1
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Ghosh R, Arnheim A, van Zee M, Shang L, Soemardy C, Tang RC, Mellody M, Baghdasarian S, Sanchez Ochoa E, Ye S, Chen S, Williamson C, Karunaratne A, Di Carlo D. Lab on a Particle Technologies. Anal Chem 2024; 96:7817-7839. [PMID: 38650433 PMCID: PMC11112544 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.4c01510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2024] [Revised: 04/14/2024] [Accepted: 04/16/2024] [Indexed: 04/25/2024]
Affiliation(s)
- Rajesh Ghosh
- Department
of Bioengineering, University of California,
Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Alyssa Arnheim
- Department
of Bioengineering, University of California,
Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Mark van Zee
- Department
of Bioengineering, University of California,
Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Lily Shang
- Department
of Bioengineering, University of California,
Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Citradewi Soemardy
- Department
of Bioengineering, University of California,
Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Rui-Chian Tang
- Department
of Bioengineering, University of California,
Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Michael Mellody
- Department
of Bioengineering, University of California,
Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Sevana Baghdasarian
- Department
of Bioengineering, University of California,
Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Edwin Sanchez Ochoa
- Department
of Bioengineering, University of California,
Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Shun Ye
- Department
of Bioengineering, University of California,
Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Siyu Chen
- Department
of Bioengineering, University of California,
Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Cayden Williamson
- Department
of Bioengineering, University of California,
Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Amrith Karunaratne
- Department
of Bioengineering, University of California,
Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Dino Di Carlo
- Department
of Bioengineering, University of California,
Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
- Jonsson
Comprehensive Cancer Center, University
of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
- Department
of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
- California
NanoSystems Institute, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
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2
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Lim YJ, Choi JH, Mun SJ, Kim J, Bong KW. Real-Time Signal Analysis with Wider Dynamic Range and Enhanced Sensitivity in Multiplex Colorimetric Immunoassays Using Encoded Hydrogel Microparticles. Anal Chem 2024; 96:7204-7211. [PMID: 38662417 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.4c00773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Abstract
The simultaneous quantification of multiple proteins is crucial for accurate medical diagnostics. A promising technology, the multiplex colorimetric immunoassay using encoded hydrogel microparticles, has garnered attention, due to its simplicity and multiplex capabilities. However, it encounters challenges related to its dynamic range, as it relies solely on the colorimetric signal analysis of encoded hydrogel microparticles at the specific time point (i.e., end-point analysis). This necessitates the precise determination of the optimal time point for the termination of the colorimetric reaction. In this study, we introduce real-time signal analysis to quantify proteins by observing the continuous colorimetric signal change within the encoded hydrogel microparticles. Real-time signal analysis measures the "slope", the rate of the colorimetric signal generation, by focusing on the kinetics of the accumulation of colorimetric products instead of the colorimetric signal that appears at the end point. By developing a deep learning-based automatic analysis program that automatically reads the code of the graphically encoded hydrogel microparticles and obtains the slope by continuously tracking the colorimetric signal, we achieved high accuracy and high throughput analysis. This technology has secured a dynamic range more than twice as wide as that of the conventional end-point signal analysis, simultaneously achieving a sensitivity that is 4-10 times higher. Finally, as a demonstration of application, we performed multiplex colorimetric immunoassays using real-time signal analysis covering a wide concentration range of protein targets associated with pre-eclampsia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong Jun Lim
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul 02841, South Korea
| | - Jun Hee Choi
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul 02841, South Korea
| | - Seok Joon Mun
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul 02841, South Korea
| | - Jiwoo Kim
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul 02841, South Korea
| | - Ki Wan Bong
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul 02841, South Korea
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3
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Choi JH, Jang W, Lim YJ, Mun SJ, Bong KW. Highly Flexible Deep-Learning-Based Automatic Analysis for Graphically Encoded Hydrogel Microparticles. ACS Sens 2023; 8:3158-3166. [PMID: 37489756 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.3c00857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/26/2023]
Abstract
Graphically encoded hydrogel microparticle (HMP)-based bioassay is a diagnostic tool characterized by exceptional multiplex detectability and robust sensitivity and specificity. Specifically, deep learning enables highly fast and accurate analyses of HMPs with diverse graphical codes. However, previous related studies have found the use of plain particles as data to be disadvantageous for accurate analyses of HMPs loaded with functional nanomaterials. Furthermore, the manual data annotation method used in existing approaches is highly labor-intensive and time-consuming. In this study, we present an efficient deep-learning-based analysis of encoded HMPs with diverse graphical codes and functional nanomaterials, utilizing the auto-annotation and synthetic data mixing methods for model training. The auto-annotation enhanced the throughput of dataset preparation up to 0.11 s/image. Using synthetic data mixing, a mean average precision of 0.88 was achieved in the analysis of encoded HMPs with magnetic nanoparticles, representing an approximately twofold improvement over the standard method. To evaluate the practical applicability of the proposed automatic analysis strategy, a single-image analysis was performed after the triplex immunoassay for the preeclampsia-related protein biomarkers. Finally, we accomplished a processing throughput of 0.353 s per sample for analyzing the result image.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Hee Choi
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul 02841, South Korea
| | - Wookyoung Jang
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul 02841, South Korea
| | - Yong Jun Lim
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul 02841, South Korea
| | - Seok Joon Mun
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul 02841, South Korea
| | - Ki Wan Bong
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul 02841, South Korea
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4
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Ryoo H, Underhill GH. Spatially Defined Cell-Secreted Protein Detection Using Granular Hydrogels: μGeLISA. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2023; 9:2317-2328. [PMID: 37070831 PMCID: PMC11135160 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.2c01308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/19/2023]
Abstract
Intercellular communication through secreted proteins is necessary in essential processes such as embryo and limb development, disease progression, and immune responses. There exist many techniques to study bulk solution protein concentrations, but there is a limited set of tools to study the concentrations of cell-secreted proteins in situ within diverse cell platforms while retaining spatial information. In this study, we have developed a microgel system that is able to quantitatively measure the cell-secreted protein concentration within defined three-dimensional culture configurations with single-cell spatial resolution, called μGeLISA (microgel-linked immunosorbent assay). This system, which is based on the surface modification of polyethylene glycol microgels, was able to detect interleukin 6 (IL-6) concentrations of 2.21-21.86 ng/mL. Microgels were also able to detect cell spheroid-secreted IL-6 and distinguish between low- and high-secreting single cells. The system was also adapted to measure the concentration of cell-secreted matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2). μGeLISA represents a highly versatile system with a straightforward fabrication process that can be adapted toward the detection of secreted proteins within a diverse range of cell culture configurations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyeon Ryoo
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Gregory H Underhill
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
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5
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De Masi A, Scognamiglio PL, Battista E, Netti PA, Causa F. Hydrogel particles-on-chip (HyPoC): a fluorescence micro-sensor array for IgG immunoassay. LAB ON A CHIP 2023; 23:2458-2468. [PMID: 37092599 DOI: 10.1039/d2lc01080a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Novel microparticles have generated growing interest in diagnostics for potential sensitivity and specificity in biomolecule detection and for the possibility to be integrated in a micro-system array as a lab-on-chip. Indeed, bead-based technologies integrated in microfluidics could speed up incubation steps, reduce reagent consumption and improve accessibility of diagnostic devices to non-expert users. To limit non-specific interactions with interfering molecules and to exploit the whole particle volume for bioconjugation, hydrogel microparticles, particularly polyethylene glycol-based, have emerged as promising materials to develop high-performing biosensors since their network can be functionalized to concentrate the target and improve detection. However, the limitations in positioning, trapping and mainly fine manipulation of a precise number of particles in microfluidics have largely impaired point-of-care applications. Herein, we developed an on-chip sandwich immunoassay for the detection of human immunoglobulin G in biological fluids. The detection system is based on finely engineered cleavable PEG-based microparticles, functionalized with specific monoclonal antibodies. By changing the particle number, we demonstrated tuneable specificity and sensitivity (down to 3 pM) in serum and urine. Therefore, a controlled number of hydrogel particles have been integrated in a microfluidic device for on-chip detection (HyPoC) allowing for their precise positioning and fluid exchange for incubation, washing and target detection. HyPoC dramatically decreases incubation time from 180 minutes to one minute and reduces washing volumes from 3.5 ml to 90 μL, achieving a limit of detection of 0.07 nM (with a dynamic range of 0.07-1 nM). Thus, the developed approach represents a versatile, fast and easy point-of-care testing platform for immunoassays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra De Masi
- Center for Advanced Biomaterials for Healthcare@CRIB, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT), Largo Barsanti e Matteucci 53, 80125 Naples, Italy.
- Dipartimento di Ingegneria Chimica del Materiali e della Produzione Industriale (DICMAPI), University "Federico II", Piazzale Tecchio 80, 80125 Naples, Italy
| | - Pasqualina Liana Scognamiglio
- Center for Advanced Biomaterials for Healthcare@CRIB, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT), Largo Barsanti e Matteucci 53, 80125 Naples, Italy.
| | - Edmondo Battista
- Center for Advanced Biomaterials for Healthcare@CRIB, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT), Largo Barsanti e Matteucci 53, 80125 Naples, Italy.
- Interdisciplinary Research Centre on Biomaterials (CRIB), University "Federico II", Piazzale Tecchio 80, 80125 Naples, Italy
| | - Paolo Antonio Netti
- Center for Advanced Biomaterials for Healthcare@CRIB, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT), Largo Barsanti e Matteucci 53, 80125 Naples, Italy.
- Interdisciplinary Research Centre on Biomaterials (CRIB), University "Federico II", Piazzale Tecchio 80, 80125 Naples, Italy
- Dipartimento di Ingegneria Chimica del Materiali e della Produzione Industriale (DICMAPI), University "Federico II", Piazzale Tecchio 80, 80125 Naples, Italy
| | - Filippo Causa
- Center for Advanced Biomaterials for Healthcare@CRIB, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT), Largo Barsanti e Matteucci 53, 80125 Naples, Italy.
- Interdisciplinary Research Centre on Biomaterials (CRIB), University "Federico II", Piazzale Tecchio 80, 80125 Naples, Italy
- Dipartimento di Ingegneria Chimica del Materiali e della Produzione Industriale (DICMAPI), University "Federico II", Piazzale Tecchio 80, 80125 Naples, Italy
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6
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Sebben D, Strohle G, Roy PS, Li H. Gold-nanoparticle-embedded hydrogel droplets with enhanced fluorescence for imaging and quantification of proteins in cells. Mikrochim Acta 2023; 190:144. [PMID: 36939899 DOI: 10.1007/s00604-023-05728-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2023] [Indexed: 03/21/2023]
Abstract
Conventional cellular protein detection techniques such as immunocytochemistry and flow cytometry require abundant cells, posing multiple challenges, including difficulty and cost for obtaining enough cells and the potential for clogging the instrument when using flow cytometry. Also, it is challenging to conduct cellular protein imaging and quantification simultaneously from a single experiment. We present a novel 3D platform, which integrates highly biocompatible cell-entrapped alginate hydrogel droplet array with gold-nanoparticle (AuNP)-based metal enhanced fluorescence (MEF), to achieve simultaneous imaging and quantification of proteins in intact cells in a sensitive manner. Compared to 2D immunocytochemistry, this 3D system allows for a higher cell loading capacity per unit area; together with the MEF-based signal enhancement from the embedded AuNPs, sensitive protein quantification was realized. Furthermore, compared to flow cytometry, this platform allows for protein imaging from individual cells. Taking the detection of EpCAM protein in ovarian cancer cells as a model, we optimized the AuNP size and concentration for optimal fluorescent signals. The 5 nm AuNPs at 6.54 × 1013 particles/mL proved to be the most effective in signal enhancement, providing 2.4-fold higher signals compared to that without AuNPs and 6.4-fold higher signals than that of 2D immunocytochemistry. The number of cells required in our technology is 1-3 orders of magnitude smaller than that of conventional methods. This AuNP-embedded hydrogel platform combines the benefits of immunocytochemistry and flow cytometry, providing increased assay sensitivity while also allowing for qualitative analysis through imaging, suitable for protein determination in a variety of cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Sebben
- School of Engineering, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G2W1, Canada
| | - Gisela Strohle
- School of Engineering, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G2W1, Canada
| | - Promit Sinha Roy
- School of Engineering, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G2W1, Canada
| | - Huiyan Li
- School of Engineering, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G2W1, Canada.
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7
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Sahin MA, Werner H, Udani S, Di Carlo D, Destgeer G. Flow lithography for structured microparticles: fundamentals, methods and applications. LAB ON A CHIP 2022; 22:4007-4042. [PMID: 35920614 DOI: 10.1039/d2lc00421f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Structured microparticles, with unique shapes, customizable sizes, multiple materials, and spatially-defined chemistries, are leading the way for emerging 'lab on a particle' technologies. These microparticles with engineered designs find applications in multiplexed diagnostics, drug delivery, single-cell secretion assays, single-molecule detection assays, high throughput cytometry, micro-robotics, self-assembly, and tissue engineering. In this article we review state-of-the-art particle manufacturing technologies based on flow-assisted photolithography performed inside microfluidic channels. Important physicochemical concepts are discussed to provide a basis for understanding the fabrication technologies. These photolithography technologies are compared based on the structural as well as compositional complexity of the fabricated particles. Particles are categorized, from 1D to 3D particles, based on the number of dimensions that can be independently controlled during the fabrication process. After discussing the advantages of the individual techniques, important applications of the fabricated particles are reviewed. Lastly, a future perspective is provided with potential directions to improve the throughput of particle fabrication, realize new particle shapes, measure particles in an automated manner, and adopt the 'lab on a particle' technologies to other areas of research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehmet Akif Sahin
- Control and Manipulation of Microscale Living Objects, Central Institute for Translational Cancer Research (TranslaTUM), Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Technical University of Munich, Einsteinstraße 25, Munich 81675, Germany.
| | - Helen Werner
- Control and Manipulation of Microscale Living Objects, Central Institute for Translational Cancer Research (TranslaTUM), Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Technical University of Munich, Einsteinstraße 25, Munich 81675, Germany.
| | - Shreya Udani
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA.
| | - Dino Di Carlo
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA.
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, California NanoSystems Institute and Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
| | - Ghulam Destgeer
- Control and Manipulation of Microscale Living Objects, Central Institute for Translational Cancer Research (TranslaTUM), Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Technical University of Munich, Einsteinstraße 25, Munich 81675, Germany.
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8
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Bae SH, Jang W, Choi JH, Mun SJ, Bong KW. Optimization of particle rinsing process in linker-free post-synthesis functionalization for sensitive encoded hydrogel microparticle-based immunoassay. J IND ENG CHEM 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jiec.2022.10.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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9
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Ghorbanizamani F, Moulahoum H, Guler Celik E, Timur S. Ionic liquids enhancement of hydrogels and impact on biosensing applications. J Mol Liq 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2022.119075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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10
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Weber T, Metzler L, Fosso Tene PL, Brandstetter T, Rühe J. Single-Color Barcoding for Multiplexed Hydrogel Bead-Based Immunoassays. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2022; 14:25147-25154. [PMID: 35617151 PMCID: PMC9185679 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.2c04361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2022] [Accepted: 04/06/2022] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Current developments in precision medicine require the simultaneous detection of an increasing number of biomarkers in heterogeneous, complex solutions, such as blood samples. To meet this need, immunoassays on barcoded hydrogel beads have been proposed, although the encoding and decoding of these barcodes is usually complex and/or resource-intensive. Herein, an efficient method for the fabrication of barcoded, functionalized hydrogel beads is presented. The hydrogel beads are generated using droplet-based microfluidics in combination with photochemically induced C-H insertion reactions, allowing photo-crosslinking, (bio-) functionalization, and barcode integration to be performed in a single step. The generated functionalized beads carry single-color barcodes consisting of green-fluorescent particles of different sizes and concentrations, allowing simple and simultaneous readout with a standard plate reader. As a test example, the performance of barcoded hydrogel beads (3 × 3 matrix) functionalized with capture molecules of interest (e.g., antigens) is investigated for the detection of Lyme-disease-specific antibodies in patient sera. The described barcoding strategy for hydrogel beads does not interfere with the bioanalytical process and captivates by its simplicity and versatility, making it an attractive candidate for multiplex bioanalytical processes.
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Bae S, Lee D, Na H, Jang J, Kwon S. One-step assembly of barcoded planar microparticles for efficient readout of multiplexed immunoassay. LAB ON A CHIP 2022; 22:2090-2096. [PMID: 35579061 DOI: 10.1039/d2lc00174h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Barcoded planar microparticles are suitable for developing cost-efficient multiplexed assays, but the robustness and efficiency of the readout process still needs improvement. Here, we designed a one-step microparticle assembling chip that produces efficient and accurate multiplex immunoassay readout results. Our design was also compatible with injection molding for mass production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sangwook Bae
- Bio-MAX/N-Bio, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, South Korea.
| | - Daewon Lee
- Education and Research Program for Future ICT Pioneers, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, South Korea
- SOFT Foundry Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, South Korea
| | - Hunjong Na
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, South Korea
- QuantaMatrix Inc., Medical Innovation Center, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul, 03080, South Korea
| | - Jisung Jang
- QuantaMatrix Inc., Medical Innovation Center, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul, 03080, South Korea
| | - Sunghoon Kwon
- Bio-MAX/N-Bio, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, South Korea.
- Education and Research Program for Future ICT Pioneers, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, South Korea
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, South Korea
- QuantaMatrix Inc., Medical Innovation Center, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul, 03080, South Korea
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12
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Bae SW, Kim J, Kwon S. Recent Advances in Polymer Additive Engineering for Diagnostic and Therapeutic Hydrogels. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23062955. [PMID: 35328375 PMCID: PMC8955662 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23062955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2022] [Revised: 03/03/2022] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Hydrogels are hydrophilic polymer materials that provide a wide range of physicochemical properties as well as are highly biocompatible. Biomedical researchers are adapting these materials for the ever-increasing range of design options and potential applications in diagnostics and therapeutics. Along with innovative hydrogel polymer backbone developments, designing polymer additives for these backbones has been a major contributor to the field, especially for expanding the functionality spectrum of hydrogels. For the past decade, researchers invented numerous hydrogel functionalities that emerge from the rational incorporation of additives such as nucleic acids, proteins, cells, and inorganic nanomaterials. Cases of successful commercialization of such functional hydrogels are being reported, thus driving more translational research with hydrogels. Among the many hydrogels, here we reviewed recently reported functional hydrogels incorporated with polymer additives. We focused on those that have potential in translational medicine applications which range from diagnostic sensors as well as assay and drug screening to therapeutic actuators as well as drug delivery and implant. We discussed the growing trend of facile point-of-care diagnostics and integrated smart platforms. Additionally, special emphasis was given to emerging bioinformatics functionalities stemming from the information technology field, such as DNA data storage and anti-counterfeiting strategies. We anticipate that these translational purpose-driven polymer additive research studies will continue to advance the field of functional hydrogel engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sang-Wook Bae
- Bio-MAX/N-Bio, Seoul National University, Daehak-dong, Gwanak-gu, Seoul 08826, Korea;
| | - Jiyun Kim
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology, Ulsan 44919, Korea
- Center for Multidimensional Programmable Matter, Ulsan 44919, Korea
- Correspondence: (J.K.); (S.K.)
| | - Sunghoon Kwon
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Seoul National University, Daehak-dong, Gwanak-gu, Seoul 08826, Korea
- Correspondence: (J.K.); (S.K.)
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13
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Abstract
Hydrogels are important structural and operative components of microfluidic systems, finding diverse utility in biological sample preparation and interrogation. One inherent challenge for integrating hydrogels into microfluidic tools is thermodynamic molecular partitioning, which reduces the in-gel concentration of molecular solutes (e.g., biomolecular regents), as compared to the solute concentration in an applied solution. Consequently, biomolecular reagent access to in-gel scaffolded biological samples (e.g., encapsulated cells, microbial cultures, target analytes) is adversely impacted in hydrogels. Further, biomolecular reagents are typically introduced to the hydrogel via diffusion. This passive process requires long incubation periods compared to active biomolecular delivery techniques. Electrotransfer is an active technique used in Western blots and other gel-based immunoassays that overcomes limitations of size exclusion (increasing the total probe mass delivered into gel) and expedites probe delivery, even in millimeter-thick slab gels. While compatible with conventional slab gels, electrotransfer has not been adapted to thin gels (50-250 μm thick), which are of great interest as components of open microfluidic devices (vs enclosed microchannel-based devices). Mechanically delicate, thin gels are often mounted on rigid support substrates (glass, plastic) that are electrically insulating. Consequently, to adapt electrotransfer to thin-gel devices, we replace rigid insulating support substrates with novel, mechanically robust, yet electrically conductive nanoporous membranes. We describe grafting nanoporous membranes to thin-polyacrylamide-gel layers via silanization, characterize the electrical conductivity of silane-treated nanoporous membranes, and report the dependence of in-gel immunoprobe concentration on transfer duration for passive diffusion and active electrotransfer. Alternative microdevice component layers─including the mechanically robust, electrically conductive nanoporous membranes reported here─provide new functionality for integration into an increasing array of open microfluidic systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andoni P Mourdoukoutas
- The UC Berkeley/UCSF Graduate Program in Bioengineering, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Amy E Herr
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
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14
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Rettke D, Danneberg C, Neuendorf TA, Kühn S, Friedrich J, Hauck N, Werner C, Thiele J, Pompe T. Microfluidics-assisted synthesis and functionalization of monodisperse colloidal hydrogel particles for optomechanical biosensors. J Mater Chem B 2022; 10:1663-1674. [DOI: 10.1039/d1tb02798k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The soft colloidal probe (SCP) assay is a highly versatile sensing principle employing micrometer-sized hydrogel particles as optomechanical transducer elements. We report the synthesis, optimization, and conjugation of SCPs with...
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15
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Park C, Bae HJ, Yoon J, Song SW, Jeong Y, Kim K, Kwon S, Park W. Gradient-Wrinkled Microparticle with Grayscale Lithography Controlling the Cross-Linking Densities for High Security Level Anti-Counterfeiting Strategies. ACS OMEGA 2021; 6:2121-2126. [PMID: 33521451 PMCID: PMC7841948 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.0c05207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2020] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Physical unclonable functions (PUFs) enable different characteristics according to the purpose, such as easy to access identification, high security level, and high code capacity, against counterfeiting a product. However, most multiplex approaches have been implemented by embedding several security features rather than one feature. In this paper, we present a high security level anti-counterfeiting strategy using only labyrinth wrinkle patterns with different complexities, which can be used as unique and unclonable codes. To generate codes with different levels in a microtaggant, we fabricated wrinkle patterns with characteristic wavelength gradients using grayscale lithography. The elastic modulus of the polymer substrate and corresponding wavelength after the wrinkling process were controlled by designing the gray level of each subcode region in a gray-level mask image for photopolymerization of the microparticle substrate. We then verified the uniqueness of the extracted minutia codes through a cross-correlation analysis. Finally, we demonstrated the authentication strategies by decoding different minutia codes according to the scanning resolution during the decoding. Overall, the presented patterning method can be widely used in security code generation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheolheon Park
- Institute
for Wearable Convergence Electronics, Department of Electronic Engineering, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si, Gyeonggi-do 17104, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyung Jong Bae
- Department
of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Seoul National University, Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Jinsik Yoon
- Institute
for Wearable Convergence Electronics, Department of Electronic Engineering, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si, Gyeonggi-do 17104, Republic of Korea
| | - Seo Woo Song
- Bio-MAX
Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Yunjin Jeong
- Bio-MAX
Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Kibeom Kim
- Institute
for Wearable Convergence Electronics, Department of Electronic Engineering, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si, Gyeonggi-do 17104, Republic of Korea
| | - Sunghoon Kwon
- Department
of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Seoul National University, Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
- Bio-MAX
Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Wook Park
- Institute
for Wearable Convergence Electronics, Department of Electronic Engineering, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si, Gyeonggi-do 17104, Republic of Korea
- Department
of Electronics and Information Convergence Engineering, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si, Gyeonggi-do 17104, Republic of Korea
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16
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Feng Y, White AK, Hein JB, Appel EA, Fordyce PM. MRBLES 2.0: High-throughput generation of chemically functionalized spectrally and magnetically encoded hydrogel beads using a simple single-layer microfluidic device. MICROSYSTEMS & NANOENGINEERING 2020; 6:109. [PMID: 33299601 PMCID: PMC7704393 DOI: 10.1038/s41378-020-00220-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2020] [Revised: 09/09/2020] [Accepted: 09/20/2020] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
The widespread adoption of bead-based multiplexed bioassays requires the ability to easily synthesize encoded microspheres and conjugate analytes of interest to their surface. Here, we present a simple method (MRBLEs 2.0) for the efficient high-throughput generation of microspheres with ratiometric barcode lanthanide encoding (MRBLEs) that bear functional groups for downstream surface bioconjugation. Bead production in MRBLEs 2.0 relies on the manual mixing of lanthanide/polymer mixtures (each of which comprises a unique spectral code) followed by droplet generation using single-layer, parallel flow-focusing devices and the off-chip batch polymerization of droplets into beads. To streamline downstream analyte coupling, MRBLEs 2.0 crosslinks copolymers bearing functional groups on the bead surface during bead generation. Using the MRBLEs 2.0 pipeline, we generate monodisperse MRBLEs containing 48 distinct well-resolved spectral codes with high throughput (>150,000/min and can be boosted to 450,000/min). We further demonstrate the efficient conjugation of oligonucleotides and entire proteins to carboxyl MRBLEs and of biotin to amino MRBLEs. Finally, we show that MRBLEs can also be magnetized via the simultaneous incorporation of magnetic nanoparticles with only a minor decrease in the potential code space. With the advantages of dramatically simplified device fabrication, elimination of the need for custom-made equipment, and the ability to produce spectrally and magnetically encoded beads with direct surface functionalization with high throughput, MRBLEs 2.0 can be directly applied by many labs towards a wide variety of downstream assays, from basic biology to diagnostics and other translational research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yinnian Feng
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305 USA
| | - Adam K. White
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305 USA
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305 USA
| | - Jamin B. Hein
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305 USA
- The Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Protein Research, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej 3b, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Eric A. Appel
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305 USA
| | - Polly M. Fordyce
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305 USA
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305 USA
- Stanford ChEM-H, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305 USA
- Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, CA 94110 USA
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17
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Abstract
Hydrogels, swellable hydrophilic polymer networks fabricated through chemical cross-linking or physical entanglement are increasingly utilized in various biomedical applications over the past few decades. Hydrogel-based microparticles, dressings and microneedle patches have been explored to achieve safe, sustained and on-demand therapeutic purposes toward numerous skin pathologies, through incorporation of stimuli-responsive moieties and therapeutic agents. More recently, these platforms are expanded to fulfill the diagnostic and monitoring role. Herein, the development of hydrogel technology to achieve diagnosis and monitoring of pathological skin conditions are highlighted, with proteins, nucleic acids, metabolites, and reactive species employed as target biomarkers, among others. The scope of this review includes the characteristics of hydrogel materials, its fabrication procedures, examples of diagnostic studies, as well as discussion pertaining clinical translation of hydrogel systems.
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18
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Hydrogels for Efficient Multiplex PCR. BIOTECHNOL BIOPROC E 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s12257-020-0134-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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19
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Roh YH, Lee HJ, Kim JY, Kim HU, Kim SM, Bong KW. Precipitation-based colorimetric multiplex immunoassay in hydrogel particles. LAB ON A CHIP 2020; 20:2841-2850. [PMID: 32614938 DOI: 10.1039/d0lc00325e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Despite a growing demand for more accessible diagnostic technologies, current methods struggle to simultaneously detect multiple analytes with acceptable sensitivity and portability. Colorimetric assays have been widely used due to their simplicity of signal readout, but the lack of multiplexibility has been a perpetual constraint. Meanwhile, particle-based assays offer multiplex detection by assigning an identity code to each analyte, but they often require lab-based equipment unsuitable for portable diagnostics. Here, by merging the two approaches, this paper reports a colorimetric multiplex immunoassay based on hydrogel microparticles that achieves the best of both worlds. The low-cost portable multiplex assay demonstrates sensitivities as high as and dynamic ranges greater than the lab-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). These critical advances are made possible by local precipitation and amplification of insoluble colour dyes inside the hydrogel networks. For the first time, enzymatic accumulation of colour dyes in hydrogel particles is reported and the kinetics of colour development is characterized in this work. By taking advantage of the colour signals in the visible spectrum, the hydrogel microparticles were imaged and analysed using low-cost portable devices. The colorimetric multiplex immunoassay was used to successfully detect three target biomarkers of preeclampsia and validated clinically using healthy and patient-derived plasma samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoon Ho Roh
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea.
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20
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Cowell TW, Valera E, Jankelow A, Park J, Schrader AW, Ding R, Berger J, Bashir R, Han HS. Rapid, multiplexed detection of biomolecules using electrically distinct hydrogel beads. LAB ON A CHIP 2020; 20:2274-2283. [PMID: 32490455 PMCID: PMC10409638 DOI: 10.1039/d0lc00243g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Rapid, low-cost, and multiplexed biomolecule detection is an important goal in the development of effective molecular diagnostics. Our recent work has demonstrated a microfluidic biochip device that can electrically quantitate a protein target with high sensitivity. This platform detects and quantifies a target analyte by counting and capturing micron-sized beads in response to an immunoassay on the bead surface. Existing microparticles limit the technique to the detection of a single protein target and lack the magnetic properties required for separation of the microparticles for direct measurements from whole blood. Here, we report new precisely engineered microparticles that achieve electrical multiplexing and adapt this platform for low-cost and label-free multiplexed electrical detection of biomolecules. Droplet microfluidic synthesis yielded highly-monodisperse populations of magnetic hydrogel beads (MHBs) with the necessary properties for multiplexing the electrical Coulter counting on chip. Each bead population was designed to contain a different amount of the hydrogel material, resulting in a unique electrical impedance signature during Coulter counting, thereby enabling unique identification of each bead. These monodisperse bead populations span a narrow range of sizes ensuring that all can be captured sensitively and selectively under simultaneously flow. Incorporating these newly synthesized beads, we demonstrate versatile and multiplexed biomolecule detection of proteins or DNA targets. This development of multiplexed beads for the electrical detection of biomolecules, provides a critical advancement towards multiplexing the Coulter counting approach and the development of a low cost point-of-care diagnostic sensor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas W Cowell
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 505 South Mathews Ave., Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA.
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21
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Roh YH, Seo J, Kim JY, Kim HU, Mun SJ, Seo JH, Bong KW. Phosphorylcholine-based encoded hydrogel microparticles with enhanced fouling resistance for multiplex immunoassays. Analyst 2020; 145:5482-5490. [PMID: 32588844 DOI: 10.1039/d0an00808g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Due to the growing interest in multiplex protein detection, encoded hydrogel microparticles have received attention as a possible path to high performance multiplex immunoassays through a combination of high multiplexing capability and enhanced binding kinetics. However, their practical operation in real complex samples is still limited because polyethylene glycol, which is the main component of hydrogel particles, suffers from oxidative damage and relatively high fouling properties in biochemical solutions. Here, we introduce poly(2-methacryloyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine) (PMPC)-based encoded hydrogel microparticles to perform fouling-resistant multiplex immunoassays, where the anti-fouling characteristics are attributed to the zwitterionic PMPC. By applying a newly developed molding lithography technique, viscous PMPCs with low reactivity were successfully incorporated into the hydrogel network while maintaining uniformity and rigidity for use in multiplex immunoassays. Non-specific protein adsorption on the PMPC particles was reduced by about 37.5% compared to that of conventional PEG particles, which leads to better assay sensitivity. We also validate the multiplex capability of the PMPC particles by performing multiplex detection of two target proteins. Furthermore, we verify that the PMPC particles have a 70% enhancement in anti-fouling characteristics compared to PEG particles in human platelet-rich plasma, potentiating a practical immunoassay platform for clinical diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoon Ho Roh
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Korea University, 145, Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea.
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22
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Kang KK, Shim K, Lee CS. Immobilization of physicochemically stable Pd nanocatalysts inside uniform hydrogel microparticles. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfa.2020.124607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
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23
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Roberts S, Miao V, Costa S, Simon J, Kelly G, Shah T, Zauscher S, Chilkoti A. Complex microparticle architectures from stimuli-responsive intrinsically disordered proteins. Nat Commun 2020; 11:1342. [PMID: 32165622 PMCID: PMC7067844 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-15128-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2019] [Accepted: 02/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The controllable production of microparticles with complex geometries is useful for a variety of applications in materials science and bioengineering. The formation of intricate microarchitectures typically requires sophisticated fabrication techniques such as flow lithography or multiple-emulsion microfluidics. By harnessing the molecular interactions of a set of artificial intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs), we have created complex microparticle geometries, including porous particles, core-shell and hollow shell structures, and a unique ‘fruits-on-a-vine’ arrangement, by exploiting the metastable region of the phase diagram of thermally responsive IDPs within microdroplets. Through multi-site unnatural amino acid (UAA) incorporation, these protein microparticles can also be photo-crosslinked and stably extracted to an all-aqueous environment. This work expands the functional utility of artificial IDPs as well as the available microarchitectures of this class of biocompatible IDPs, with potential applications in drug delivery and tissue engineering. The production of microparticles with complex geometries for biotechnological use historically requires sophisticated fabrication techniques. Here, the authors create complex particle geometries by exploiting the metastable region of the phase diagram of thermally responsive intrinsically disordered proteins within microdroplets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Roberts
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA
| | - Vincent Miao
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA
| | - Simone Costa
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA
| | - Joseph Simon
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA
| | - Garrett Kelly
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA
| | - Tejank Shah
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA
| | - Stefan Zauscher
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA
| | - Ashutosh Chilkoti
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA.
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24
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Qu H, Yu M, Du W, Xu L, Lyu W, Shen F. Slip Molding for Precision Fabrication of Microparts. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2020; 36:585-590. [PMID: 31886674 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.9b03156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Microparts with precise sizes, custom shapes, and a wide selection of materials have various applications, including biomedical microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), drug delivery, single-cell studies, and tissue engineering. Janus microparts containing multiple components are also demonstrated for biomolecule analysis, cell-cell interaction studies, and self-assembly. Small-footprint, affordable, and rapid technologies to fabricate microparts with customized morphologies and a wide selection of materials are highly desired. This paper reports on a SlipChip-based microfluidic molding method to control the interface for the synthesis of microparts-on-demand (mPods) with fast and easy loading-slipping-solidification operations that do not require pumps, masks, or other auxiliary fluidic control instruments. This method is based on the relative movement of two microfluidic plates that are in close contact, and the size and shape of the microparts can be accurately controlled by the geometry of the microcavities imprinted on the contacting surfaces of these microfluidic plates. To demonstrate the capability of this method, mPods of different sizes and various shapes are presented with photosensitive resin via a photopolymerization reaction. The synthesis of two-layer Janus microparts is also demonstrated by a slip overmolding method. This SlipChip-based molding method can offer new opportunities for producing customized microparts with great flexibility for a broad spectrum of applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haijun Qu
- School of Biomedical Engineering , Shanghai Jiao Tong University , 1954 Hua Shan Road , Shanghai 200030 , China
| | - Mengchao Yu
- School of Biomedical Engineering , Shanghai Jiao Tong University , 1954 Hua Shan Road , Shanghai 200030 , China
| | - Wenbin Du
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Resources , Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences , Beijing 100101 , China
| | - Lei Xu
- School of Biomedical Engineering , Shanghai Jiao Tong University , 1954 Hua Shan Road , Shanghai 200030 , China
| | - Weiyuan Lyu
- School of Biomedical Engineering , Shanghai Jiao Tong University , 1954 Hua Shan Road , Shanghai 200030 , China
| | - Feng Shen
- School of Biomedical Engineering , Shanghai Jiao Tong University , 1954 Hua Shan Road , Shanghai 200030 , China
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25
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Abstract
Thermodynamic partitioning dictates solute loading and release from a hydrogel. Design of drug delivery vehicles, cell and tissue matrices, and immunoassay scaffolds that utilize hydrogel materials is informed by an understanding of the thermodynamic partitioning properties of those hydrogels. We develop aberration-compensated laser scanning confocal microscopy (AC-LSCM), a technique that can be applied to all fluorescence microscopy-based equilibrium partition coefficient measurements where the fluorescence is uniformly distributed in the reference material (e.g., many solutes in thermodynamic equilibrium). In this paper, we use AC-LSCM to measure spatially resolved in situ equilibrium partition coefficients of various fluorescently labeled solutes in single-layer and multilayer open hydrogels. In considering a dynamic material, we scrutinize solute interactions with a UV photoactive polyacrylamide gel that incorporates a benzophenone methacrylamide backbone. We observed strong agreement with an adjusted version of Ogston's ideal size-exclusion model for spatially resolved in situ equilibrium partition coefficients across a wide range of polyacrylamide hydrogel densities (R2 = 0.98). Partition coefficients of solutes differing in hydrodynamic radius were consistent with size-based theory in the photoactive hydrogels, but exceed those in unmodified polyacrylamide gels. This observation suggests a deviation from the size-exclusion model and a shift in the thermodynamic equilibrium state of the solutes toward the gel phase. AC-LSCM also resolves differential partitioning behavior of the model solute in two-layer gels, providing insight into the transport phenomena governing the partitioning in multilaminate gel structures. Furthermore, AC-LSCM identifies and quantifies depth-dependent axial aberrations that could confound quantitation, highlighting the need for the "aberration compensated" aspect of AC-LSCM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison Su
- The UC Berkeley/UCSF Graduate Program in Bioengineering, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Benjamin E. Smith
- Department of Vision Sciences, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Amy E. Herr
- The UC Berkeley/UCSF Graduate Program in Bioengineering, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
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26
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Gopal A, Herr AE. Multiplexed in-gel microfluidic immunoassays: characterizing protein target loss during reprobing of benzophenone-modified hydrogels. Sci Rep 2019; 9:15389. [PMID: 31659305 PMCID: PMC6817870 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-51849-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2019] [Accepted: 09/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
From whole tissues to single-cell lysate, heterogeneous immunoassays are widely utilized for analysis of protein targets in complex biospecimens. Recently, benzophenone-functionalized hydrogel scaffolds have been used to immobilize target protein for immunoassay detection with fluorescent antibody probes. In benzophenone-functionalized hydrogels, multiplex target detection occurs via serial rounds of chemical stripping (incubation with sodium-dodecyl-sulfate (SDS) and β-mercaptoethanol at 50-60 °C for ≥1 h), followed by reprobing (interrogation with additional antibody probes). Although benzophenone facilitates covalent immobilization of proteins to the hydrogel, we observe 50% immunoassay signal loss of immobilized protein targets during stripping rounds. Here, we identify and characterize signal loss mechanisms during stripping and reprobing. We posit that loss of immobilized target is responsible for ≥50% of immunoassay signal loss, and that target loss is attributable to disruption of protein immobilization by denaturing detergents (SDS) and incubation at elevated temperatures. Furthermore, our study suggests that protein losses under non-denaturing conditions are more sensitive to protein structure (i.e., hydrodynamic radius), than to molecular mass (size). We formulate design guidance for multiplexed in-gel immunoassays, including that low-abundance proteins be immunoprobed first, even when targets are covalently immobilized to the gel. We also recommend careful scrutiny of the order of proteins targets detected via multiple immunoprobing cycles, based on the protein immobilization buffer composition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anjali Gopal
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, 94720, United States
- UC Berkeley/UCSF Graduate Program in Bioengineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, 94720, United States
| | - Amy E Herr
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, 94720, United States.
- UC Berkeley/UCSF Graduate Program in Bioengineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, 94720, United States.
- Chan Zuckerberg BioHub, San Francisco, California, 94158, United States.
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27
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Abdullah MAA, Wang J. Ultrasimple Single-Cell Detection of Multiple Cytokines by a Nanowell Chip Integrated with Encoded Microarrays. ACS Sens 2019; 4:2296-2302. [PMID: 31423780 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.9b00765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Cytokine production is often regarded as the marker of immune cells' activation status. The spectrum and temporal secretion of cytokines are dramatically varied between cell phenotypes and even within the same phenotype. Multiparameter analysis of individual immune cell's cytokine secretion has always been a challenging and complicated process that needs special facilities in a laboratory setting. Herein, we present an ultrasimple method with high sensitivity and high robustness to quantify cytokine expression at the single-cell resolution. A microchip is developed based on poly(dimethylsiloxane) nanowells on sticky tape, while each nanowell is integrated with a DNA-antibody convertible microarray. Only pipetting is needed for the whole single-cell analysis process. The sensitivity of the assay is evaluated by measuring various concentrations of six recombinant cytokine proteins, which was found comparable to conventional methods. Once single cells are loaded to nanowells and incubated there, a Fluorinert FC-40 is used to isolate nanowells; so, cytokines from those cells are captured by separate microarrays. The rest of the sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay detection process is also executed simply by pipetting of various reagents. This method is validated by measuring cytokine production from hundreds of single cells. It has simplified a typically sophisticated multiplex single-cell assay into an instrument-free, point-of-detection technology, and thus it may find a broad utility in clinical diagnostics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed A. A. Abdullah
- Multiplex Biotechnology Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University at Albany, State University of New York, Albany, New York 12222, United States
| | - Jun Wang
- Multiplex Biotechnology Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University at Albany, State University of New York, Albany, New York 12222, United States
- Cancer Research Center, University at Albany, State University of New York, Rensselaer, New York 12144, United States
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28
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Tian Y, Zhang L, Wang H, Ji W, Zhang Z, Zhang Y, Yang Z, Cao Z, Zhang S, Chang J. Intelligent Detection Platform for Simultaneous Detection of Multiple MiRNAs Based on Smartphone. ACS Sens 2019; 4:1873-1880. [PMID: 31259533 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.9b00752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
As a marker of malignant tumors, miRNA is closely related to the occurrence and metastasis of tumors. How to achieve rapid and sensitive real-time detection is important for clinical prevention and treatment of cancer. In this study, an intelligent detection platform based on smartphone image processing technology made point-of-care testing a reality. This new smart approach could detect multiple targets simultaneously and sensitively. Hydrogel microparticles of different coding modes (shapes, numbers) were prepared by flow lithography to detect different miRNAs. After sandwich immunoassays, different shapes of hydrogels showed different fluorescence intensities depending on their targets. Images were captured by a smartphone and then analyzed by image recognition processing software installed on the smartphone. The concentration of miRNA was obtained within 10 s. The entire reaction process did not exceed 2 h. This intelligent and portable detection platform for miRNAs was reliable and the limit of detection reached the femtomole level. This work provided a demonstration of intelligent, portable, real-time detection of tumor markers.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Zhengchun Yang
- School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Film Electronic & Communication Devices, Tianjin University of Technology, Tianjin 300384, China
| | - Zongsheng Cao
- School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Film Electronic & Communication Devices, Tianjin University of Technology, Tianjin 300384, China
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29
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Ji J, Lu W, Zhu Y, Jin H, Yao Y, Zhang H, Zhao Y. Porous Hydrogel-Encapsulated Photonic Barcodes for Multiplex Detection of Cardiovascular Biomarkers. ACS Sens 2019; 4:1384-1390. [PMID: 30985109 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.9b00352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Early detection of cardiac troponin I (cTnI), B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP), and myoglobin (Myo) is essential for the diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction (AMI) and heart failure (HF). We designed a porous hydrogel-encapsulated photonic crystal (PhC) barcode-based suspension array for multiple cardiovascular marker detection. The hybrid hydrogel was composed of polyethylene glycol diacrylate (PEGDA) and gelatin, resulting in a porous and hydrophilic scaffold which ensured stability of the PhC in aqueous solutions. The encapsulated PhC barcodes had stable diffraction peaks for the corresponding markers. Using a sandwich format, the proposed suspension array was used for simultaneous multiplex detection of cardiovascular biomarkers in a single tube. The immunoassay results we tested on cTnI, BNP, and Myo could be assayed in the ranges of 0.01 to 1000 ng/mL, 0.1 to 10 000 pg/mL, and 1 to 10 000 ng/mL with limits of detection of 0.009 ng/mL, 0.084 pg/mL, and 0.68 ng/mL at 3σ, respectively. This method also showed acceptable accuracy and repeated detection, and the results were consistent with the results of conventional clinical methods for detecting actual clinical samples. Therefore, suspension arrays based on hydrogel-encapsulated PhC barcodes are highly promising for AMI diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- JingJing Ji
- Department of Cardiology, Zhongda Hospital Affiliated with Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210009, China
| | - Wenbin Lu
- Department of Cardiology, Zhongda Hospital Affiliated with Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210009, China
| | - Yi Zhu
- Department of Cardiology, Zhongda Hospital Affiliated with Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210009, China
| | - Hong Jin
- Department of Cardiology, Zhongda Hospital Affiliated with Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210009, China
| | - Yuyu Yao
- Department of Cardiology, Zhongda Hospital Affiliated with Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210009, China
| | - Huidan Zhang
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences and Department of Physics, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Yuanjin Zhao
- Department of Cardiology, Zhongda Hospital Affiliated with Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210009, China
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210096, China
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30
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Zheng K, Chen C, Chen X, Xu M, Chen L, Hu Y, Bai Y, Liu B, Yan C, Wang H, Li J. Graphically encoded suspension array for multiplex immunoassay and quantification of autoimmune biomarkers in patient sera. Biosens Bioelectron 2019; 132:47-54. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2019.02.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2018] [Revised: 01/25/2019] [Accepted: 02/04/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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31
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Bay HH, Vo R, Dai X, Hsu HH, Mo Z, Cao S, Li W, Omenetto FG, Jiang X. Hydrogel Gate Graphene Field-Effect Transistors as Multiplexed Biosensors. NANO LETTERS 2019; 19:2620-2626. [PMID: 30908917 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.9b00431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Nanoscale field-effect transistors (FETs) represent a unique platform for real time, label-free transduction of biochemical signals with unprecedented sensitivity and spatiotemporal resolution, yet their translation toward practical biomedical applications remains challenging. Herein, we demonstrate the potential to overcome several key limitations of traditional FET sensors by exploiting bioactive hydrogels as the gate material. Spatially defined photopolymerization is utilized to achieve selective patterning of polyethylene glycol on top of individual graphene FET devices, through which multiple biospecific receptors can be independently encapsulated into the hydrogel gate. The hydrogel-mediated integration of penicillinase was demonstrated to effectively catalyze enzymatic reaction in the confined microenvironment, enabling real time, label-free detection of penicillin down to 0.2 mM. Multiplexed functionalization with penicillinase and acetylcholinesterase has been demonstrated to achieve highly specific sensing. In addition, the microenvironment created by the hydrogel gate has been shown to significantly reduce the nonspecific binding of nontarget molecules to graphene channels as well as preserve the encapsulated enzyme activity for at least one week, in comparison to free enzymes showing significant signal loss within one day. This general approach presents a new biointegration strategy and facilitates multiplex detection of bioanalytes on the same platform, which could underwrite new advances in healthcare research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamed Hosseini Bay
- Department of Biomedical Engineering , Tufts University , Medford , Massachusetts 02155 , United States
| | - Richard Vo
- Department of Biomedical Engineering , Tufts University , Medford , Massachusetts 02155 , United States
| | - Xiaochuan Dai
- Department of Biomedical Engineering , Tufts University , Medford , Massachusetts 02155 , United States
| | - Huan-Hsuan Hsu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering , Tufts University , Medford , Massachusetts 02155 , United States
| | - Zhiming Mo
- Department of Biomedical Engineering , Tufts University , Medford , Massachusetts 02155 , United States
| | - Siran Cao
- Department of Biomedical Engineering , Tufts University , Medford , Massachusetts 02155 , United States
| | - Wenyi Li
- Department of Biomedical Engineering , Tufts University , Medford , Massachusetts 02155 , United States
| | - Fiorenzo G Omenetto
- Department of Biomedical Engineering , Tufts University , Medford , Massachusetts 02155 , United States
| | - Xiaocheng Jiang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering , Tufts University , Medford , Massachusetts 02155 , United States
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32
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Microfluidic Fabrication of Encoded Hydrogel Microparticles for Application in Multiplex Immunoassay. BIOCHIP JOURNAL 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s13206-019-3104-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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33
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Ji W, Zhang Z, Tian Y, Yang Z, Cao Z, Zhang L, Qi Y, Chang J, Zhang S, Wang H. Shape Coding Microhydrogel for a Real-Time Mycotoxin Detection System Based on Smartphones. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2019; 11:8584-8590. [PMID: 30715838 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.8b21851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
How to create a portable and quick way to detect multiple coexisting toxins is closely related to everyone's health. In this paper, we have established a real-time mycotoxin detection system that combined shape-encoded hydrogel particle preparation technology and image processing technology with smartphone portable devices. First, hydrogel microparticles containing a specific recognition toxin aptamer were programmable synthesized by stop-flow lithography. The hydrogel particles prepared by us had clear, variable signals and high coding capacity. Then, the indirect competitive detection based on aptamers was simple and rapid; the total reaction time was no more than 1 h 45 min and the image processing process was no more than 10 s. Finally, images could be captured by cameras on portable devices and smartphones. The self-built Android app that used the image recognition program installed on the smartphone would analyze the image and return the results in real time. The results showed that the detection limit reached 0.1 ng/mL, which was lower than the standard. In summary, this platform provides a fast, portable, high-throughput detection solution for real-time detection of mycotoxins, with excellent application prospects.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Zhengchun Yang
- School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Film Electronic & Communication Devices , Tianjin University of Technology , Tianjin 300384 , China
| | - Zongsheng Cao
- School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Film Electronic & Communication Devices , Tianjin University of Technology , Tianjin 300384 , China
| | | | - Yangyang Qi
- School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Film Electronic & Communication Devices , Tianjin University of Technology , Tianjin 300384 , China
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34
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Lee HJ, Kim JY, Roh YH, Kim SM, Bong KW. Linker-free antibody conjugation for sensitive hydrogel microparticle-based multiplex immunoassay. Analyst 2019; 144:6712-6720. [DOI: 10.1039/c9an01243e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Graphically encoded hydrogel microparticles were directly conjugated with reduced antibodies without linkers for highly sensitive multiplex immunoassay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyun Jee Lee
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering
- Korea University
- Seoul
- Republic of Korea
| | - Ju Yeon Kim
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering
- Korea University
- Seoul
- Republic of Korea
| | - Yoon Ho Roh
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering
- Korea University
- Seoul
- Republic of Korea
| | - Sun Min Kim
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology
- Seoul Metropolitan Government-Seoul National University Boramae Medical Center
- Seoul
- Republic of Korea
| | - Ki Wan Bong
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering
- Korea University
- Seoul
- Republic of Korea
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35
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Lee HJ, Roh YH, Kim HU, Kim SM, Bong KW. Multiplexed immunoassay using post-synthesis functionalized hydrogel microparticles. LAB ON A CHIP 2018; 19:111-119. [PMID: 30498817 DOI: 10.1039/c8lc01160e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
In response to a growing demand for simultaneous detection of multiple proteins in a single sample, multiplex immunoassay platforms have emerged at the forefront of proteomic analysis. In particular, detections using graphically encoded hydrogel microparticles synthesized via flow lithography have received attention for integrating a hydrogel, a substrate that can provide enhanced kinetics and high loading capacity, into the bead-based multiplex platform. Currently, the method of microparticle functionalization involves copolymerization of antibodies with the gel during particle synthesis. However, its practical operation is too precarious to be adopted because antibodies are susceptible to aggregation due to incompatibility with hydrophobic photoinitiators used in the photo-induced gel polymerization. In this work, we present a multiplex immunoassay platform that uses encoded hydrogel microparticles that are functionalized after particle synthesis by conjugating antibodies with remnant active groups readily available in the hydrogels. The method not only precludes antibody aggregation but also augments the loading density of the antibodies, which translates into enhanced detection performance. In addition to multiplexing, our platform demonstrates high sensitivity, a broad assay range, and a fast detection rate that outperform the enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyun Jee Lee
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
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36
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Hsu MN, Wei SC, Guo S, Phan DT, Zhang Y, Chen CH. Smart Hydrogel Microfluidics for Single-Cell Multiplexed Secretomic Analysis with High Sensitivity. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2018; 14:e1802918. [PMID: 30334375 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201802918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2018] [Revised: 10/02/2018] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Secreted proteins determine a range of cellular functionalities correlated with human health and disease progression. Because of cell heterogeneity, it is essential to measure low abundant protein secretions from individual cells to determine single-cell activities. In this study, an integrated platform consisting of smart hydrogel immunosensors for the sensitive detection of single-cell secretions is developed. A single cell and smart hydrogel microparticles are encapsulated within a droplet. After incubation, target secreted proteins from the cell are captured in the smart hydrogel particle for immunoassay. The temperature-induced volume phase transition of the hydrogel biosensor allows the concentration of analytes within the gel matrix to increase, enabling high-sensitivity measurements. Distinct heterogeneity for live cell secretions is determined from 6000 cells within 1 h. This method is tested for low abundant essential secretions, such as interleukin-6, interleukin-8, and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 secretions of both suspended cells (HL60) and adherent cells (MCF7 and MDA-MB-231). This platform is highly flexible and can be used to simultaneously measure a wide range of clinically relevant cellular secretions; it thus represents a novel tool for precise biological assays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myat Noe Hsu
- NUS Graduate School for Integrative Sciences and Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117456, Singapore
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117574, Singapore
- Biomedical Institute for Global Health Research and Technology (BIGHEART), Singapore, 117599, Singapore
| | - Shih-Chung Wei
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117574, Singapore
- Biomedical Institute for Global Health Research and Technology (BIGHEART), Singapore, 117599, Singapore
| | - Song Guo
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117574, Singapore
| | - Dinh-Tuan Phan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117574, Singapore
| | - Yong Zhang
- NUS Graduate School for Integrative Sciences and Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117456, Singapore
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117574, Singapore
| | - Chia-Hung Chen
- NUS Graduate School for Integrative Sciences and Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117456, Singapore
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117574, Singapore
- Biomedical Institute for Global Health Research and Technology (BIGHEART), Singapore, 117599, Singapore
- Singapore Institute for Neurotechnology (SINAPSE), Singapore, 117456, Singapore
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37
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Shapiro SJ, Dendukuri D, Doyle PS. Design of Hydrogel Particle Morphology for Rapid Bioassays. Anal Chem 2018; 90:13572-13579. [PMID: 30339359 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.8b03728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Hydrogel microparticles have been extensively used in the field of medical diagnostics for detecting targets ranging from proteins to nucleic acids. However, little is known about how the shape of hydrogel particles impacts the signal from a bioassay. In this article, we analyze the flux into porous hydrogel particles to develop scaling laws for the signal from a point-of-care bioassay. The signal can be increased by increasing the ratio of the surface area of the hydrogel particle to the two-dimensional projected imaging area used for analysis. We show that adding internal surface area to hydrogel particles increases the assay signal in a biotin-streptavidin bioassay. We also demonstrate the application of this technique to a protein-based assay for thyroid-stimulating hormone, reducing the limit of detection of the assay sixfold by changing particle shape. We anticipate that these strategies can be used broadly to optimize hydrogel-based systems for point-of-care diagnostics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah J Shapiro
- Department of Chemical Engineering , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02139 , United States
| | - Dhananjaya Dendukuri
- Achira Laboratories Pvt. Ltd. , 66B, 13th Cross Road, Dollar Layout, JP Nagar Phase III , Bangalore 560078 , India
| | - Patrick S Doyle
- Department of Chemical Engineering , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02139 , United States
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38
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Lee H, Roh YH, Kim HU, Bong KW. Low temperature flow lithography. BIOMICROFLUIDICS 2018; 12:054105. [PMID: 30310526 PMCID: PMC6153115 DOI: 10.1063/1.5047016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2018] [Accepted: 08/29/2018] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Flow lithography (FL) is a microfluidic technique distinguished for its ability to produce hydrogel microparticles of various geometrical and chemical designs. While FL is typically performed in room temperature, this paper reports a new technique called low temperature flow lithography that uses low synthesis temperature to increase the degree of polymerization of microparticles without compromising other aspects of flow lithography. We suggest that decreased oxygen diffusivity in low temperature is responsible for the increase in polymerization. Microparticles that exhibit a higher degree of polymerization display a more developed polymer network, ultimately resulting in a more defined morphology, higher incorporation of materials of interest, and improved functional performance. This work demonstrates the increase in the degree of polymerization by examining the temperature effect on both the physical and chemical structures of particles. We show applications of this technique in synthesizing thin microparticles and enhancing microparticle-based detection of microRNA. Low temperature FL offers a simple and easy method of improving the degree of polymerization, which can be implemented in a wide range of FL applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Lee
- Chemical and Biological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Y H Roh
- Chemical and Biological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - H U Kim
- Chemical and Biological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - K W Bong
- Chemical and Biological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
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39
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Tentori AM, Nagarajan MB, Kim JJ, Zhang WC, Slack FJ, Doyle PS. Quantitative and multiplex microRNA assays from unprocessed cells in isolated nanoliter well arrays. LAB ON A CHIP 2018; 18:2410-2424. [PMID: 29998262 PMCID: PMC6081239 DOI: 10.1039/c8lc00498f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) have recently emerged as promising biomarkers for the profiling of diseases. Translation of miRNA biomarkers to clinical practice, however, remains a challenge due to the lack of analysis platforms for sensitive, quantitative, and multiplex miRNA assays that have simple and robust workflows suitable for translation. The platform we present here utilizes functionalized hydrogel posts contained within isolated nanoliter well reactors for quantitative and multiplex assays directly from unprocessed cell samples without the need of prior nucleic acid extraction. Simultaneous reactor isolation and delivery of miRNA extraction reagents is achieved by sealing an array of wells containing the functionalized hydrogel posts and cells against another array of wells containing lysis and extraction reagents. The nanoliter well array platform features >100× better sensitivity compared to previous technology utilizing hydrogel particles without relying on signal amplification and enables >100 parallel assays in a single device. These advances provided by this platform lay the groundwork for translatable and robust analysis technologies for miRNA expression profiling in samples with small populations of cells and in precious, material-limited samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Augusto M. Tentori
- Department of Chemical Engineering
, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
,
Cambridge
, USA
.
; Tel: +1 617 253 4534
| | - Maxwell B. Nagarajan
- Department of Chemical Engineering
, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
,
Cambridge
, USA
.
; Tel: +1 617 253 4534
| | - Jae Jung Kim
- Department of Chemical Engineering
, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
,
Cambridge
, USA
.
; Tel: +1 617 253 4534
| | - Wen Cai Zhang
- Department of Pathology
, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center/Harvard Medical School
,
Boston
, USA
| | - Frank J. Slack
- Department of Pathology
, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center/Harvard Medical School
,
Boston
, USA
| | - Patrick S. Doyle
- Department of Chemical Engineering
, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
,
Cambridge
, USA
.
; Tel: +1 617 253 4534
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40
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Controlled network structures of chitosan-poly(ethylene glycol) hydrogel microspheres and their impact on protein conjugation. Biochem Eng J 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bej.2018.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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41
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Top-down fabrication of shape-controlled, monodisperse nanoparticles for biomedical applications. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2018; 132:169-187. [PMID: 30009884 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2018.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2018] [Revised: 06/08/2018] [Accepted: 07/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Nanoparticles for biomedical applications are generally formed by bottom-up approaches such as self-assembly, emulsification and precipitation. But these methods usually have critical limitations in fabrication of nanoparticles with controllable morphologies and monodispersed size. Compared with bottom-up methods, top-down nanofabrication techniques offer advantages of high fidelity and high controllability. This review focuses on top-down nanofabrication techniques for engineering particles along with their biomedical applications. We present several commonly used top-down nanofabrication techniques that have the potential to fabricate nanoparticles, including photolithography, interference lithography, electron beam lithography, mold-based lithography (nanoimprint lithography and soft lithography), nanostencil lithography, and nanosphere lithography. Varieties of current and emerging applications are also covered: (i) targeting, (ii) drug and gene delivery, (iii) imaging, and (iv) therapy. Finally, a future perspective of the nanoparticles fabricated by the top-down techniques in biomedicine is also addressed.
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42
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Zhang P, Xia J, Luo S. Generation of Well-Defined Micro/Nanoparticles via Advanced Manufacturing Techniques for Therapeutic Delivery. MATERIALS 2018; 11:ma11040623. [PMID: 29670013 PMCID: PMC5951507 DOI: 10.3390/ma11040623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2018] [Revised: 04/08/2018] [Accepted: 04/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Micro/nanoparticles have great potentials in biomedical applications, especially for drug delivery. Existing studies identified that major micro/nanoparticle features including size, shape, surface property and component materials play vital roles in their in vitro and in vivo applications. However, a demanding challenge is that most conventional particle synthesis techniques such as emulsion can only generate micro/nanoparticles with a very limited number of shapes (i.e., spherical or rod shapes) and have very loose control in terms of particle sizes. We reviewed the advanced manufacturing techniques for producing micro/nanoparticles with precisely defined characteristics, emphasizing the use of these well-controlled micro/nanoparticles for drug delivery applications. Additionally, to illustrate the vital roles of particle features in therapeutic delivery, we also discussed how the above-mentioned micro/nanoparticle features impact in vitro and in vivo applications. Through this review, we highlighted the unique opportunities in generating controllable particles via advanced manufacturing techniques and the great potential of using these micro/nanoparticles for therapeutic delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peipei Zhang
- Department of Material Processing and Controlling, School of Mechanical Engineering & Automation, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China.
| | - Junfei Xia
- Department of Bioengineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
| | - Sida Luo
- Department of Material Processing and Controlling, School of Mechanical Engineering & Automation, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China.
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43
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Jung S, Lewis CL, Yi H. Integrated Methods to Manufacture Hydrogel Microparticles with High Protein Conjugation Capacity and Binding Kinetics via Viral Nanotemplate Display. Methods Mol Biol 2018; 1776:579-589. [PMID: 29869267 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-7808-3_37] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Genetically modified tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) can serve as a potent nanotemplate for high capacity protein conjugation through covalent coupling to its coat proteins with precise nanoscale spacing. TMV's own genomic RNA can also be exploited for orientationally controlled assembly onto various platforms with sequence and spatial selectivity via nucleic acid hybridization. Here we describe detailed methods for fabrication of hydrogel microparticles with capture DNA sequences, chemical activation and programming of TMV templates, TMV assembly with the microparticles and protein conjugation via bio-orthogonal click reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sukwon Jung
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, MA, USA
| | - Christina L Lewis
- U.S. Army Natick Soldier Research, Development and Engineering Center, Natick, MA, USA
| | - Hyunmin Yi
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, MA, USA.
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44
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Di Natale C, Celetti G, Scognamiglio PL, Cosenza C, Battista E, Causa F, Netti PA. Molecularly endowed hydrogel with an in silico-assisted screened peptide for highly sensitive small molecule harvesting. Chem Commun (Camb) 2018; 54:10088-10091. [DOI: 10.1039/c8cc04943b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Schematic representation of in silico-assisted screening of an AFM1 binding peptide and the working principle of toxin harvesting by molecularly endowed hydrogel.
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Affiliation(s)
- Concetta Di Natale
- Center for Advanced Biomaterials for Healthcare
- Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT)
- Naples 80125
- Italy
| | - Giorgia Celetti
- Center for Advanced Biomaterials for Healthcare
- Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT)
- Naples 80125
- Italy
| | | | - Chiara Cosenza
- Interdisciplinary Research Centre on Biomaterials (CRIB)
- University “Federico II”
- Naples 80125
- Italy
| | - Edmondo Battista
- Interdisciplinary Research Centre on Biomaterials (CRIB)
- University “Federico II”
- Naples 80125
- Italy
| | - Filippo Causa
- Center for Advanced Biomaterials for Healthcare
- Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT)
- Naples 80125
- Italy
- Interdisciplinary Research Centre on Biomaterials (CRIB)
| | - Paolo A. Netti
- Center for Advanced Biomaterials for Healthcare
- Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT)
- Naples 80125
- Italy
- Interdisciplinary Research Centre on Biomaterials (CRIB)
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45
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Han S, Bae HJ, Kim SD, Park W, Kwon S. An encoded viral micropatch for multiplex cell-based assays through localized gene delivery. LAB ON A CHIP 2017; 17:2435-2442. [PMID: 28555213 DOI: 10.1039/c7lc00372b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
The increasing number of potential drug targets and compounds has led to the development of high-throughput cell-based assays. Simultaneous processing of multiple targets in the same experiment based on localized target gene expression is a very efficient strategy for this purpose. To address this need, we present an adenoviral vector-immobilized microparticle with two-dimensional (2D) shape-encoding properties that allows localized patch-like gene delivery to monolayer-cultured cells. This format conveniently achieves multiplexed gene delivery compatible with both high-throughput cellular assays and fluorescence high-content imaging instruments. A multiplex G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) internalization assay was developed to demonstrate the compatibility of this system with high-throughput image-based cellular assays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sangkwon Han
- QuantaMatrix Inc., Seoul National University Hospital, Daehak-ro, Jongno-gu, Seoul, South Korea.
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46
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Battista E, Causa F, Netti PA. Bioengineering Microgels and Hydrogel Microparticles for Sensing Biomolecular Targets. Gels 2017; 3:E20. [PMID: 30920517 PMCID: PMC6318684 DOI: 10.3390/gels3020020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2017] [Revised: 05/11/2017] [Accepted: 05/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Hydrogels, and in particular microgels, are playing an increasingly important role in a diverse range of applications due to their hydrophilic, biocompatible, and highly flexible chemical characteristics. On this basis, solution-like environment, non-fouling nature, easy probe accessibility and target diffusion, effective inclusion of reporting moieties can be achieved, making them ideal substrates for bio-sensing applications. In fact, hydrogels are already successfully used in immunoassays as well as sensitive nucleic acid assays, also enabling hydrogel-based suspension arrays. In this review, we discuss key parameters of hydrogels in the form of micron-sized particles to be used in sensing applications, paying attention to the protein and oligonucleotides (i.e., miRNAs) targets as most representative kind of biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edmondo Battista
- Interdisciplinary Research Centre on Biomaterials (CRIB) and Dipartimento di Ingegneria Chimica, dei Materiali e della Produzione Industriale (DICMAPI), University of Naples Federico II, Piazzale Tecchio 80, 80125 Napoli, Italy.
| | - Filippo Causa
- Interdisciplinary Research Centre on Biomaterials (CRIB) and Dipartimento di Ingegneria Chimica, dei Materiali e della Produzione Industriale (DICMAPI), University of Naples Federico II, Piazzale Tecchio 80, 80125 Napoli, Italy.
- Center for Advanced Biomaterials for HealthCare@CRIB, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Largo Barsanti e Matteucci 53, 80125 Napoli, Italy.
| | - Paolo Antonio Netti
- Interdisciplinary Research Centre on Biomaterials (CRIB) and Dipartimento di Ingegneria Chimica, dei Materiali e della Produzione Industriale (DICMAPI), University of Naples Federico II, Piazzale Tecchio 80, 80125 Napoli, Italy.
- Center for Advanced Biomaterials for HealthCare@CRIB, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Largo Barsanti e Matteucci 53, 80125 Napoli, Italy.
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47
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Choi A, Seo KD, Kim DW, Kim BC, Kim DS. Recent advances in engineering microparticles and their nascent utilization in biomedical delivery and diagnostic applications. LAB ON A CHIP 2017; 17:591-613. [PMID: 28101538 DOI: 10.1039/c6lc01023g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Complex microparticles (MPs) bearing unique characteristics such as well-tailored sizes, various morphologies, and multi-compartments have been attempted to be produced by many researchers in the past decades. However, a conventionally used method of fabricating MPs, emulsion polymerization, has a limitation in achieving the aforementioned characteristics and several approaches such as the microfluidics-assisted (droplet-based microfluidics and flow lithography-based microfluidics), electrohydrodynamics (EHD)-based, centrifugation-based, and template-based methods have been recently suggested to overcome this limitation. The outstanding features of complex MPs engineered through these suggested methods have provided new opportunities for MPs to be applied in a wider range of applications including cell carriers, drug delivery agents, active pigments for display, microsensors, interface stabilizers, and catalyst substrates. Overall, the engineered MPs expose their potential particularly in the field of biomedical engineering as the increased complexity in the engineered MPs fulfills well the requirements of the high-end applications. This review outlines the current trends of newly developed techniques used for engineered MPs fabrication and focuses on the current state of engineered MPs in biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Choi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology, 77, Cheongam-ro, Nam-gu, Pohang City, Gyeongsangbuk-do 37673, South Korea.
| | - Kyoung Duck Seo
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology, 77, Cheongam-ro, Nam-gu, Pohang City, Gyeongsangbuk-do 37673, South Korea.
| | - Do Wan Kim
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology, 77, Cheongam-ro, Nam-gu, Pohang City, Gyeongsangbuk-do 37673, South Korea.
| | - Bum Chang Kim
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology, 77, Cheongam-ro, Nam-gu, Pohang City, Gyeongsangbuk-do 37673, South Korea.
| | - Dong Sung Kim
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology, 77, Cheongam-ro, Nam-gu, Pohang City, Gyeongsangbuk-do 37673, South Korea.
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48
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Nguyen H, Baxter B, Brower K, Diaz-Botia C, DeRisi J, Fordyce P, Thorn K. Programmable Microfluidic Synthesis of Over One Thousand Uniquely Identifiable Spectral Codes. ADVANCED OPTICAL MATERIALS 2017; 5:1600548. [PMID: 28936383 PMCID: PMC5604317 DOI: 10.1002/adom.201600548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Encoded microparticles have become a powerful tool for a wide array of applications, including high-throughput sample tracking and massively parallel biological multiplexing. Spectral encoding, where particles are encoded with distinct luminescence spectra, provides a particularly appealing encoding strategy because of the ease of reading codes and assay flexibility. To date, spectral encoding has been limited in the number of codes that can be accurately resolved. Here, we demonstrate an automated 5-dimensional spectral encoding scheme using lanthanide nanophosphors that is capable of producing isotropic spherical microparticles with up to 1,100 unique codes, which we term MRBLEs (Microspheres with Ratiometric Barcode Lanthanide Encoding). We further develop a quantitative framework for evaluating global ability to distinguish codes and demonstrate that for six different sets of MRBLEs ranging from 106 to 1,101 codes in size, > 98% of MRBLEs can be assigned to a code with 99.99% confidence. These > 1,000 code sets represent the largest spectral code libraries built to date. We expect that these MRBLEs will enable a wide variety of novel multiplexed assays.
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Affiliation(s)
- H.Q. Nguyen
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, 94158-2517, USA
| | - B.C. Baxter
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, 94158-2517, USA
| | - K. Brower
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - C.A. Diaz-Botia
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, 94158-2517, USA
| | - J.L. DeRisi
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, 94158-2517, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD, 20815, USA
| | - P.M. Fordyce
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
- ChEM-H, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - K.S. Thorn
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, 94158-2517, USA
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49
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Li M, Joung D, Kozinski JA, Hwang DK. Fabrication of Highly Porous Nonspherical Particles Using Stop-Flow Lithography and the Study of Their Optical Properties. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2017; 33:184-190. [PMID: 27933811 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.6b03358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
A microfluidic flow lithography approach was investigated to synthesize highly porous nonspherical particles and Janus particles in a one-step and high-throughput fashion. In this study, using common solvents as porogens, we were able to synthesize highly porous particles with different shapes using ultraviolet (UV) polymerization-induced phase separation in a microfluidic channel. We also studied the pore-forming process using operating parameters such as porogen type, porogen concentration, and UV intensity to tune the pore size and increase the pore size to submicron levels. By simply coflowing multiple streams in the microfluidic channel, we were able to create porous Janus particles; we showed that their anisotropic swelling/deswelling exhibit a unique optical shifting. The distinctive optical properties and the enlarged surface area of the highly porous particles can improve their performance in various applications such as optical sensors and drug loading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minggan Li
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Ryerson University , 350 Victoria Street, Toronto, Ontario M5B 2K3, Canada
- Keenan Research Centre for Biomedical Science, St. Michael's Hospital , 30 Bond Street, Toronto, Ontario M5B 1W8, Canada
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, Science and Technology (iBEST) , A partnership between Ryerson University and St. Michael's Hospital, 30 Bond Street, Toronto, Ontario M5B 1W8, Canada
| | - Dehi Joung
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Ryerson University , 350 Victoria Street, Toronto, Ontario M5B 2K3, Canada
- Keenan Research Centre for Biomedical Science, St. Michael's Hospital , 30 Bond Street, Toronto, Ontario M5B 1W8, Canada
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, Science and Technology (iBEST) , A partnership between Ryerson University and St. Michael's Hospital, 30 Bond Street, Toronto, Ontario M5B 1W8, Canada
| | - Janusz A Kozinski
- Lassonde School of Engineering, York University , 4700 Keele Street, Toronto, Ontario M3J 1P3, Canada
| | - Dae Kun Hwang
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Ryerson University , 350 Victoria Street, Toronto, Ontario M5B 2K3, Canada
- Keenan Research Centre for Biomedical Science, St. Michael's Hospital , 30 Bond Street, Toronto, Ontario M5B 1W8, Canada
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, Science and Technology (iBEST) , A partnership between Ryerson University and St. Michael's Hospital, 30 Bond Street, Toronto, Ontario M5B 1W8, Canada
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50
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Wang B, Prinsen P, Wang H, Bai Z, Wang H, Luque R, Xuan J. Macroporous materials: microfluidic fabrication, functionalization and applications. Chem Soc Rev 2017; 46:855-914. [DOI: 10.1039/c5cs00065c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
This article provides an up-to-date highly comprehensive overview (594 references) on the state of the art of the synthesis and design of macroporous materials using microfluidics and their applications in different fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bingjie Wang
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Risk Assessment and Control on Chemical Process
- School of Mechanical and Power Engineering
- East China University of Science and Technology
- Shanghai 200237
- China
| | - Pepijn Prinsen
- Departamento de Quimica Organica
- Universidad de Cordoba
- Campus de Rabanales
- Cordoba
- Spain
| | - Huizhi Wang
- School of Engineering and Physical Sciences
- Heriot-Watt University
- Edinburgh
- UK
| | - Zhishan Bai
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Risk Assessment and Control on Chemical Process
- School of Mechanical and Power Engineering
- East China University of Science and Technology
- Shanghai 200237
- China
| | - Hualin Wang
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Risk Assessment and Control on Chemical Process
- School of Mechanical and Power Engineering
- East China University of Science and Technology
- Shanghai 200237
- China
| | - Rafael Luque
- Departamento de Quimica Organica
- Universidad de Cordoba
- Campus de Rabanales
- Cordoba
- Spain
| | - Jin Xuan
- School of Engineering and Physical Sciences
- Heriot-Watt University
- Edinburgh
- UK
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