Mothers' frontal EEG asymmetry in response to infant emotion states and mother–infant emotional availability, emotional experience, and internalizing symptoms

The association of maternal-infant interactive behavior, dyadic frontal alpha asymmetry, and maternal anxiety in a smartphone-adapted still face paradigm

Mother-infant interactions form a strong basis for emotion regulation development in infants. These interactions can be affected by various factors, including maternal postnatal anxiety. Electroencephalography (EEG) hyperscanning allows for simultaneous assessment of mother-infant brain-to-behavior association during stressful events, such as the still-face paradigm (SFP). This study aimed at investigating dyadic interactive behavior and brain-to-behavior association across SFP and identifying neural correlates of mother-infant interactions in the context of maternal postnatal anxiety. We measured frontal alpha asymmetry (FAA), a physiological correlate of emotion regulation and a potential marker of risk for psychopathology. To emulate real-life interactions, EEG and behavioral data were collected from 38 mother-infant dyads during a smartphone-adapted dual-SFP. Although the behavioral data showed a clear still-face effect for the smartphone-adapted SFP, this was not reflected in the infant or maternal FAA. Brain-to-behavior data showed higher infant negative affect being associated with more infant leftward FAA during the still-face episodes. Finally, mothers with higher postnatal anxiety showed more right FAA during the first still-face episode, suggesting negative affectivity and a need to withdraw from the situation. Our results form a baseline for further research assessing the effects of maternal postnatal anxiety on infants' FAA and dyadic interactive behavior.

The Effect of Induced Regulatory Focus on Frontal Cortical Activity

The motivation-direction model has served as the primary framework for understanding frontal cortical activity. However, research on the link between approach/avoidance motivation and left/right frontal cortical activity has produced inconsistent findings. Recent studies suggest that regulatory systems may offer a more accurate explanation than the motivational direction model. Despite being regulatory systems, the relationship between regulatory focus and frontal cortical activity has received limited attention. Only one experimental study has explored this connection through correlational analysis, yet it lacks causal evidence. The present study aimed to address this gap by manipulating regulatory focus and measuring frontal cortical activity in 36 college students. Our results revealed that induced promotion focus led to increased left frontal cortical activity, whereas induced prevention focus led to increased right frontal cortical activity. These findings enhance our physiological understanding of regulatory focus and offer a deeper explanation of how regulatory focus influences alterations in psychology and behavior.

The role of engagement and arousal in emotion regulation: an EEG study

Cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression are well-studied strategies of emotion regulation (ER). However, the results on their physiological basis are controversial. While in some studies, ER was accompanied by the inhibition of the nervous system, others suggested that ER even might increase arousal and engagement. We calculated the inter-subject correlation (ISC) and indices of engagement, valence and arousal of EEG during suppression, reappraisal, or natural watching of neutral and negative videos. First, both suppression and reappraisal provoked a higher ISC in comparison with watching negative or neutral videos. We consider this as a marker of engagement to the task and feedback processing required for ER. Second, the engagement index was lower during ER compared to watching negative videos in central electrodes, whereas both strategies provoked a higher engagement in frontal electrodes. Third, the arousal index of EEG was higher during all negative conditions; therefore, regulation required a certain level of arousal. In summary, different EEG measures seem to be sensitive to different aspects of ER.

Exploring resting frontal EEG and reflective functioning in maternal substance use

Maternal substance use is associated with altered neural activity and poor offspring outcomes, which may be facilitated by suboptimal caregiving in the form of impaired parental reflective functioning (PRF). To investigate these associations, the resting-state frontal electroencephalography (EEG) power of 48 substance-using mothers and 37 non-substance-using mothers were examined, specifying seven frequency bands: delta, theta, alpha, alpha1, alpha2, beta, and gamma. Substance-using mothers exhibited enhanced beta and gamma spectral power compared to non-substance-using mothers, potentially reflecting higher arousal states in substance-using mothers. There were no between-group differences in any component of PRF (i.e., levels of pre-mentalizing, certainty, and interest and curiosity). Whole-sample analyses revealed significant positive correlations between pre-mentalizing and delta spectral power. Taken together, these findings suggest potential neural correlates of maternal substance use and PRF, providing an important next step into examining associations between maternal substance use and poor child outcomes.

In sync with your child: The potential of parent-child electroencephalography in developmental research

Healthy interaction between parent and child is foundational for the child's socioemotional development. Recently, an innovative paradigm shift in electroencephalography (EEG) research has enabled the simultaneous measurement of neural activity in caregiver and child. This dual-EEG or hyperscanning approach, termed parent-child dual-EEG, combines the strength of both behavioral observations and EEG methods. In this review, we aim to inform on the potential of dual-EEG in parents and children (0-6 years) for developmental researchers. We first provide a general overview of the dual-EEG technique and continue by reviewing the first empirical work on the emerging field of parent-child dual-EEG, discussing the limited but fascinating findings on parent-child brain-to-behavior and brain-to-brain synchrony. We then continue by providing an overview of dual-EEG analysis techniques, including the technical challenges and solutions one may encounter. We finish by discussing the potential of parent-child dual-EEG for the future of developmental research. The analysis of multiple EEG data is technical and challenging, but when performed well, parent-child EEG may transform the way we understand how caregiver and child connect on a neurobiological level. Importantly, studying objective physiological measures of parent-child interactions could lead to the identification of novel brain-to-brain synchrony markers of interaction quality.

Emerging biomarkers for child & family intervention studies: A review of EEG studies of parenting

Most interventions for childhood mental health problems require significant parental involvement, and treatment programs are increasingly incorporating components aimed at enhancing parents' own self-regulation in the context of potentially stressful parent-child interactions. This paper discusses the promise of EEG in examining the rapidly unfolding perceptual, cognitive, emotional, and regulatory processes that occur in parenting, in hopes of ultimately informing child and family interventions. First, we review two separate bodies of work that have used EEG with parents: one examining event-related potential (ERP) measures, and the other examining frontal alpha asymmetry (FAA). We discuss benefits of each within the study of parenting, and also suggest other EEG metrics (such as event-related time-frequency analyses) that can be leveraged to fill current gaps in our knowledge. Finally, we discuss the potential for these findings to inform clinical work with children and families, such as identifying biomarkers that could aid in assessment, treatment recommendations, and monitoring response to interventions.

Neurobiological Implications of Parent-Child Emotional Availability: A Review

Parental influences are important for a child's behavior, overall adjustment, as well as cognitive/language development. New research is exploring how relationships with parents can influence a child's neurobiological functioning and development. In this systematic review, our first aim is to describe how the caregiving environment influences these aspects of child development. The second and main aim is to review and recommend that the concept (and measurement) of "emotional availability" may provide a new window in this continued exploration. Emotional availability (EA) refers to the capacity of a dyad to share an emotionally healthy relationship. The EA Scales assess this construct using a multi-dimensional framework, with a method to measure the affect and behavior of both the child and adult partner (caregiver). In this review, we first provide an overview of child development research, with regards to stress physiology, neuroendocrine system, genetics and epigenetics, and brain mechanisms. We then summarize the results of specific EA research in these areas, and propose a theoretical model integrating these constructs. Finally, we offer areas for future research in this area.

Parent and Peer Emotion Responsivity Styles: An Extension of Gottman's Emotion Socialization Parenting Typologies

This theoretical paper introduces six emotion socialization typologies that can be used for designating emotion responsivity styles of parents and peers of children in middle childhood, referred to as Parent and Peer Emotion Responsivity Styles (PPERS). This typology draws on theoretical foundations of meta-emotion and emotion socialization. These typologies are compliment with and extend Gottman's emotion-based parenting styles, as they are organized generally by whether the response is more positive or more negative and whether the response is more emotionally constructive or destructive, but extend the four styles to include whether the parent or peer targets the emotion directly when responding to a child's emotions, or whether they target the emotion-related behavior. On the positive end, there is the Emotion Constructive style, which targets the child's emotions directly. The other two positive styles include Emotion Responsive and Emotion Acceptive, which target the child's emotional behaviors with higher or lower levels of activity. On the negative side, there is the Emotion Destructive style which is employed to target the emotion itself, while the Emotion Punitive and Emotion Dismissive styles target the child's emotion-related behavior with varying levels of activity. Implications for the development and study of these theoretical typologies are discussed.

Transacting brains: testing an actor-partner model of frontal EEG activity in mother-infant dyads

Studies have long observed the bidirectional nature of mother-infant relationships. While behavioral studies have shown that mothers high in social avoidance tendencies can influence the development of these traits in their offspring, the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying this phenomenon, and the role that the infants play, are not well understood. Here we acquired frontal electroencephalogram asymmetry (FA) data simultaneously in 40 mother-infant dyads (Mage mother = 31.6 years; Mage infant = 9 months). Using an actor-partner interdependence model, we examined whether mother (or infant) resting-state FA predicted infant (or mother) FA during two subsequent emotion-eliciting conditions (happy and fear). Maternal social approach versus avoidance traits were assessed as moderators to examine the impact of maternal characteristics on these mother-infant FA relations. In dyads led by mothers with high social avoidance/low social approach characteristics, maternal resting-state FA predicted infant FA during both emotion-eliciting conditions. We did not observe any effects of infant FA on mothers. Therefore, we speculate that individual differences in FA patterns might be a putative brain mechanism through which socially avoidant mothers transfer affective/behavioral information to their infants.

Observing baby or sexual videos changes the functional synchronization between the prefrontal and parietal cortices in mothers in different postpartum periods

During the postpartum period (PP), mothers are more sensitive to sensory stimuli related to babies and less sensitive to those with sexual significance. The processing of emotional stimuli requires synchronization among different cerebral areas. This study characterized the cortical electroencephalographic (EEG) correlation in mothers from 1½ to 3 months (PP1), 4 to 5½ months (PP2) and over 6½ months, postpartum (PP3) while observing two videos: one of a baby (BV) and one with sexual content (SV). EEGs were recorded from the frontopolar, dorsolateral and parietal cortices. All three groups rated the BV as pleasant, but only PP3 reported higher sexual arousal with the SV. While watching the BV, PP1 showed a higher correlation among all cortical areas; PP2 manifested a decreased correlation between the prefrontal and parietal cortices, likely associated with the lower emotional modulation of the BV; and PP3 presented a higher synchronization among fewer cortical areas, probably related to longer maternal experience. These cortical synchronization patterns could represent adaptive mechanisms that enable the adequate processing of baby stimuli in new mothers. These data increase our knowledge of the cerebral processes associated with distinct sensitivities to the emotional stimuli that mothers experience during the PP.

Frontal cerebral oxygenation asymmetry: intersubject variability and dependence on systemic physiology, season, and time of day

Significance: Our study reveals that frontal cerebral oxygenation asymmetry (FCOA), i.e. a difference in the oxygenation between the right and left prefrontal cortex (PFC), is a real phenomenon in healthy human subjects at rest. Aim: To investigate FCOA, we performed a study with 134 healthy right-handed subjects with the systemic physiology augmented functional near infrared spectroscopy (SPA-fNIRS) approach. Approach: Subjects were measured 2 to 4 times on different days resulting in an unprecedented number of 518 single measurements of the absolute values of tissue oxygen saturation (StO 2 ) and total hemoglobin concentration ([tHb]) of the right and left PFC. Measurements were performed with frequency-domain functional near-infrared spectroscopy. In addition, the cardiorespiratory parameters were measured simultaneously. Results: We found that (i) subjects showed an FCOA (higherStO 2 on the right PFC), but not for tHb; (ii) intrasubject variability was excellent for bothStO 2 and tHb, and fair for FCOA; (iii) StO 2 correlated significantly with bloodCO 2 concentration, [tHb] with heart rate, respiration rate (RR), and the pulse-respiration quotient (PRQ), and FCOA with RR and PRQ; (iv) FCOA andStO 2 were dependent on season and time of day, respectively; (v) FCOA was negatively correlated with the room temperature; and (vi) StO 2 and tHb were not correlated with the subjects mood but with their chronotype, whereas FCOA was not dependent on the chronotype. Conclusion: Our study demonstrates that FCOA is real, and it provides unique insights into this remarkable phenomenon.

The Shape of Water Stream Induces Differences in P300 and Alpha Oscillation

Touching is a fundamental human behavior used to evaluate objects in the external world. Many previous studies have used tactile stimulation to conduct psychological and psychophysiological experiments. However, most of these studies used solid material, not water stream, as an experimental stimulus. To investigate water perception, or to easily control the temperature of an experimental stimulus, it is important to be able to control the water stimulus. In this study, we investigated the usability of water as an experimental stimulus for electroencephalography (EEG) experiments and report the basic EEG response to water stimulus. We developed a tactile stimulation device using a water stream to study EEG responses, with the ability to control the stimulus onset timing. As stimuli, we selected two types of water stream, normal and soft, based on a psychological experiment to confirm a difference of subjective feeling induced by these water streams. We conducted a typical oddball task using the two different water streams and recorded EEG waveforms from 64 electrodes while participants touched the water streams. We calculated P300 at the Pz electrode, alpha asymmetry at the frontal electrodes, and alpha suppression at the parietal area. As a result, we observed typical P300 differentiation based on the stimulus proportion (target 20% and standard 80%). We observed a weaker alpha suppression when participants touched the soft water stream compared to the normal shower. These results demonstrate the usability of water stream in psychophysiological studies and suggested that alpha suppression could be a candidate to evaluate comfort of water stream.

Frontal Alpha Asymmetry and Inhibitory Control among Individuals with Cannabis Use Disorders

To better understand the biopsychosocial mechanisms associated with development and maintenance of cannabis use disorder (CUD), we examined frontal alpha asymmetry (FAA) as a measure of approach bias and inhibitory control in cannabis users versus healthy nonusers. We investigated: (1) whether FAA could distinguish cannabis users from healthy controls; (2) whether there are cue-specific FAA effects in cannabis users versus controls; and (3) the time course of cue-specific approach motivation and inhibitory control processes. EEG data were analyzed from forty participants (CUD (n = 20) and controls (n = 20)) who completed a modified visual attention task. Results showed controls exhibited greater relative right hemisphere activation (indicating avoidance/withdrawal motivation) when exposed to cannabis cues during the filtering task. By contrast, cannabis users exhibited greater relative left activation (approach) to all cues (cannabis, positive, negative, and neutral), reflecting a generalized approach motivational tendency, particularly during later stages of inhibitory control processes. The difference between cannabis users and controls in FAA was largest during mid- to late processing stages of all cues, indicating greater approach motivation during later stages of information processing among cannabis users. Findings suggest FAA may distinguish cannabis users from healthy controls and shows promise as a measure of inhibitory control processes in cannabis users.

Maternal sensitivity during the first 3½ years of life predicts electrophysiological responding to and cognitive appraisals of infant crying at midlife

This study examined the predictive significance of maternal sensitivity in early childhood for electrophysiological responding to and cognitive appraisals of infant crying at midlife in a sample of 73 adults (age = 39 years; 43 females; 58 parents) from the Minnesota Longitudinal Study of Risk and Adaptation. When listening to an infant crying, both parents and nonparents who had experienced higher levels of maternal sensitivity in early childhood (between 3 and 42 months of age) exhibited larger changes from rest toward greater relative left (vs. right) frontal EEG activation, reflecting an approach-oriented response to distress. Parents who had experienced greater maternal sensitivity in early childhood also made fewer negative causal attributions about the infant's crying; the association between sensitivity and attributions for infant crying was nonsignificant for nonparents. The current findings demonstrate that experiencing maternal sensitivity during the first 3½ years of life has long-term predictive significance for adults' processing of infant distress signals more than three decades later. (PsycINFO Database Record

Emotional Availability, Neuropsychological Functioning, and Psychopathology: The Context of Parental Substance Use Disorder

Parental Substance Use Disorder (SUD) constitutes a high-risk condition for parent-child interactions and child development. Empirical evidence indicates high rates of psychopathology and neuropsychological impairments in individuals with SUD. Despite research indicating that parenting skills are related to psychological well-being and cognitive/neuropsychological functioning, prior studies have not examined the associations between these areas of parental functioning and the quality of parent-child interactions in the context of SUD. Aim(s). The present study adopts an integrated perspective to investigate the way in which maternal neuropsychological functioning and psychopathology are associated with mother-child emotional availability (EA), in the context of parental Substance Use Disorder. Methods. Twenty-nine mothers with SUD were assessed in interaction with their children, as well as with respect to their neuropsychological functioning and psychopathology. Results. In this group, high rates of maternal neuropsychological impairments and psychopathology, as well as generally low levels of EA, were uncovered. Regression analyses showed that maternal neuropsychological functioning was significantly associated with mother-child EA, specifically sensitivity; the role of maternal psychopathology, however, was only marginally significant. Conclusion. In the context of SUD, maternal neuropsychological impairments are significantly associated with mother-child EA. Clinical implications of the findings are discussed.

Socioeconomic disadvantage, neural responses to infant emotions, and emotional availability among first-time new mothers

During the early postpartum period, mothers exhibit increased amygdala responses to positive infant expressions, which are important for positive mother-infant relationships. Socioeconomic disadvantage is associated with altered amygdala response to emotional stimuli as well as more negative mother-infant relationships. However, little is known about the role of socioeconomic disadvantage in neural responses specifically to infants. Thus, we examined whether socioeconomic disadvantage (indexed by lower income-to-needs ratio) is associated with neural responses to infant emotions and parenting behaviors among new mothers. Using fMRI, neural responses to infants' emotional expressions (positive, negative, and neutral faces) were assessed among 39 low- and middle-income first-time mothers during 0-6 postpartum months. Lower income-to-needs ratio was associated with dampened amygdala responses to positive infant faces, but increased amygdala responses to negative infant faces. An indirect effect of socioeconomic disadvantage on emotional availability via amygdala activation suggests that socioeconomic disadvantage is associated with heightened neural sensitivity to infants' negative emotions, which is further associated with mothers' intrusiveness observed during interactions with their own infant. The findings suggest that low-income mothers may be more vulnerable to altered neural processing of infants' emotional expressions which may further influence mothers' emotional availability during interactions with their own infants.

ALL OUR SONS: THE DEVELOPMENTAL NEUROBIOLOGY AND NEUROENDOCRINOLOGY OF BOYS AT RISK

Why are boys at risk? To address this question, I use the perspective of regulation theory to offer a model of the deeper psychoneurobiological mechanisms that underlie the vulnerability of the developing male. The central thesis of this work dictates that significant gender differences are seen between male and female social and emotional functions in the earliest stages of development, and that these result from not only differences in sex hormones and social experiences but also in rates of male and female brain maturation, specifically in the early developing right brain. I present interdisciplinary research which indicates that the stress-regulating circuits of the male brain mature more slowly than those of the female in the prenatal, perinatal, and postnatal critical periods, and that this differential structural maturation is reflected in normal gender differences in right-brain attachment functions. Due to this maturational delay, developing males also are more vulnerable over a longer period of time to stressors in the social environment (attachment trauma) and toxins in the physical environment (endocrine disruptors) that negatively impact right-brain development. In terms of differences in gender-related psychopathology, I describe the early developmental neuroendocrinological and neurobiological mechanisms that are involved in the increased vulnerability of males to autism, early onset schizophrenia, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and conduct disorders as well as the epigenetic mechanisms that can account for the recent widespread increase of these disorders in U.S. culture. I also offer a clinical formulation of early assessments of boys at risk, discuss the impact of early childcare on male psychopathogenesis, and end with a neurobiological model of optimal adult male socioemotional functions.

Assessing and conceptualizing frontal EEG asymmetry: An updated primer on recording, processing, analyzing, and interpreting frontal alpha asymmetry

Frontal electroencephalographic (EEG) alpha asymmetry is widely researched in studies of emotion, motivation, and psychopathology, yet it is a metric that has been quantified and analyzed using diverse procedures, and diversity in procedures muddles cross-study interpretation. The aim of this article is to provide an updated tutorial for EEG alpha asymmetry recording, processing, analysis, and interpretation, with an eye towards improving consistency of results across studies. First, a brief background in alpha asymmetry findings is provided. Then, some guidelines for recording, processing, and analyzing alpha asymmetry are presented with an emphasis on the creation of asymmetry scores, referencing choices, and artifact removal. Processing steps are explained in detail, and references to MATLAB-based toolboxes that are helpful for creating and investigating alpha asymmetry are noted. Then, conceptual challenges and interpretative issues are reviewed, including a discussion of alpha asymmetry as a mediator/moderator of emotion and psychopathology. Finally, the effects of two automated component-based artifact correction algorithms-MARA and ADJUST-on frontal alpha asymmetry are evaluated.

Mother-Child Interaction: Links Between Mother and Child Frontal Electroencephalograph Asymmetry and Negative Behavior

It is well accepted that parent-child interactions are bidirectional by nature, yet not much is known about the psychophysiological activity underlying these interactions. This study examined, during a parent-child interaction, how a child's negativity statistically predicted maternal frontal electroencephalograph (EEG) asymmetry and how a mother's negativity statistically predicted child frontal EEG asymmetry. Thirty-four mother-child dyads participated in the study. Maternal and child behaviors and physiology were measured during a puzzle task. Results indicated that mothers whose children exhibited more challenging behaviors during the dyadic interaction displayed more right (relative to left) asymmetry, as did children whose mothers were high in negativity during the interaction. These findings suggest that mothers and children react to each other's signals not only behaviorally but also physiologically.

Observing videos of a baby crying or smiling induces similar, but not identical, electroencephalographic responses in biological and adoptive mothers

It is well-known that adoptive mothers respond to cues from their babies in similar ways to biological mothers, and that cortical processing is critical for adequate motive-emotional maternal responses. This study used electroencephalographic activity (EEG) to characterize prefrontal, parietal and temporal functioning in biological mothers (BM), adoptive mothers (AM), and non-mothers (NM), while viewing videos of a baby smiling or crying. The BM presented higher absolute power (AP) in the delta and theta bands (associated with pleasant, positive emotional experiences) in the frontal and parietal areas under all conditions. In response to the smiling video, both types of mothers presented a lower AP in alpha1 in the three cortices (indicative of increased attention) and, mainly in temporal areas, a higher AP in the fast frequencies (beta and gamma, reflecting increased alertness to sensory stimuli and cognitive processing). This EEG pattern in the BM and AM could reflect the greater attention and, probably, the positive mood caused by the smiling video, showing that both are sensitive to these pleasant stimuli. When viewing the video of a baby crying, the AM had higher AP in the fast frequencies (temporal and parietal areas), indicating that they were more reactive to this unpleasant video, while the NM presented only a lower AP in alpha1 in all cortices, a finding that could be associated with the general activation induced by these unpleasant stimuli as a consequence of their lack of maternal experience. These findings should help improve our understanding of the neural mechanisms involved in the processing of sensorial stimuli that establish affective-emotional links during motherhood.

Frontal EEG Asymmetry as a Promising Marker of Depression Vulnerability: Summary and Methodological Considerations

Frontal EEG asymmetry is a promising neurophysiological marker of depression risk. It predicts emotional response and negative affect hours to years later. Yet, inconsistencies in the literature may be due to differing methodological approaches between research groups. Within the past two years, a number of studies have shown this line of research may be strengthened by augmenting resting assessments with emotionally evocative tasks, utilizing optimal recording montages, and taking an integrative neuroscience approach that links frontal asymmetry to other indices of neural function. This review will focus on recent work in frontal asymmetry and depression with a particular focus on promising future directions and methodological considerations that may increase consistency between research groups.

Maternal Frontal EEG Asymmetry and Chronic Stressors Moderate the Link between Child Conduct Problems and Maternal Negativity

Frontal EEG asymmetry is associated with individual differences in positive/negative emotionality and approach/avoidance tendencies. The current study examined the moderating role of maternal resting frontal EEG asymmetry on the link between child behavior problems and maternal harsh parenting, within the context of differing degrees of chronic family stressors (father unemployment, single parenthood, caring for multiple children, and household chaos). The sample included 121 mother-child pairs. Results showed that stressors and frontal EEG asymmetry together moderated the link. Child problem behaviors were moderately associated with greater maternal negativity for mothers with right frontal asymmetry, or mothers who experienced more stressors. However, no association existed between child behavior problems and maternal negativity for mothers with few stressors and left frontal asymmetry. The findings implicate transactions between household stress and a psychophysiological indicator of maternal emotional reactivity and mothers' approach/avoidance tendencies, in the etiology of parental negativity toward challenging child behaviors.

Mothers’ electrophysiological, subjective, and observed emotional responding to infant crying: The role of secure base script knowledge

This study examined the extent to which secure base script knowledge—reflected in the ability to generate narratives in which attachment-relevant events are encountered, a clear need for assistance is communicated, competent help is provided and accepted, and the problem is resolved—is associated with mothers’ electrophysiological, subjective, and observed emotional responses to an infant distress vocalization. While listening to an infant crying, mothers (N= 108,Mage = 34 years) lower on secure base script knowledge exhibited smaller shifts in relative left (vs. right) frontal EEG activation from rest, reported smaller reductions in feelings of positive emotion from rest, and expressed greater levels of tension. Findings indicate that lower levels of secure base script knowledge are associated with an organization of emotional responding indicative of a less flexible and more emotionally restricted response to infant distress. Discussion focuses on the contribution of mothers’ attachment representations to their ability to effectively manage emotional responding to infant distress in a manner expected to support sensitive caregiving.

Emotional availability: concept, research, and window on developmental psychopathology

The construct of emotional availability (EA) refers to the capacity of a dyad to share an emotional connection and to enjoy a mutually fulfilling and healthy relationship. The EA Scales were designed to assess multiple components of a relationship from the perspective of both partners. The four caregiver components include sensitivity, structuring, nonintrusiveness, and nonhostility; two scales measure the child's responsiveness to the caregiver and involvement of the caregiver. We describe the EA construct and introduce the papers in this issue, focusing on the contributions of this Special Section to a developmental psychopathology framework.

The integration of emotional availability into a developmental psychopathology framework: reflections on the Special Section and future directions

We appreciate both the opportunity to co-edit this Special Section of Development and Psychopathology and the thoughtful commentaries provided by Marjorie Beeghly, Marc Bornstein, Robert Emde, and David Oppenheim. Their commentaries review historical perspectives, provide new insights, and suggest future horizons for the study of emotional availability (EA) within a developmental psychopathology framework. Along with the collection of empirical studies in this Special Section, they begin to chart a course for further growth and integration of EA into the field of developmental psychopathology. Taking stock of the research on EA, we realize that there is now a sufficient corpus to suggest that research focusing on this construct, as operationalized by the EA Scales (Biringen, Robinson, & Emde, 1998) is entering a more mature phase of inquiry. In the last 14 years, research on EA, including several special journal issues on the topic (see Biringen & Easterbrooks, 2008; Easterbrooks & Biringen, 2000, 2005, 2009), has explored the methodological concerns, reliability, and validity of the EA Scales and application across different samples and ages. This “critical mass” of knowledge (more than 100 peer-reviewed publications) supports the current focus on asking incisive questions for the field of developmental psychopathology (Cicchetti & Toth, 1995, 2009).

Emotional relationships between mothers and infants: knowns, unknowns, and unknown unknowns

An overview of the literature pertaining to the construct of emotional availability is presented, illustrated by a sampling of relevant studies. Methodological, statistical, and conceptual problems in the existing corpus of research are discussed, and suggestions for improving future investigations of this important construct are offered.

A developmental psychopathology perspective on emotional availability research: Current trends and challenges

Studies using the Emotional Availability Scales have burgeoned in the past decade. The collection of papers included in this Special Section represents the latest innovations in research with this paradigm. Consistent with a developmental psychopathology perspective, these papers evaluate emotional availability in a variety of typical, at-risk, international, and intergenerational samples of children and caregivers, with many utilizing longitudinal designs or employing measures from multiple levels of analysis. One study begins to translate findings from this body of research into a promising intervention program. Although further growth and refinement in research with this paradigm is needed, the results to date begin to place the construct of emotional availability into a complex, dynamic biopsychosocial context, and promise to inspire a new generation of studies. In this commentary, some of the key contributions and challenges of this collection of studies are highlighted using a developmental psychopathology framework.

Emotional availability: Critical questions and research horizons

Based on attachment theory, the construct of emotional availability and its assessment goes beyond attachment in important ways. Its origins in clinical experience and emotions research are discussed as well as the prospects for continuing advances in knowledge stimulated by the contributions in the Special Section. This is especially so in terms of developmental variations and the biological underpinnings of emotional availability. A major need and opportunity also exists concerning research related to psychopathology, clinical interventions, and training.