Beef cattle welfare in the USA: identification of priorities for future research

Faecal cortisol metabolites, body temperature, and behaviour of beef cattle exposed to a heat load

Feedlot cattle are at times exposed to high environmental temperatures. Faecal cortisol metabolites were related to possible indicators of heat stress that could be measured under field conditions: respiratory dynamics (respiration rate), body surface temperature and adaptive behaviours, such as water consumption, posture (standing, lying), and activity (eating, drinking and rumination). Twelve (12) yearling Black Angus steers were divided into two treatment groups: a hot treatment (HOT; n = 6) and a thermoneutral-treatment (TN; n = 6) and individually housed in a climate-controlled facility at The University of Queensland, Australia. In the TN treatment, all animals were exposed to an ambient temperature of 20.34 ± 0.25 °C, relative humidity 71.51 ± 3.26% and Temperature humidity index (THI) 66.91 ± 0.33 throughout. In the HOT treatment group, environmental conditions were exposed to different climatic phases from thermoneutral to hot conditions, where they remained for 7 d, and then returned to TN conditions in the recovery period. The dry bulb ambient temperature (TA) and relative humidity (RH) in the pens of cattle in the HOT treatment were increased from 28 °C (daily maximum ambient temperature) and 45% RH at 0700 h to a daily maximum TA and RH of 35 °C (daily maximum ambient temperature) and 50% (THI 77) at 1100 h, which was maintained until 1600 h, after which it declined until it reached the baseline at 2000 h. In both treatments, there was a significant decrease in faecal cortisol metabolite concentration from the start to the end of the experiments they adapted to the experimental facility. The concentration of faecal cortisol metabolites was greater in the HOT treatment, compared to the TN treatment during the heat exposure period, but there was no difference in the transition or recovery periods. Respiration rate was greater in the HOT treatment during heat exposure, and it increased with ambient dry bulb temperature above 26 °C, the latter being the upper critical temperature. Although positive correlations were detected between faecal cortisol metabolites and body surface temperature measurements, particularly the shoulder and rump, as well as standing time, panting score and drinking, a stepwise regression found that faecal cortisol metabolites were only significantly correlated with one variable, respiration rate. It is concluded that respiration rate is the best indicator of the stress induced by hot conditions for cattle.

Effects of flavoring additives on feed intake, growth performance, temperament, and markers of immune function for newly received feedlot cattle

Ninety Angus × Hereford steers (259.9 ± 36.18 kg body weight [BW]) were used in a 56-d experiment to assess the effects of flavoring additives on feed intake, and stress and immune response of newly received feedlot cattle. Steers were homogenously distributed by BW into six pens equipped with an individual feed intake monitoring system, and pen was randomly assigned to one of three treatments (15 heads per pen; 30 heads per treatment): a standard feedlot receiving diet (CT), or the same diet with a flavoring additive comprised of either sweeteners (Luctarom Feedlot, SW) or a mix of basic tastes (Luctarom Feedlot Mix, MX) at 1 kg/mT. Pens were equipped with a feed intake monitoring system, while BW, chute behavior, flight speed, blood and saliva samples were collected bi-weekly, and hair samples were collected at 4-wk intervals during the study. Data were analyzed using a mixed-effects model for a pen study using individual animal records with repeated measures. There was a treatment × week interaction (P < 0.01) where meal duration was greater in SW steers than MX and CT on week 3, and then CT on weeks 7 and 8. A trend for treatment × week interaction (P = 0.06) showed that the number of visits per day tended to be greater in SW than MX steers on weeks 4 and 5, and it tended to be greater in SW than MX and CT on week 5. The concentration of IL-6 was greater (P < 0.01) on days 1 and 28 than on day 14. The IgM concentration was greater (P < 0.01) on day 1 compared to days 14, 28, and 56. The concentration of haptoglobin was greater (P < 0.01) on 14 than days 28, 42, and 56, and it was greater (P < 0.01) on day 1 than days 42 and 56. The concentration of serum amyloid A was greater (P < 0.01) on day 1 compared to the rest of sampling days. Fibrinogen concentration was greater (P < 0.01) on day 1 compared to days 14 and 42. The neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio was greater (P < 0.01) on days 42 and 56 compared to days 1 and 28, and greater (P < 0.01) on day 14 compared to day 28. Hair and saliva cortisol concentrations were lower (P < 0.01) on day 56 compared to days 1 and 28, respectively. The use of flavoring additives, particularly when based on sweeteners (SW), caused some changes in the feeding pattern of newly received steers. These changes, however, were not consistent over the 56-d feeding period and were not accompanied by a change in growth performance, temperament, biomarkers of stress, inflammation, or immune function.

Effect of castration timing and weaning strategy on the taxonomic and functional profile of ruminal bacteria and archaea of beef calves

BACKGROUND

Beef cattle experience several management challenges across their lifecycle. Castration and weaning, two major interventions in the early life of beef cattle, can have a substantial impact on animal performance. Despite the key role of the rumen microbiome on productive traits of beef cattle, the effect of castration timing and weaning strategy on this microbial community has not been formally described. We assessed the effect of four castration time windows (at birth, turnout, pre-weaning and weaning) and two weaning strategies (fence-line and truck transportation) on the rumen microbiome in a randomized controlled study with 32 male calves across 3 collection days (i.e., time points). Ruminal fluid samples were submitted to shotgun metagenomic sequencing and changes in the taxonomic (microbiota) and functional profile (metagenome) of the rumen microbiome were described.

RESULTS

Using a comprehensive yet stringent taxonomic classification approach, we identified 10,238 unique taxa classified under 40 bacterial and 7 archaeal phyla across all samples. Castration timing had a limited long-term impact on the rumen microbiota and was not associated with changes in alpha and beta diversity. The interaction of collection day and weaning strategy was associated with changes in the rumen microbiota, which experienced a significant decrease in alpha diversity and shifts in beta diversity within 48 h post-weaning, especially in calves abruptly weaned by truck transportation. Calves weaned using a fence-line weaning strategy had lower relative abundance of Bacteroides, Lachnospira, Fibrobacter and Ruminococcus genera compared to calves weaned by truck transportation. Some genes involved in the hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis pathway (fwdB and fwdF) had higher relative abundance in fence-line-weaned calves post-weaning. The antimicrobial resistance gene tetW consistently represented more than 50% of the resistome across time, weaning and castration groups, without significant changes in relative abundance.

CONCLUSIONS

Within the context of this study, castration timing had limited long-term effects on the rumen microbiota, while weaning strategy had short-term effects on the rumen microbiota and methane-associated metagenome, but not on the rumen resistome.

Wound inflammation post-orchiectomy affects the social dynamic of Nelore bulls

BACKGROUND

Confinement of cattle imposes spatial restrictions and predisposes to aversive social encounters that can lead to contusions, wounds, pain, stress, fright, and reduced productivity. Although endogenous testosterone concentrations are linked to agonistic dominance behaviors in males, it is unknown whether decreased blood testosterone concentrations after castration alter social hierarchy rank in Nelore bulls. Therefore, in this study, we investigated the impact of the surgical would inflammation post-orchiectomy on social dynamics in a group of Nelore bulls (Bos indicus). Fourteen Nelore (Bos indicus) bulls were castrated and assessed pre- and post-surgically. Parameters evaluated were agonistic (mounting, headbutting, and fighting) and affiliative (head-play) behavior, plasma testosterone concentrations, average daily weight gain (ADG), and a score for severity of post-surgical infection. Exploratory statistics included social network analysis (SNA), hierarchy rank delta (Δ), and principal component analysis (PCA). Furthermore, statistical inferences included the Wilcoxon test, multiple logistic regression models, and Spearman's correlation.

RESULTS

The social dynamic of Nelore bulls was modified after castration based on the findings of the SNA and the PCA. The moderate correlation between the postoperative inflammation level with the Δ, and the significant effect of this level in the logistic model post-castration were partially attributed to effects of pain on social relations.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest the severity of post-surgical inflammation, which has an association with pain intensity, was closely associated with changes in the social hierarchy.

A nationwide survey on producer and veterinarian perceptions of the painfulness of procedures and disease states in dairy and beef cattle

Failure to adequately manage pain in cattle causes suffering and is thus a welfare concern for the livestock industry. The objectives of this study were to summarize caregiver perceptions of the painfulness of various procedures and disease conditions in cattle. This survey also assessed factors that impact the perception of painfulness and determined relationships between pain perception and mitigation in producers and veterinarians in the United States beef and dairy cattle industries. An online survey was distributed via organization listservs and social media groups representing beef and dairy veterinarians and producers. The survey included questions about respondent demographics and pain perception and frequency of pain mitigation use for a variety of common husbandry procedures and disease conditions in cattle less than 2 months, 2-12 months, and greater than 12 months of age. Descriptive statistics were generated, and ordinal logistic regressions were used to assess the relationship between perceived pain level, frequency of pain mitigation use, and respondent demographic factors (e.g., gender, age, and role). There was a relatively low percentage of respondents that identified there was "no pain" associated with the listed procedures and conditions. Across the majority of procedures and conditions and cattle age categories, men perceived procedures to be less painful than women (P < 0.05). Veterinarians and producer-veterinarians perceived procedures to be more painful than producers (P < 0.05) for the majority of procedures and conditions. There were some differences identified between respondent age groups in pain perception but the trends were not consistent across procedures and conditions. There was a significant positive linear trend, with greater perceived pain associated with greater likelihood of providing local and systemic analgesia for all procedures and conditions across all cattle age categories (P ≤ 0.02). Perception of pain is complex and multifactorial, and it influences the likelihood to treat pain in cattle. This research highlighted the importance of understanding how these factors may play a role in increasing the use of pain mitigation within the beef and dairy industries.

Using Expert Elicitation for ranking hazards, promoters and animal-based measures for on-farm welfare assessment of indoor reared beef cattle: an Italian experience

On-farm welfare assessment gives the opportunity to monitor and improve the quality of the animal life on the farm. In order to build the first Italian public standard for the welfare of indoor reared beef cattle, a list of 25 potential hazards and 22 potential promoters of beef cattle welfare was judged by a group of national experts by taking into account their negative or positive impacts on the welfare-state of the target population. In addition, the experts were asked to rank a list of 11 animal-based measures for identifying the most appropriate and important for measuring negative welfare outcomes in beef cattle. Based on experts' ratings, an "impact score" (IS_overall) was calculated for the proposed measures. Management hazards and promoters were ranked to have a greater impact on beef cattle welfare than housing factors. Keeping cattle in large (≥ 40 animals) and heterogeneous groups obtained the highest IS_overall among the proposed hazards (IS_overall = 5.54), followed by the presence of animals without free access to drinking water (IS_overall = 4.39) and the use of high-concentrate corn silage diets (concentrate > 80% and fiber < 6%) (IS_overall = 4.39). On the other hand, housing animals in small (≤ 20 animals) and homogeneous groups (IS_overall = 5.41), checking them at least twice a day (IS_overall = 4.62) and rearing cattle in loose housing systems with access to an outdoor area/pasture (IS_overall = 4.27) were ranked among the top 3 promoters. Concerning animal-based measures, experts scored lameness, severe respiratory diseases, body condition scoring and mortality rate to be measures most important for assessing serious welfare impairment.

Dairy vs beef production - expert views on welfare of cattle in common food production systems

Consumers' views and concerns about the welfare of farm animals may play an important role in their decision to consume dairy, meat and/or plants as their primary protein source. As animals are killed prematurely in both dairy and beef industries, it is important to quantify and compare welfare compromises in these two sectors before the point of death. Seventy world-leading bovine welfare experts based in 23 countries were asked to evaluate the likelihood of a bovine to experience 12 states of potential welfare concern, inspired by the Welfare Quality® protocol. The evaluation focused on the most common beef and dairy production systems in the experts' country and was carried out separately for dairy/beef calves raised for red meat, dairy/beef calves raised for veal, dairy/beef calves raised as a replacement, and for dairy/beef cows. The results show experts rated the overall likelihood of a negative welfare state (i.e. welfare risk) to be higher in animals from dairy herds than from beef herds, for all animal categories, regardless of whether they were used to produce milk, red meat or veal. These findings suggest that consuming food products derived from common dairy production systems (dairy or meat) may be more harmful to the welfare of animals than consuming products derived from common beef production systems (i.e. from animals solely raised for their meat). Raising awareness about the linkage between dairy and meat production, and the toll of milk production on the welfare state of animals in the dairy industry, may encourage a more sustainable and responsible food consumption.

Nose-Flap Devices Used for Two-Stage Weaning Produce Wounds in the Nostrils of Beef Calves: Case Report

This case report aims to describe the occurrence of negative impacts of wearing nose-flap devices on beef calves subjected to the two-stage weaning method. Forty-one calves, twenty-one pure Nellore and twenty F1 Angus-Nellore, were weaned on average at 236 days of age. Commercial nose-flap devices were fitted in the nostrils of the calves (d0) to prevent suckling and removed five days later (d5). Individual body weights were assessed at d0 and d5, and average daily gain (ADG) was calculated. At d5, during nose-flap device removal, it was noted that 26.8% of the calves lost the nose-flap device; however, all of them had wounds in their nostrils (no injuries in the nostrils had been observed on d0). To assess the severity of these injuries, an impairment score was assigned to each calf, ranging from 1 = no lesions to 5 = injured with purulent discharge. A logistic regression model was fitted to evaluate the effect of sex and genetic group on nose-flap retention (kept or lost). The retention rate did not differ (p > 0.05) between sex and genetic groups. All calves showed at least open wounds of the nasal septum (score 2), including those that lost the nose-flaps before d5. Almost half of the calves showed weight loss during this period. We conclude that there is a considerable risk of the two-stage weaning method compromising the physical integrity of the nostrils of beef calves through the use of these devices, and due to this, it should not be referred to as a low-stress weaning practice for beef calves.

A prospective longitudinal study of risk factors associated with cattle lameness in southern Alberta feedlots

The objectives of this study were to determine the incidence proportion of lameness in feedlot cattle and the associated risk factors. Lameness was studied in two southern Alberta feedlots over a 2 yr period. The incidence proportion of lameness was 36.3% for all calves pulled for treatment. Risk factors associated (P < 0.0001) with increased lameness included body weight (BW), type of cattle, source, stocking density, percentage of forage in the diet, season, precipitation 1 d before diagnosis, and average temperature range 3 d prior to diagnosis. As BW (P < 0.001) increased, the odds of becoming lame also increased. Yearlings and Holsteins had greater (P < 0.001) incidence of lameness than respiratory disease. The odds of becoming lame decreased (P < 0.001) with increased pen density and percentage of forage in the diet. Lameness was greatest in spring (P < 0.001) with the odds of becoming lame being more likely (P < 0.001) with increased precipitation and temperature range (P < 0.001). Use of a multifactorial approach including animal, managerial, and environmental factors in a single analysis will improve our understanding of the risk of increased lameness and aid in development of strategies to reduce its incidence in feedlots.

Analgesic and cardiopulmonary effects of premedication with tramadol in calves anesthetized with the infusion of guaifenesin and thiamylal

This study examined the analgesic and cardiopulmonary effects of intravenous (IV) tramadol during general intravenous anesthesia in calves. Calves were premedicated with diazepam (0.2 mg/kg, IV) with tramadol (2 mg/kg, IV) (group T) or saline (group S). Anesthesia was induced by thiamylal sodium (4 mg/kg, IV) and maintained with an infusion (2 ml/kg/hr) of 5% guaifenesin containing thiamylal sodium (2 mg/ml). Additional thiamylal sodium (1~2 mg/kg, IV) was administered when interference from the calves was observed during surgery. The total counts of additional thiamylal sodium administration, analgesia score using a visual analog scale, recovery time, and cardiopulmonary function in the different groups were assessed and compared. Group T showed significantly fewer counts of additional drug administration and a significantly higher analgesia score. Tramadol may provide adequate analgesia with minimal cardiopulmonary changes in calves during general anesthesia.

Bull-bull mounts in Holstein bulls: a survey of its incidence, possible causes, and consequences in Uruguayan bull' breeders

Bulls frequently display male-male mounts, with consequences in the incidence of injuries, and possibly affecting the reproductive performance of the bulls. This behavior is known as the “buller syndrome” when appears in steers, with several individuals mounting one or a few penmates. The study aimed to collect information on the incidence of bull-bull mounts, the possible associated factors, the productive consequences, and management applied by distributing a survey to Holstein bull breeders in Uruguay. A survey was applied and responded by most Holstein breeders in Uruguay (30/33). Nineteen of the 30 breeders observed mounting behavior among bulls, and 15 of them considered it as a relevant problem. The breeders that observed the behavior had a greater number of bulls than those that did not observe it (P = 0.002). All of them observed that mounts were persistently directed towards the same individual (considering a specific period, while it remained in the group). Of these, 11 (58%) considered that this stopped only when the “buller” bull was removed from the group, mentioning that the behavior was frequently redirected to another individual. The mounts between bulls are a major problem in the breeding of Holstein bulls, with important consequences on weight gain and animal health, reproductive problems such as low libido and seminal quality, and even provoking the death of animals. Although not all breeders reported the existence of the problem, those with the bigger herds did. While some management and/or environmental conditions seem to influence (higher density, regrouping, managements that involve movement of animals, and spring) the incidence of bull-bull mounts, there are no standardized managements to avoid this behavior. Considering that most breeders were interested in including practices to minimize this problem if available, it would be essential to understand better the causes and predisposing factors to decrease its negative impacts.

A method for assessing sustainability, with beef production as an example

A comprehensive approach to decisions about the use of land and other world resources, taking full account of biological and other scientific information, is crucial for good decisions to be made now and in future. The sustainability of systems for producing food and other products is sometimes assessed using too narrow a range of component factors. A production system might be unsustainable because of adverse effects on a wide range of aspects of human welfare, animal welfare, or the environment. All factors should be included in sustainability evaluation, otherwise products or actions might be avoided without adequate consideration of key factors or of the diversity of production systems. A scoring method that is based on scientific information and potentially of general relevance is presented here, using beef production as a example with a review of each of its sustainability components. This includes an overall combined score and specific factors that make the system unacceptable for some consumers. The results show that, in this example, the sustainability of the best systems is very much better than that of the worst systems. By taking account of scores for a wide range of components of sustainability in comparing beef-production systems, better quality policies about beef use can be formulated than when statements referring only to one system are considered. The least sustainable beef-production systems are extensive grazing that causes land degradation and the use of feedlots or indoor housing with grain feeding. Semi-intensive silvopastoral systems are the most sustainable beef-production systems, and well-managed pasture-fed beef from areas where crop production is uneconomic is also sustainable. This simple, scientifically based scoring system could be modified to use positive as well as negative scores and is of value for policy makers, researchers, producers, organisations aiming to improve sustainability, and the general public.

Bovine respiratory disease in Brasil: a short review

The bovine respiratory disease (BRD) complex is a multifactorial and multietiological disease entity described in all geographic regions of Brazil. This brief review discusses aspects related to epidemiology, etiologic agents, clinical and pathological manifestations, and challenges in the diagnosis of BRD in Brazil. The main infectious disease agents associated with respiratory outbreaks in cattle from Brazil are bovine alphaherpesvirus type 1, bovine viral diarrhea virus, bovine respiratory syncytial virus, and Mycoplasma bovis. Ovine gammaherpesvirus-2 and HoBi-like pestivirus have been associated with the development of pneumonia in adult cattle and calves, respectively in Brazil, and should be considered as possible causes of BRD. Additionally, studies using epidemiological data, histopathological and molecular associations with morbidity and mortality should be carried out in Brazil, to demonstrate the real impacts of BRD on livestock.

Farmers' Preferences Regarding the Design of Animal Welfare Programs: Insights from a Choice-Based Conjoint Study in Germany

Simple Summary

Numerous animal welfare schemes have been developed aiming to improve animal welfare on a voluntary basis beyond legal regulations. The success of these schemes depends decisively on whether the design of these schemes is attractive to livestock farmers and, as a result, whether they are willing to participate and thus to implement the animal welfare measures regulated in these schemes. In this study, we investigated German livestock farmers’ preferences regarding the design of animal welfare schemes with a choice experiment. Farmers were asked to select their most preferred alternative among animal welfare schemes that differed in the specifications of the following four attributes: basis for remuneration (i.e., type of animal welfare measures to be implemented), commitment period, funding agency and compensation level. The basis for remuneration and the compensation level had the greatest influence on farmers’ decisions. The commitment period also affected farmers’ decisions. Independent of the livestock species kept, farmers preferred animal health as basis for remuneration, the higher compensation level and the longer commitment period. These findings could be incorporated into the development and refinement of animal welfare programs to make them more attractive to farmers and thus increase their willingness to participate.

Abstract

As more animal welfare is required in livestock farming, several approaches have been developed to improve the well-being of farmed animals on a voluntary basis. Since farmers’ acceptance is important for the success of these approaches, their preferences should be considered when developing farm animal welfare programs. We used choice based conjoint analysis to investigate the preferences of 242 German livestock farmers (147 cattle farmers; 95 pig farmers) regarding the design of farm animal welfare programs. The conditional logit regression models show that the measures serving as basis for remuneration and the compensation level were of decisive importance for the farmers’ choices. The most preferred measure for assessing animal welfare, and thus as the basis for remuneration, was animal health. As expected, a higher compensation level led to greater acceptance of an animal welfare approach. The commitment period was only of subordinate importance with the longer commitment period being preferred. Our study outlines aspects of farm animal welfare programs that might encourage farmers to participate in these programs. Future programs could consider our findings by emphasising health parameters and by creating planning security through longer commitment periods and sufficiently high compensations for farmers’ efforts to improve animal welfare.

The Welfare of Beef Cattle in the Scientific Literature From 1990 to 2019: A Text Mining Approach

Beef cattle are the third most numerous terrestrial farmed animals worldwide. Factors such as geographical region, animal category, breed, and rearing system pose specific animal welfare challenges that can have an impact on animal and public health. This article uses text mining (TM) and topic analysis (TA) to explore the scientific literature on beef cattle welfare published in English from 1990 to 2019. Our aim was to reveal the main research topics and their evolution over time. Our analysis showed that the three most relevant themes in research since 1990 have to do with calf behaviour and management, efficiency, and environmental sustainability, and the effects of transport and slaughter on meat quality. Topics showing the most marked increase in the number of papers published deal with stakeholders' perceptions and market opportunities for added-value beef products and risk factors for morbidity and mortality, especially in relation to calf health, antimicrobial use, and antimicrobial resistance. The results indicate a particular focus on the welfare of calves, especially in the veal industry. Pain relief during the castration of calves and bulls also featured prominently. Research is also increasingly assessing aspects of beef cattle welfare that are interlinked to meat quality, the social and environmental sustainability of the sector in relation to market opportunities, and public health. The identified topics represent a basic source of information that can be used for further and more detailed analyses (e.g., systematic reviews) focussed on specific research themes or geographical areas.

Non-Invasive Physiological Indicators of Heat Stress in Cattle

Cattle are susceptible to heat stress, especially those kept on high levels of nutrition for the purpose of maximising growth rates, which leads to a significant heat increment in their bodies. Consequences include compromised health and productivity and mortalities during extreme events, as well as serious economic loss. Some measures of heat stress, such as plasma cortisol and temperature in the rectum, vagina, or rumen, are invasive and therefore unlikely to be used on farms. These may cause additional stress to the animal due to handling, and that stress in itself can confound the measure. Consequently, it is desirable to find non-invasive alternatives. Panting score (PS), cortisol metabolites in faeces, milk, or hair, and the infrared temperature of external body surfaces are all potentially useful. Respiratory indicators are difficult and time consuming to record accurately, and cortisol metabolites are expensive and technically difficult to analyse. Infrared temperature appears to offer the best solution but requires further research to determine the thresholds that define when corrective actions are required to ensure optimal health and productivity. Research in this area has the potential to ultimately improve the welfare and profitability of cattle farming.

Flooding on Beef and Swine Farms: A Scoping Review of Effects in the Midwestern United States

BACKGROUND

Increasing uncertainty and variability in weather due to climate change puts enormous stress on the sustainability of agricultural communities in several parts of the continental United States. Rural agriculture-based communities, such as those in North Carolina, Nebraska, and Illinois are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of flooding. These extreme weather events affect many animal facilities, and flooding can cause long-term impacts on animal health and productivity.

OBJECTIVES

This scoping review investigated the potential short- and long-term ramifications of flooding on beef cattle and swine farms with theoretical locations in the Midwestern U.S. The goal of this review is to create a concept map to identify research gaps related to efforts to support those animals and peoples ravaged by floods. This was accomplished by performing a scoping review using search terms "beef OR swine AND flood" to assess direct effects and then "beef OR swine AND direct effect" to evaluate secondary and tertiary effects.

RESULTS

Our findings were based on a total of 89 peer-reviewed publications, with 50 publications relating to beef cattle, 24 relating to swine, and 15 containing information applicable to both. On beef farms, the effects of flooding can be broad and long-lasting. The short-term risks of flooding are reasonably well-understood, including the comingling of unfamiliar cattle, nutritional restriction, and disease transmission. However, long-term impacts, including potential effects on reproduction, nutrition, and carcass quality, have been less studied. In particular, further research is needed on mold species that contaminate hay post-flood, the effect of moldy hay ingestion on cattle, and the effects of heavy metal consumption on cattle and consumers. Little research is available regarding the effects of flooding on swine farms, likely due to the highly intensive nature of swine operations. In general, swine farms suffer from acute infectious diseases and biosecurity risks after flooding events.

CONCLUSIONS

The potential ramifications of flooding on livestock farms differ among farm operations. Beef farms should prepare for long-term impacts on nutrition and reproduction, while swine farms should prepare for short-term impacts on biosecurity.

Non-specific protection from respiratory tract infections in cattle generated by intranasal administration of an innate immune stimulant

Alternatives to antibiotics for prevention of respiratory tract infections in cattle are urgently needed given the increasing public and regulatory pressure to reduce overall antibiotic usage. Activation of local innate immune defenses in the upper respiratory tract is one strategy to induce non-specific protection against infection with the diverse array of viral and bacterial pathogens associated with bovine respiratory disease complex (BRDC), while avoiding the use of antibiotics. Our prior studies in rodent models demonstrated that intranasal administration of liposome-TLR complexes (LTC) as a non-specific immune stimulant generated high levels of protection against lethal bacterial and viral pathogens. Therefore, we conducted studies to assess LTC induction of local immune responses and protective immunity to BRDC in cattle. In vitro, LTC were shown to activate peripheral blood mononuclear cells in cattle, which was associated with secretion of INFγ and IL-6. Macrophage activation with LTC triggered intracellular killing of Mannheimia hemolytica and several other bacterial pathogens. In studies in cattle, intranasal administration of LTC demonstrated dose-dependent activation of local innate immune responses in the nasopharynx, including recruitment of monocytes and prolonged upregulation (at least 2 weeks) of innate immune cytokine gene expression by nasopharyngeal mucosal cells. In a BRDC challenge study, intranasal administration of LTC prior to pathogen exposure resulted in significant reduction in both clinical signs of infection and disease-associated euthanasia rates. These findings indicate that intranasal administration of a non-specific innate immune stimulant can be an effective method of rapidly generating generalized protection from mixed viral and bacterial respiratory tract infections in cattle.

Developing an Animal Welfare Assessment Protocol for Livestock Transported by Sea

Australian livestock industries face increased scrutiny from animal welfare groups and society, and the long-distance transport of livestock by sea has recently gained particular attention. Other than non-compliance with broad regulatory standards and voyage mortality rates, there is minimal information to ascertain the welfare of exported livestock. There is currently no standardised, validated animal welfare assessment protocol for livestock on-farm prior to live export or when undergoing transport. This study describes a novel assessment protocol suitable for use on live feeder and slaughter animals exported by sea from Australia. Health and welfare indicators for use in the livestock export supply chain were identified by reviewing three internationally recognised animal welfare assessment protocols for livestock; Welfare Quality®, AWIN and AssureWel, as well as consulting with industry compliance standards and guidelines. This paper proposes a welfare protocol designed to assess sheep and beef cattle exported by sea from Australia, and incorporates environmental-, resource-, management- and animal-based measures. In collaboration with industry, this welfare protocol can be tested on commercial livestock consignments, and be used for ongoing management, for increased transparency and to provide feedback to operators for continuous improvement.

Effect of transport and rest stop duration on the welfare of conditioned cattle transported by road

The effects of providing rest on physiological and behavioural indicators of welfare of cattle being transported by road has not been well studied in North America. New revisions to Canada's Health of Animals Regulations Part XII: Transportation of Animals indicate un-weaned and weaned calves can be transported a maximum of 12 and 36 h, respectively, before an 8 h rest is required. Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess the effects of rest duration, after 12 and 36 h of transport, on physiological and behavioural indicators of welfare in 7-8 mo-old beef calves. Three hundred and twenty conditioned calves (258 ± 23.9 kg BW) were randomly assigned to a 2 × 4 factorial design where the main factors included transport duration: 12 h (12; n = 160) and 36 h (36; n = 160) and rest stop duration: 0 h (R0; n = 80), 4 h (R4; n = 80), 8 h (R8; n = 80) and 12 h (R12; n = 80). After the resting period, animals were transported for an additional 4 h. Blood and hair samples were taken from 12 animals per treatment prior to and after the first and the 4 h transport; and then 7 h, 2 d and 28 d after the 4 h transport. The concentrations of haptoglobin, creatine kinase, non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA), lactate, and serum and hair cortisol were determined. Standing and lying behaviour was assessed for 14 d after transport, while feeding behaviour of calves in one pen per treatment were assessed for 28 d after transportation using an electronic feed bunk monitoring system. Body weight (BW), average daily gain (ADG) and shrink (%) was assessed for all calves. The data was modeled using generalized linear mixed methods (SAS PROC GLIMMIX), where transport and time (nested in rest) were considered fixed effects and animal and pen were considered random effects. Statistically significant (p < 0.05) effects of transport were observed on BW and shrink, where 36 h-transported calves had lower (p < 0.01) BW and greater (p < 0.01) shrink than 12 h-transported calves. A transport × time (nested in rest) interaction (p < 0.01) was observed for lying percentage where, 36-R8 calves had greater (p < 0.01) lying percentage than 12-R8 calves on d 1 after transportation. The area under the curve (AUC) for NEFA was greater (p < 0.01) for 36-R0 calves than 12-R0, 36-R4, and 36-R8 calves, and greater (p < 0.01) in 36-R12 calves than 12-R12 calves. Haptoglobin AUC was greater (p = 0.05) in 36-R12 than 12-R12 calves. Overall, physiological indicators of reduced welfare were greater in calves transported for 36 than 12 h, while no clear differences were observed between rest stop groups with the exception of NEFA. Based on these results, conditioned calves benefit from shorter transport durations but there was no clear evidence that calves rested 4, 8, and 12 h following transportation experienced reduced transport related stress compared to those that were not rested (0h).

Welfare of beef cattle in Australian feedlots: a review of the risks and measures

The rising global demand for animal protein is leading to intensification of livestock production systems. At the same time, societal concerns about sustainability and animal welfare in intensive systems is increasing. This review examines the risks to welfare for beef cattle within commercial feedlots in Australia. Several aspects of the feedlot environment have the potential to compromise the physical and psychological welfare of cattle if not properly monitored and managed. These include, but are not limited to, animal factors such as the influence of genetics, temperament and prior health, as well as management factors such as diet, pen design, resource provision, pregnancy management, and stock-person attitudes and skills. While current industry and producer initiatives exist to address some of these issues, continuous improvements in welfare requires accurate, reliable and repeatable measures to allow quantification of current and future welfare states. Existing measures of welfare are explored as well as proxy indicators that may signal the presence of improved or reduced welfare. Finally, potential future measures of welfare that are currently under development are discussed and recommendations for future research are made.

Effect of a single dose of subcutaneous meloxicam before knife castration alone or combined with hot-iron branding on scrotal healing, inflammatory response, and behaviour in 2-mo-old beef calves over 42 d post procedure

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of a single subcutaneous injection of meloxicam on scrotal healing, inflammatory response, and behaviour in castrated or castrated and branded beef calves for 42 d post procedure. Seventy-two 2-mo-old Angus crossbred bull calves were used to assess the effects of procedure (Trt): (1) sham control, (2) knife castration, and (3) knife castration and hot-iron branding; and pain mitigation (Med): (1) nonmedicated and (2) medicated with meloxicam according to a 3 × 2 factorial design. Body weight, scrotal circumference (SC), and healing scores were collected weekly until day 42. Blood samples were collected weekly until day 42 to assess haptoglobin, serum amyloid-A, and complete blood cell count. Hair was collected on day −1 and day 42 to assess cortisol concentrations. Lying and standing behaviour were recorded for 42 d, whereas pain-related behaviours were recorded on days 7, 15, 22, 29, and 34 post procedure. The inflammatory response (SC) and duration of standing was greater (P < 0.05) in calves castrated and branded than those only castrated. However, meloxicam did not reduce inflammation or improve wound healing in either castrated or castrated and branded calves.

Assessing cow-calf welfare. Part 1: Benchmarking beef cow health and behavior, handling; and management, facilities, and producer perspectives

Assessment programs are one way beef producers communicate information about animal welfare to retailers and the public. Programs that monitor cattle through the production cycle (e.g., the Global Animal Partnership) or at individual stages (e.g., slaughter; the North American Meat Institute) exist, but to date, there is no assessment program addressing welfare specifically in the cow-calf sector. The objectives of this study were to measure cow-calf health and handling welfare outcomes and gather management, facility, and producer perspective information to 1) describe current practices and 2) inform assessment design. A welfare assessment, designed using features of similar beef and dairy programs, was conducted on 30 California ranches that varied in size (mean 1,051 cows [SD 1,849], range 28 to 10,000 cows) and location within the state. Cattle health and behavior and stockperson handling were measured during a routine procedure (e.g., pregnancy checks) on breeding females ( = 3,065). Management and producer perspectives were evaluated through an interview, and facility features were recorded at the chute and water access points. Cattle health problems were rare and seen only on specific ranches (e.g., prevalence of lame cattle: mean 1.3% [SD 1.5], range 0 to 7.1%). Cattle behavior and stockperson handling varied between ranches (e.g., cattle balking: mean 22.0% [SD 21.9], range 1.6 to 78.3%; electric prod use: mean 23.5 [SD 21.5], range 0 to 73.0%). Although some management and facility characteristics were shared by most (e.g., all ranches castrated bull calves; 86% used alleyways with an anti-back gate), other aspects varied (e.g., weaning age: mean 8.2 mo [SD 1.4], range 6 to 11 mo; 43% used shade cover over chute). Most producers shared similar perspectives toward their herd health management plan, but their responses varied when asked to evaluate an animal's pain experience. In terms of assessment design, there were challenges with feasibility (e.g., scheduling a ranch visit on a day cattle were processed was difficult), validity (e.g., cattle may back up calmly to adjust posture or quickly in response to an aggressive handler; without this context, the welfare implications of this behavior are unclear), and comparability (e.g., an explicit animal observation period needed to be defined to make comparisons across ranches). Future assessment programs should consider these qualities when selecting measures to evaluate welfare.