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Ricciardi M, Pironti C, Motta O, Fiorillo R, Camin F, Faggiano A, Proto A. Investigations on historical monuments' deterioration through chemical and isotopic analyses: an Italian case study. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:29409-29418. [PMID: 34189694 PMCID: PMC9001298 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-15103-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
In this paper, we analysed the efflorescences present in the frescos of a monumental complex named S. Pietro a Corte situated in the historic centre of Salerno (Campania, Italy). The groundwater of the historic centre is fed by two important streams (the Rafastia and the Fusandola) that can be the sources of water penetration. The aims of this work are to (i) identify the stream that reaches the ancient frigidarium of S. Pietro a Corte and (ii) characterize the efflorescences on damaged frescos in terms of chemical nature and sources. In order to accomplish the first aim, the water of the Rafastia river (7 samples) and the water of the Fusandola river (7 samples) were analysed and compared with the water of a well of the Church (7 samples). The ionic chromatography measurements on the water samples allowed us to identify the Rafastia as the river that feeds the ancient frigidarium of S. Pietro a Corte. To investigate the nature and the origin of the efflorescences (our second aim), anionic chromatography analyses, X-ray diffraction measurements, and the isotopic determination of nitrogen were performed on the efflorescences (9 samples) and the salts recovered from the well (6 samples). Results of these analyses show that efflorescences are mainly made of potassium nitrate with a δ15N value of + 9.3 ± 0.2‰. Consequently, a plausible explanation for their formation could be the permeation of sewage water on the walls of the monumental complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Ricciardi
- Department of Medicine Surgery and Dentistry, University of Salerno, via S. Allende, 84081, Baronissi, SA, Italy
| | - Concetta Pironti
- Department of Medicine Surgery and Dentistry, University of Salerno, via S. Allende, 84081, Baronissi, SA, Italy
| | - Oriana Motta
- Department of Medicine Surgery and Dentistry, University of Salerno, via S. Allende, 84081, Baronissi, SA, Italy.
| | - Rosa Fiorillo
- Department of Cultural Heritage, University of Salerno, via Giovanni Paolo II 132, 84084, Fisciano, SA, Italy
| | - Federica Camin
- Food Quality and Nutrition Department Research and Innovation Centre, Fondazione Edmund Mach (FEM), Via E. Mach 1, 38010, San Michele all'Adige, TN, Italy
- Center Agriculture Food Environment (C3A), University of Trento, via Mach 1, 38010, San Michele all'Adige, TN, Italy
| | - Antonio Faggiano
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, University of Salerno, via Giovanni Paolo II 132, 84084, Fisciano, SA, Italy
| | - Antonio Proto
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, University of Salerno, via Giovanni Paolo II 132, 84084, Fisciano, SA, Italy
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Motta O, Pironti C, Ricciardi M, Rostagno C, Bolzacchini E, Ferrero L, Cucciniello R, Proto A. Leonardo da Vinci's "Last Supper": a case study to evaluate the influence of visitors on the Museum preservation systems. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:29391-29398. [PMID: 33813696 PMCID: PMC9001225 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-13741-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2021] [Accepted: 03/26/2021] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
The most important parameter to obtain an appropriate preservation condition of museum environments concerns the indoor air quality. The exposure of artwork and materials to gaseous and particulate pollutants introduced by visitors and either indoor or outdoor sources contributes to their decay. In this work, we evaluated the possible monitoring of the visitors' influence using the stable carbon isotopic ratio of CO2 and the concentration of NH3 as a real-time tool. The study was done in the Refectory of Santa Maria delle Grazie (Milan, Italy) which houses one of the most important paintings of Leonardo da Vinci, the Last Supper, and had more than 400,000 visitors in 2019. The results confirmed a good correlation between the presence of tourists inside the museum and the variation of δ13C value during the visits and the closure of the museum. The variation of indoor atmospheric δ13C was influenced by the presence of visitors in the Refectory and delineates the way done from the entrance to the exit. In the same way, the concentration of NH3 was influenced by the presence of visitors and confirmed the role of this one on preservation methodology for indoor air quality in the museum. This new methodology can be used as a supplemental and non-invasive tool to help in calibrating microclimatic conditions through the ventilation rate and air filtration systems in the museum and to manage the number of visitors per turn.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oriana Motta
- Department of Medicine Surgery and Dentistry, University of Salerno, via S. Allende, 84081, Baronissi, Salerno, Italy.
| | - Concetta Pironti
- Department of Medicine Surgery and Dentistry, University of Salerno, via S. Allende, 84081, Baronissi, Salerno, Italy
| | - Maria Ricciardi
- Department of Medicine Surgery and Dentistry, University of Salerno, via S. Allende, 84081, Baronissi, Salerno, Italy
| | - Chiara Rostagno
- Ricerca e Progetti Educativi Estero, Direzione Museale Regionale della Lombardia, Palazzo Arese Litta, Corso Magenta, 24 20123, Milan, Italy
| | - Ezio Bolzacchini
- GEMMA Center, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Piazza della Scienza 1, 20126, Milan, Italy
| | - Luca Ferrero
- GEMMA Center, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Piazza della Scienza 1, 20126, Milan, Italy
| | - Raffaele Cucciniello
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, University of Salerno, via Giovanni Paolo II 132, 84084, Fisciano, Salerno, Italy
| | - Antonio Proto
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, University of Salerno, via Giovanni Paolo II 132, 84084, Fisciano, Salerno, Italy
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Pironti C, Ricciardi M, Proto A, Cucciniello R, Fiorentino A, Fiorillo R, Motta O. New analytical approach to monitoring air quality in historical monuments through the isotopic ratio of CO 2. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:29385-29390. [PMID: 33389576 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-020-12215-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
In this study, we evaluated indoor air quality to highlight the effects of environmental pollution in the field of cultural heritage. In particular, two important archeological places in the old part of the city of Salerno, Italy, were analyzed: Fruscione Palace and S. Pietro a Corte. The work focused on the influence of tourists on environmental pollution correlated to indoor air quality during some social and cultural events. Moreover, we focused on the possible use of the carbon isotopic composition of CO2 as a tool for environmental studies in the field of cultural heritage. The results showed a good relationship between the isotopic composition of CO2 and the variation of pollutants concentration in the air, demonstrating that it is a valid tool and non-invasive marker to monitor environmental pollution of museums and cultural heritage sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Concetta Pironti
- Department of Medicine Surgery and Dentistry, University of Salerno, via S. Allende, 84081, Baronissi, SA, Italy
| | - Maria Ricciardi
- Department of Medicine Surgery and Dentistry, University of Salerno, via S. Allende, 84081, Baronissi, SA, Italy
| | - Antonio Proto
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, University of Salerno, via Giovanni Paolo II 132, 84084, Fisciano, SA, Italy
| | - Raffaele Cucciniello
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, University of Salerno, via Giovanni Paolo II 132, 84084, Fisciano, SA, Italy
| | - Antonino Fiorentino
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, University of Salerno, via Giovanni Paolo II 132, 84084, Fisciano, SA, Italy
| | - Rosa Fiorillo
- Department of Cultural Heritage, University of Salerno, via Giovanni Paolo II 132, 84084, Fisciano, SA, Italy
| | - Oriana Motta
- Department of Medicine Surgery and Dentistry, University of Salerno, via S. Allende, 84081, Baronissi, SA, Italy.
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Pironti C, Ricciardi M, Motta O, Camin F, Bontempo L, Proto A. Application of 13C Quantitative NMR Spectroscopy to Isotopic Analyses for Vanillin Authentication Source. Foods 2021; 10:foods10112635. [PMID: 34828916 PMCID: PMC8625575 DOI: 10.3390/foods10112635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2021] [Revised: 10/27/2021] [Accepted: 10/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The carbon stable isotope ratio (δ13C) is a valuable chemical parameter in the investigation of the geographic origin, quality, and authenticity of foods. The aim of this study is the evaluation of the feasibility of 13C-NMR (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance) spectroscopy to determine the carbon stable isotope ratio, at natural abundance, of small organic molecules, such as vanillin, without the use of IRMS (Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry). The determination of vanillin origin is an active task of research, and differentiating between its natural and artificial forms is important to guarantee the quality of food products. To reach our goal, nine vanillin samples were analyzed using both 13C quantitative NMR spectroscopy (under optimized experimental conditions) and IRMS, and the obtained δ13C values were compared using statistical analysis (linear regression, Bland–Altman plot, and ANOVA (analysis of variance)). The results of our study show that 13C-NMR spectroscopy can be used as a valuable alternative methodology to determine the bulk carbon isotope ratio and to identify the origin of vanillin. This makes it attractive for the analysis in the same experiment of site-specific and total isotope effects for testing authenticity, quality, and typicality of food samples. Moreover, the improvement of NMR spectroscopy makes it possible to avoid the influence of additives on carbon stable isotope ratio analysis and to clearly identify fraud and falsification in commercial samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Concetta Pironti
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Salerno, via S. Allende, 84081 Baronissi, SA, Italy; (C.P.); (M.R.)
| | - Maria Ricciardi
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Salerno, via S. Allende, 84081 Baronissi, SA, Italy; (C.P.); (M.R.)
| | - Oriana Motta
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Salerno, via S. Allende, 84081 Baronissi, SA, Italy; (C.P.); (M.R.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-089963083
| | - Federica Camin
- Fondazione Edmund Mach, Research and Innovation Center, Food Quality and Nutrition Department, 38010 San Michele all’Adige, TN, Italy; (F.C.); (L.B.)
- Centre Agriculture Food Environment C3A, University of Trento, 38010 San Michele all’Adige, TN, Italy
- International Atomic Energy Agency, IAEA, International Centre, P.O. Box 100, A-1400 Vienna, Austria
| | - Luana Bontempo
- Fondazione Edmund Mach, Research and Innovation Center, Food Quality and Nutrition Department, 38010 San Michele all’Adige, TN, Italy; (F.C.); (L.B.)
| | - Antonio Proto
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, University of Salerno, via Giovanni Paolo II 132, 84084 Fisciano, SA, Italy;
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Pironti C, Ricciardi M, Motta O, Miele Y, Proto A, Montano L. Microplastics in the Environment: Intake through the Food Web, Human Exposure and Toxicological Effects. TOXICS 2021; 9:224. [PMID: 34564375 PMCID: PMC8473407 DOI: 10.3390/toxics9090224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2021] [Revised: 09/10/2021] [Accepted: 09/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Recently, studies on microplastics (MPs) have increased rapidly due to the growing awareness of the potential health risks related to their occurrence. The first part of this review is devoted to MP occurrence, distribution, and quantification. MPs can be transferred from the environment to humans mainly through inhalation, secondly from ingestion, and, to a lesser extent, through dermal contact. As regards food web contamination, we discuss the microplastic presence not only in the most investigated sources, such as seafood, drinking water, and salts, but also in other foods such as honey, sugar, milk, fruit, and meat (chickens, cows, and pigs). All literature data suggest not-negligible human exposure to MPs through the above-mentioned routes. Consequently, several research efforts have been devoted to assessing potential human health risks. Initially, toxicological studies were conducted with aquatic organisms and then with experimental mammal animal models and human cell cultures. In the latter case, toxicological effects were observed at high concentrations of MPs (polystyrene is the most common MP benchmark) for a short time. Further studies must be performed to assess the real consequences of MP contamination at low concentrations and prolonged exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Concetta Pironti
- Department of Medicine Surgery and Dentistry “Scuola Medica Salernitana”, University of Salerno, Via S. Allende, 84081 Baronissi, Italy; (C.P.); (M.R.)
| | - Maria Ricciardi
- Department of Medicine Surgery and Dentistry “Scuola Medica Salernitana”, University of Salerno, Via S. Allende, 84081 Baronissi, Italy; (C.P.); (M.R.)
| | - Oriana Motta
- Department of Medicine Surgery and Dentistry “Scuola Medica Salernitana”, University of Salerno, Via S. Allende, 84081 Baronissi, Italy; (C.P.); (M.R.)
| | - Ylenia Miele
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II, 84084 Fisciano, Italy; (Y.M.); (A.P.)
| | - Antonio Proto
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II, 84084 Fisciano, Italy; (Y.M.); (A.P.)
| | - Luigi Montano
- Andrology Unit and Service of Lifestyle Medicine in UroAndrology, Local Health Authority (ASL) Salerno, Coordination Unit of the Network for Environmental and Reproductive Health (Eco-FoodFertility Project), “S. Francesco di Assisi Hospital”, 84020 Oliveto Citra, Italy
- PhD Program in Evolutionary Biology and Ecology, University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, 00133 Rome, Italy
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Dell'Orco S, Christensen ED, Iisa K, Starace AK, Dutta A, Talmadge MS, Magrini KA, Mukarakate C. Online Biogenic Carbon Analysis Enables Refineries to Reduce Carbon Footprint during Coprocessing Biomass- and Petroleum-Derived Liquids. Anal Chem 2021; 93:4351-4360. [PMID: 33645225 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.0c04108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
To mitigate green-house gas (GHG) emissions, governments around the world are enacting legislation to reduce carbon intensity in transportation fuels. Coprocessing biomass and petroleum-derived liquids in existing refineries is a near-term, cost-effective approach for introducing renewable carbon in fuels and enabling refineries to meet regulatory mandates. However, coprocessing biomass-derived liquids in refineries results in variable degrees of biogenic carbon incorporation, necessitating accurate quantification to verify compliance with mandates. Existing refinery control and instrumentation systems lack the means to measure renewable carbon accurately, reliably, and quickly. Thus, accurate measurement of biogenic carbon is key to ensuring refineries meet regulatory mandates. In this Perspective, we present existing methods for measuring biogenic carbon, point out their challenges, and discuss the need for new online analytical capabilities to measure biogenic carbon in fuel intermediates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefano Dell'Orco
- Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Florence, Viale Morgagni 40, 50135 Florence, Italy.,Catalytic Carbon Transformation and Scale-up Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 15523 Denver West Parkway, Golden, Colorado 80401-3393, United States
| | - Earl D Christensen
- Catalytic Carbon Transformation and Scale-up Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 15523 Denver West Parkway, Golden, Colorado 80401-3393, United States
| | - Kristiina Iisa
- Catalytic Carbon Transformation and Scale-up Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 15523 Denver West Parkway, Golden, Colorado 80401-3393, United States
| | - Anne K Starace
- Catalytic Carbon Transformation and Scale-up Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 15523 Denver West Parkway, Golden, Colorado 80401-3393, United States
| | - Abhijit Dutta
- Catalytic Carbon Transformation and Scale-up Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 15523 Denver West Parkway, Golden, Colorado 80401-3393, United States
| | - Michael S Talmadge
- Catalytic Carbon Transformation and Scale-up Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 15523 Denver West Parkway, Golden, Colorado 80401-3393, United States
| | - Kimberly A Magrini
- Catalytic Carbon Transformation and Scale-up Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 15523 Denver West Parkway, Golden, Colorado 80401-3393, United States
| | - Calvin Mukarakate
- Catalytic Carbon Transformation and Scale-up Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 15523 Denver West Parkway, Golden, Colorado 80401-3393, United States
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Kuzman D, Damjanović V, Stilinović V, Cindrić M, Vrdoljak V. The role of mono- and dicarboxylic acids in the building of oxomolybdates containing {MoO 4}, {Mo 2O 5}, {Mo 2O 6}, {Mo 3O 8}, {Mo 5O 17}, {Mo 5O 18}, {Mo 8O 26}, and {SiMo 12O 40} units. NEW J CHEM 2021. [DOI: 10.1039/d1nj03280a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
We describe the impact of mono- and dicarboxylic acids on the formation of polyoxomolybdates of different nuclearities, such as {Mo5O17}, {Mo5O18}, {Mo8O26}, and {SiMo12O40}.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dino Kuzman
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb, Horvatovac 102a, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Vladimir Damjanović
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Šalata 3, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Vladimir Stilinović
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb, Horvatovac 102a, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Marina Cindrić
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb, Horvatovac 102a, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Višnja Vrdoljak
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb, Horvatovac 102a, Zagreb, Croatia
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Characterization and authentication of commercial cleaning products formulated with biobased surfactants by stable carbon isotope ratio. Talanta 2020; 219:121256. [PMID: 32887147 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2020.121256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2020] [Revised: 05/25/2020] [Accepted: 05/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
This study focuses on the application of stable carbon isotope analysis to determine the origin of commercial surfactants and cleaning products, especially used in quality process by chemical companies. The δ13C value was applied to commercial surfactants, such as ethoxylate alcohol, sodium lauryl sulfate, alkyl polyglucoside with different origin, that are the most common raw materials used in cleaning products. In this study, the isotopic analysis was performed on mixtures of commercial surfactants to simulate the commercial detergent formulations (handwashing, multisurface cleaner and degreaser) and then on bulk professional cleaning products to match relationship between isotope carbon composition and concentration of surfactants in real samples. This study demonstrated that δ13C was correlated to the origin of surfactants. In particular we analyzed five samples of biobased surfactants, with δ13C value from -22,6‰ to -28,0‰, and six samples from carbon fossil raw material, with δ13C value from -28,5‰ to -32,0‰, which were the most common raw material used in commercial cleaning products. Isotope carbon composition was also applied on mixtures of biobased and fossil surfactants to simulate and perform the method for stable carbon isotope analysis of commercial cleaning products. Furthemore the results assessed the relationship between stable carbon isotope ratio values and surfactant concentration in mixtures: for example in 50% mixtures of biobased (δ13C -22,6‰) and synthetic surfactant (δ13C -32,5‰), we found a δ13C value -28,00‰. The main advantage in using δ13C analysis is related to cheapness and easy-to-operate method in comparison to radiocarbon methodology.
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Hoffman DW, Rasmussen C. Position-Specific Carbon Stable Isotope Ratios by Proton NMR Spectroscopy. Anal Chem 2019; 91:15661-15669. [PMID: 31697494 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b03776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Carbon stable isotopes provide insights into the origin and synthesis pathway of an organic molecule, and hence, contribute information that is fundamental to understanding chemical, physiological, and ecological processes. Organic carbon 13C/12C isotope ratios are commonly obtained as whole-molecule averages or as measurements of bulk samples. In contrast, position-specific isotope analysis (PSIA) provides isotope ratios for the individual carbons within a molecule, providing additional information that is masked by traditional analytical techniques. Here we introduce a 1H NMR method for determining position-specific 13C/12C ratios within organic molecules. A peak shape superposition procedure is used to bypass the need for traditional peak integration, by exploiting relationships among the shapes of 1H and 13C satellite peaks in 1H NMR spectra. The method also has a significant sensitivity advantage over NMR methods that utilize direct detection of 13C. Furthermore, we demonstrate that isotope standard materials (such as those obtainable from U.S. Geological Survey) are indispensable in calibrating an NMR instrument, in order to obtain accurate isotope ratio results. Our analytical approach was applied to organic molecules of different complexity and origin, including ethanols, propionic acids, and thymidine. Results verify that chemically identical molecules from different sources can have different intramolecular isotope distributions; hence position-specific 13C/12C ratios provide an isotopic fingerprint of an organic molecule. Position-specific information for the nucleoside thymidine, where five of eight carbon positions were measured, is significant because its complexity would make it a difficult target for PSIA by mass spectrometry. The 1H NMR method is complementary to other methods of PSIA, and will make 13C/12C PSIA employable to a wider range of organic molecules.
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Diez V, DeWeese A, Kalb RS, Blauch DN, Socha AM. Cellulose Dissolution and Biomass Pretreatment Using Quaternary Ammonium Ionic Liquids Prepared from H-, G-, and S-Type Lignin-Derived Benzaldehydes and Dimethyl Carbonate. Ind Eng Chem Res 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.9b00640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Diez
- Department of Environmental Science and Chemistry, Queens University of Charlotte, 1900 Selwyn Avenue, Charlotte, North Carolina 28207, United States
| | - Andrew DeWeese
- Department of Environmental Science and Chemistry, Queens University of Charlotte, 1900 Selwyn Avenue, Charlotte, North Carolina 28207, United States
| | | | - David N. Blauch
- Department of Chemistry, Davidson College, 405 North Main Street, Davidson, North Carolina 28035, United States
| | - Aaron M. Socha
- Department of Environmental Science and Chemistry, Queens University of Charlotte, 1900 Selwyn Avenue, Charlotte, North Carolina 28207, United States
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