus was the most frequently detected in all matrices, norovirus GI was more frequently detected in surface water and norovirus GII in wastewater. This study is the first in Norway to monitor both sewage and a drinking water source in parallel, and confirms the year-round presence of norovirus and adenovirus in a Norwegian drinking water source.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ricardo C Grøndahl-Rosado
- Department of Food Safety and Infection Biology, Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Science and Biomedicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Postbox 8146 Dep., 0033, Oslo, Norway
| | - Ekaterina Yarovitsyna
- Department of Food Safety and Infection Biology, Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Science and Biomedicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Postbox 8146 Dep., 0033, Oslo, Norway
| | - Elin Trettenes
- Virology Section, National Veterinary Institute, Oslo, Norway
| | - Mette Myrmel
- Department of Food Safety and Infection Biology, Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Science and Biomedicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Postbox 8146 Dep., 0033, Oslo, Norway
| | - Lucy J Robertson
- Department of Food Safety and Infection Biology, Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Science and Biomedicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Postbox 8146 Dep., 0033, Oslo, Norway.
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20
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Franck KT, Lisby M, Fonager J, Schultz AC, Böttiger B, Villif A, Absalonsen H, Ethelberg S. Sources of Calicivirus contamination in foodborne outbreaks in Denmark, 2005-2011--the role of the asymptomatic food handler. J Infect Dis 2014; 211:563-70. [PMID: 25156563 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiu479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Norovirus (NoV) is the predominant cause of foodborne disease outbreaks. Virus contamination may occur during all steps of food processing, from production to preparation and serving. The relative importance of these different routes of contamination is unknown. METHODS The purpose of this study was to estimate the proportions of outbreaks caused by asymptomatic and symptomatic food handlers (FHs). Reports of foodborne NoV and sapovirus outbreaks (n=191) that occurred over a 7-year period were extracted, reviewed, and categorized according to the available evidence for source of contamination. RESULTS In 64 (34%) of the outbreaks, contamination from FHs took place during preparation or serving of food. In the majority of these outbreaks (n=41; 64%), the FHs were asymptomatic during food handling. Some had been in contact with ill household members before handling the food and remained asymptomatic; others developed symptoms shortly after or were post-symptomatic. In 51 (27%) of the outbreaks, contamination occurred during production of the food, and in 55 (29%) of the outbreaks, contamination had supposedly occurred after serving a guest at a self-serve buffet. CONCLUSIONS Guidelines regarding exclusion of FHs where household members suffer from gastroenteritis could limit the number of outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristina T Franck
- Microbiological Diagnostics and Virology, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen Research Unit for Clinical Microbiology, University of Southern Denmark, Odense
| | - Morten Lisby
- Danish Veterinary and Food Administration, Glostrup
| | - Jannik Fonager
- Microbiological Diagnostics and Virology, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen
| | - Anna C Schultz
- National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Søborg, Denmark
| | - Blenda Böttiger
- Microbiological Diagnostics and Virology, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen Medical Microbiology, Lund University, Malmö, Sweden
| | | | | | - Steen Ethelberg
- Infectious Diseases Epidemiology, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
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