Recent Advances in Chain Conformation and Bioactivities of Triple-Helix Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides from traditional Chinese medicine and their nano-formulated delivery systems for cancer immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy has evolved into a new generation strategy in the field of anti-tumor treatment. Polysaccharides derived from Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) are gaining recognition as powerful immunomodulators in cancer therapy, noted for their multi-target and multi-pathway actions. Owing to their beneficial properties such as water solubility, biocompatibility, and chemical structure modifiability, TCM polysaccharides can also serve as carriers for hydrophobic drugs in the development of innovative drug delivery systems, enhancing synergistic antitumor effects. In this article, we summarize the diverse mechanisms of immunoregulation by TCM polysaccharides in tumor therapy. The applications of these polysaccharides as both active ingredients and drug carriers within nanodelivery systems for cancer immunotherapy are also introduced. Additionally, extensive research on TCM polysaccharides in clinical settings has been collected. Furthermore, discussions are presented on the development prospects and challenges faced by these polysaccharides in the field of tumor immunotherapy. Our goal is to improve researchers' comprehension of TCM polysaccharides in cancer immunotherapy, providing promising strategies to optimize cancer treatment and benefit diverse patient populations.

A novel polysaccharide from Citrus aurantium L.: Structural properties and antitumor activities in vitro and invivo

A novel cold-water-soluble polysaccharide (CALP-1-1) was isolated and purified from Citrus aurantium L. Besides determining its in vitro and in vivo anti-tumor activities, its structure was characterised. The results reveal that CALP-1-1 mainly consists of Rha, Ara, Gal, GalA, and GlcA (molar ratio, 1:14.56:19.27:2.27:1.29) with three main linkages. Its average molecular weight was 2.04 × 103 kDa. Moreover, the triple helix structure of CALP-1-1 was proved by Congo-red and circular dichroism (CD). The in vitro experimental results demonstrate that CALP-1-1 significantly inhibited the proliferation of HepG2 cells with typical apoptotic features by inducing cell cycle arrest in the S phase. Furthermore, in vivo anti-tumor experiments suggest that CALP-1-1 could induce H22 solid tumor cells apoptosis and exhibit anti-tumor effects by protecting immune organs and intensifying the secretion of immune cells (macrophages, lymphocytes and NK cells). In conclusion, CALP-1-1 might be a promising component for cancer treatment.

Effect of triple helix polysaccharides from foxtail millet bran on millet starch gel formation

Polysaccharides as modifiers can solve native starch gel problem of weaker gel strength and lower gelation trend. The key structures of foxtail millet bran polysaccharides (FMBPs) in improving millet starch gel properties were investigated. Results showed that FMBPs were high molecular weight (Mw) heteropolysaccharides and the distribution of total sugar, uronic acid and monosaccharides was non-uniform in four FMBPs. Structural analysis revealed triple helix polysaccharides (THPs) existed in independent triple helix (ITH) and aggregates forms. The redshift degree of Congo red-FMBP complexes illustrated that FMBP-S1 contain the most ITHs, followed by FMBP-S2 and FMBP-S4, and the least in FMBP-S3. The porous structure of FMBPs promoted the adsorption of Congo red, bringing about the increase in weight and volume of the complexes and eventual precipitation. Separation of THPs provided a new method to investigate its role in starch gel. The results showed FMBPs with more ITHs showed higher peak viscosity, breakdown and setback. The presence of ITHs could reduce gel point temperature (ΔT = 6.62-29.86 °C) and water holding capacity (from 50 to 66 ms to 231 ms), but improve the viscoelasticity of gel. The study not only improved the quality of starch-based gel but also achieved high-value utilization of foxtail millet bran.

Dynamic high-pressure microfluidization for the extraction and processing of polysaccharides: a focus on some foods and by-products

Dynamic high-pressure microfluidization (DHPM) is an emerging treatment technology and has been widely used for the recovery of natural polysaccharides. The aim of the present contribution is to discuss the DHPM-assisted extraction and processing of polysaccharides from some foods and by-products by reviewing the instrument and working principle, procedures, key parameters, and effects of DHPM on the structures, food properties, and bioactivities of resulting polysaccharides. It was found that a DHPM instrument with Z-type chamber is preferable for extracting polysaccharides, and a DHPM with Y-type chamber is applicable for processing polysaccharides. The solid-to-liquid ratio (or concentration), pressure, and number of passes are the key parameters influencing the outcome of DHPM extraction and processing. The DHPM under suitable conditions is conducive to boosting the extraction yields of polysaccharides, enriching the carbohydrates and uronic acids in polysaccharides, lowering the protein impurities, and transforming insoluble dietary fibers into soluble ones. In most cases, DHPM treatment improved the food properties of polysaccharides via decreasing viscosity, molecular weight, and particle size, as well as losing the surface morphology. More importantly, DHPM is a mild treatment technique that barely affects the chain backbones of polysaccharides. DHPM-assisted extraction and processing endowed polysaccharides with enhanced antioxidant, hypolipidemic, and hypoglycemic activities, exhibiting potential for the treatment of cardiovascular disease. In addition, DHPM-treated polysaccharides exerted certain potential in whitening cosmetics via inhibiting tyrosinase. In conclusion, DHPM is a mild, efficient, and green technology to recover and modify polysaccharides from natural resources, especially foods and by-products. © 2025 Society of Chemical Industry.

Purification, structural characterization, and in vitro immunomodulatory activity of a low-molecular-weight polysaccharide from cultivated Chinese cordyceps

Cultivated Chinese cordyceps, an optimal substitute for the endangered wild resource, has recently been produced on a large scale. This work sought to explore the structural features and immunomodulatory activity of a novel low-molecular-weight polysaccharide (CSP1a, 15.7 kDa) isolated from cultivated Chinese cordyceps. CSP1a was prepared with a multi-step process that encompassed hot water extraction, alcohol precipitation, and column chromatographic purification. The monosaccharide composition, infrared spectroscopy, methylation, and nuclear magnetic resonance results revealed that CSP1a was highly branched (with a branching degree of 49.21 %) and primarily constituted of galactose (30.60 %), glucose (12.87 %) and mannose (56.53 %), comprising 13 distinct types of glycosidic linkage fragments. The main chain of CSP1a consisted of different mannose residues, with several exposed β-d-Galf-(1→ residues in various side chains. The results from scanning electron microscopy and Congo red analyses revealed that CSP1a possessed a reticulated porous chain conformation, which enhanced its bioavailability and demonstrated its potential as a carrier. In vitro immunological investigations demonstrated that CSP1a significantly promoted splenic lymphocyte proliferation. Additionally, CSP1a increased RAW264.7 cell proliferation, improved phagocytic capacity, and stimulated the secretion of nitric oxide (NO), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) in a dose-dependent manner. Collectively, CSP1a, a novel low-molecular-weight polysaccharide galactoglucomannan with a high branching degree and reticulated porous chain conformation, was isolated for the first time from cultivated Chinese cordyceps and showed promise as a potential immunomodulator or drug carrier. These findings contribute to elucidating the polysaccharide material basis for the immune activity of Chinese cordyceps and promote its industrial development as a functional food product.

Synergistic chemoimmunotherapy in a green framework: pH-responsive natural plant polysaccharide-based nanoparticles

Traditional therapies are inadequate in addressing the escalating threat of cancer, highlighting the urgent need for more effective treatment modalities. Natural products play a crucial role in the development of novel anticancer pharmaceuticals and safe anti-tumor nanomedicines. Honokiol (HK), a naturally occurring compound, has been shown to induce apoptosis in cancer cells and inhibit tumor proliferation, positioning it as a promising candidate for chemotherapeutic applications. While, plant-derived polysaccharides are known to activate anti-tumor immune responses and exhibit favorable properties such as biocompatibility, safety, and modifiability, making them suitable carriers for drug delivery. In this study, golden berries (the fruits of Physalis peruviana) polysaccharides (PPP), which exhibit immune-stimulating properties, were integrated with the crosslinking agent benzene-1,4-diboronic acid (BDBA) to develop pH-responsive nanoparticles (HK@PPP-BDBA) for synergistic chemo-immunotherapy. We conducted a comprehensive chemical characterization of the nanoparticles and investigated the molecular mechanisms underlying the assembly of HK and polysaccharides through computational simulations. The HK@PPP-BDBA demonstrated significant inhibitory effects on the proliferation of MCF-7 and HeLa cells, reduced tumor growth, and impeded cancer cell migration in vivo. HK promoted the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and apoptosis in tumor cells, while PPP facilitated the maturation of dendritic cells, enhanced the expression of costimulatory molecules and histocompatibility complex, and initiated anti-tumor immunity. The advancement of HK@PPP-BDBA expands the potential applications of natural polysaccharides and nanoparticles in cancer treatment, offering a promising platform for the integration of chemotherapy and immunotherapy.

Advanced insights into mushroom polysaccharides: Extraction methods, structure-activity, prebiotic properties, and health-promoting effects

Mushroom-derived polysaccharides, especially β-glucans, have attracted considerable attention because of their various biological regulatory functions. Advanced extraction technologies, including ultrasonic-assisted, microwave-assisted, enzyme-assisted, ultrasonic-microwave synergistic, subcritical water, and aqueous two-phase extractions, are extensively utilized to optimize the efficient recovery of biologically active compounds from mushrooms, progressively supplanting conventional methods. In addition, mushroom polysaccharides are acknowledged as "important biological response modifiers." Beyond their diverse bioactivities, including anticancer, immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiviral, antidiabetic, hypocholesterolemia, anti-lipidemic, and antioxidant effects, increasing interest has been directed towards their prebiotic potential, especially regarding their ability to influence gut microbiota. This review presents a comprehensive summary of the extraction and purification methods, biological properties, structure-function relationships, and mechanisms of mushroom polysaccharides, highlighting the latest advancements in the field from 2019 to 2024. Additionally, this review discusses the key findings and limitations associated with the structure-function correlation. While most studies focus on β-glucans or their extracts, α-glucans and chitin have gained increasing attention. The prebiotic potential is associated with α-glucans and chitin, with chitin recognized for its substantial antimicrobial and wound-healing properties. This review systematically identifies current research gaps and proposes avenues for future investigation into the therapeutic potential of mushroom polysaccharides. However, further research is required to comprehensively understand their full therapeutic potential.

Correlation between the structures of natural polysaccharides and their properties in regulating gut microbiota: Current understanding and beyond

Natural polysaccharides have complex structural properties and a wide range of health-promoting effects. Accumulating evidence suggests that the effects are significantly mediated through fermentation by gut microbiota. In recent years, the relationship between the structures of natural polysaccharides and their properties in regulating gut microbiota has garnered significant research attention as researchers attempt to precisely understand the role of gut microbiota in the bioactivities of natural polysaccharides. Progress in this niche, however, remains limited. In this review, we first provide an overview of current research investigating this structure-property relationship. We then present a detailed correlation analysis between the structural characteristics of 159 purified natural polysaccharides and their effects on gut microbiota reported over the past two decades. The analysis revealed that diverse gut bacteria show specific correlations with the molecular weight, glycosidic linkages, and monosaccharide composition of natural polysaccharides. Multifaceted molecular mechanisms, including carbohydrate binding, enzymatic degradation, and cross-feeding, were proposed to be collectively involved in these correlations. Finally, we offer our perspective on future studies to further improve our understanding of the relationship between polysaccharide structure and gut microbiota regulation.

An arabinogalactan from Lycium barbarum mitigated DSS caused intestinal injury via inhibiting mucosal damage and regulating the gut microbiota disorder

Intestinal injury and microbiota disorder take part in the development of UC. In this research, we obtained an arabinogalactan (LBP-m) from Lycium barbarum and firstly characterized its physicochemical properties. LBP-m was a homogeneous polysaccharide (172 kDa) consisted of Ara, Gal, Glc, GalA, and GlcA with a mole ratio of 1.00: 0.73: 0.18: 0.20: 0.07, and constructed a →6)-β-Galp(1→ backbone with different Araf branches at O-3 position, which exerted as random coil in PBS with single helical structure. Furthermore, oral administration of LBP-m ameliorated the DSS induced UC from different aspects, including regulating barrier dysfunction by promoting the expression of TJs, elevating the anti-oxidative stress capacity through activating the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway, relieving the mucosal inflammation via inhibiting NF-κB pathway. In addition, LBP-m regulated the gut microbiota disorder by reshaping the microbial composition and enhancing the generation of SCFAs. Our research revealed the physicochemical properties of LBP-m and systematically indicated its mitigative effect against DSS induced UC, which could benefit its application in food and pharmacy fields.

Characterization of the polysaccharide schizophyllan and schizophyllan-chitosan hydrogel formation by diffusing-wave spectroscopy

Schizophyllan (SPG) is a semi-flexible, triple-helical polysaccharide with attractive properties as an efficient viscosifying compound and biological response modifier. We report microrheological characterization of schizophyllan as dispersed in solution and the changes associated when crosslinked with chitosan over an extended frequency range using diffusing wave spectroscopy (DWS). A SPG with high molecular weight (Mw = 1.1 × 106 Da) was selectively oxidized in the side chains (20 % or 40 %) to promote Schiff base formation with chitosan (CHI) amine groups, thus inducing crosslinking. The microrheological characterization of the dispersed SPG revealed characteristic features of the semiflexible structure, where also coupling between flexure and longitudinal modes was indicated based on scaling coefficient close to 7/8 of the loss modulus G"(ω) vs ω for ω in the range 3 × 103-105 rad/s. The in-situ characterization of the gelation process by DWS revealed changes in the scattered intensity-correlation function caused by the embedded colloidal probe-particles, from which the mean-square displacement of the probes and the shear moduli of the SPG-chitosan hydrogel samples were determined for various SPG concentrations and degrees of oxidation. It is found that SPG - chitosan hydrogels can be prepared with a polymer content in the range of 0.5-2.0 mg/mL and that tuning the molecular parameters allowed control of mechanical moduli in soft hydrogels in the range of 0.3 Pa up to 1000 Pa.

Lentinan suppresses the progression of neuroblastoma by inhibiting FOS-mediated transcription activation of VRK1 to stabilize p53 protein

Neuroblastoma (NB) is a common malignant and solid pediatric tumor with unfavorable prognosis. Although studies have shown the anti-tumor efficacy of lentinan (LNT), molecular mechanism that contribute to the anti-tumor effect on NB remains unclear. The aim of this study is to unmask the anti-tumor role of LNT in NB and the specific molecular mechanism. At first, the in vivo experiments were conducted and the results indicated that LNT could suppress tumor growth in NB. Subsequent cellular functional assays unveiled that LNT treatment could efficiently decrease NB cell viability, induce cell cycle stagnation at G0/G1 phase, increase the apoptosis rate, and weaken the migrating and invasive abilities. Furthermore, LNT resulted in a significant downregulation of FOS expression. FOS overexpression recovered the growth, migration and invasion of NB cells suppressed by LNT treatment. Mechanism investigations revealed that FOS interacted with JUND to transcriptionally activate VRK1. Moreover, VRK1 downregulated p53 protein via inducing the phosphorylation of p53 at site 291-393. In summary, this study reveals a novel molecular pathway by which LNT exerts tumor-suppressing functions in NB.

Characterization of glucans from diverse sources and their influence on fat and carbohydrate absorption, digestion in vitro, and glucose tolerance in vivo

Glucan, a recognized prebiotic primarily derived from fungi, bacteria, and plants, possesses significant nutritional value and biological activity. It serves as a thickener and emulsifier stabilizer, enhancing the texture and sensory properties of food. This study aimed to compare the inhibitory effects of glucans from yeast, oats, and bacteria on energy intake by characterizing their physicochemical properties and evaluating their impact on fat and glucose adsorption, starch and fat digestion in vitro, and glucose tolerance in vivo. The findings revealed that despite sharing similar active groups, the glucans exhibited distinct structures, viscosities, water solubilities, thermal degradation behaviors, and micromorphologies. All three sources demonstrated effectiveness in adsorbing fat and glucose, inhibiting starch and fat digestion, and improving glucose tolerance in mice, albeit with notable differences. Among these, Salecan glucan, derived from bacterial sources, exhibited superior performance in fat absorption, inhibition of starch and fat digestion, and enhancement of glucose tolerance. This is likely attributable to its higher viscosity, greater water solubility, and linear molecular structure. These results highlight the functional significance of glucans from different sources and underscore their potential application in developing functional foods aimed at managing energy intake.

Lentinan mitigates ulcerative colitis via the IL-22 pathway to repair the compromised mucosal barrier and enhance antimicrobial defense

Ulcerative colitis (UC) involves chronic, complex pathology of the intestinal mucosa. Current treatments are limited in efficacy and associated with adverse effects, highlighting the urgent need for improved therapeutic options. Lentinan (LNT), a polysaccharide drug commonly used in clinical immune modulation therapies, shows potential for UC treatment, though its specific targets and mechanisms remain unclear. In this study, LNT administration effectively mitigated DSS-induced colitis in mice, enhanced mucosal barrier function and antimicrobial defense. Specifically, LNT modulated the balance between tissue-resident and infiltrating macrophages, thereby improving pathogen clearance and enhancing the immunological barrier. Notably, we identified a novel effect of LNT in regulating the macrophage Dectin-1-ILC3 axis to increase IL-22 secretion. This led to the modulation of epithelial O-glycan fucosylation, antimicrobial peptides, and epithelial stem cells, thereby strengthening antimicrobial defenses and the physicochemical barrier. Neutralization with anti-IL-22 antibodies diminished the therapeutic effect of LNT in UC, underscoring the critical role of IL-22 in LNT-mediated treatment. Overall, this study highlights the potential of LNT as a novel therapeutic agent for UC, offering new insights into its molecular mechanisms and clinical application.

Molecular dynamics modeling of different conformations of beta-glucan, molecular docking with dectin-1, and the effects on macrophages

This study investigated β-glucan with diverse conformations by using molecular dynamics simulations to analyze their conformational transitions in water. Stable conformations were docked with the Dectin-1 protein to evaluate key metrics such as favorable conformations, root-mean-square deviation, hydrogen bond interactions, and their effects on macrophage activity. Results revealed that single-chain β-1,3-glucan with a degree of polymerization (DP) of 24 forms aggregates in water, while triple-chain β-1,3-glucan with a DP of 6 tends to form double helices. Other models exhibited single-helical or entangled-helical structures, with β-1,3/1,4-glucans favoring compact triple helices. The β-1,3 glycosidic bond promotes compact helical structures, while the β-1,4 bond hinders folding, increasing rigidity. Branching via β-1,6 glycosidic bonds introduces flexibility and enhances hydrogen bonding with water, although longer branches may cause localized aggregation. Molecular docking suggests that Dectin-1's recognition sites are predominantly hydrophobic. Lower polymerization models improve binding affinity through structural complexity, whereas higher polymerization models enhance binding via helical characteristics and larger contact areas. The study provides a comprehensive perspective on Dectin-1's differential recognition of β-glucans.

Smart design in biopolymer-based hemostatic sponges: From hemostasis to multiple functions

Uncontrolled hemorrhage remains the leading cause of death in clinical and emergency care, posing a major threat to human life. To achieve effective bleeding control, many hemostatic materials have emerged. Among them, nature-derived biopolymers occupy an important position due to the excellent inherent biocompatibility, biodegradability and bioactivity. Additionally, sponges have been widely used in clinical and daily life because of their rapid blood absorption. Therefore, we provide the overview focusing on the latest advances and smart designs of biopolymer-based hemostatic sponge. Starting from the component, the applications of polysaccharide and polypeptide in hemostasis are systematically introduced, and the unique bioactivities such as antibacterial, antioxidant and immunomodulation are also concerned. From the perspective of sponge structure, different preparation processes can obtain unique physical properties and structures, which will affect the material properties such as hemostasis, antibacterial and tissue repair. Notably, as development frontier, the multi-functions of hemostatic materials is summarized, mainly including enhanced coagulation, antibacterial, avoiding tumor recurrence, promoting tissue repair, and hemorrhage monitoring. Finally, the challenges facing the development of biopolymer-based hemostatic sponges are emphasized, and future directions for in vivo biosafety, emerging materials, multiple application scenarios and translational research are proposed.

Effects of aging on the fine structure, chain conformation, and morphology of Chenpi polysaccharides

The aging process endows Chenpi (Pericarpium Citri Reticulatae) with unique value and efficacy. This study investigated the dynamic changes in the fine structure, chain conformation, and morphology of water-soluble polysaccharides from Chenpi over time. In the initial storage period of Chenpi (1 year), Chenpi polysaccharides (CP) exhibited a triple-helical structure, with chains entangled and aggregated into rough spherical conformations. Galacturonic acid (GalA, 47.78 mol%) was the predominant monosaccharide. As aging progressed, the homogalacturonan (HG) regions gradually degraded, leading to decreases in molecular sizes (particle size, Mw, Mn, and Rg), a reduction in the degree of esterification, and a weakening of the semicrystalline structure. Consequently, arabinose (Ara) emerged as the main monosaccharide (41.38 mol%). Neutral sugars continuously enriched the rhamnogalacturonan (RG-I) side chains, forming highly branched single molecules that curled into spherical shapes. By 15 years, CP were fully degraded, adopting a compact molecular conformation with the triple-helix structure disappearing and sizes uniformly below 20 nm. However, AFM results indicated aggregation phenomena in 15-year CP. Additionally, CP viscosity decreased while thermal stability improved, reflecting the natural structural transformation of CP. This study provides scientific evidence supporting the application of Chenpi in the food and pharmaceutical industries.

Promises of natural products as clinical applications for cancer

Cancer represents a substantial threat to human health and mortality, necessitating the development of novel pharmacological agents with innovative mechanisms of action. Consequently, extensive research has been directed toward discovering new anticancer compounds derived from natural sources, including plants, microbes, and marine organisms. This review offers a comprehensive analysis of natural anticancer agents that are either currently undergoing clinical trials or have been integrated into clinical practice. A comprehensive understanding of the historical origins of natural anticancer agents, alongside traditional targets for tumor treatment and the distinct characteristics of cancer, can significantly facilitate researchers in the discovery and development of innovative anticancer drugs for clinical use. Furthermore, the exploration of microbial and marine sources is currently a prominent area of focus in the clinical application and advancement of new anticancer therapies. Detailed classification and elucidation of the functions and antitumor properties of these natural products are essential. It is imperative to comprehensively summarize and comprehend the natural anticancer drugs that have been and continue to be utilized in clinical settings.

Research progress in methods of acquisition, structure elucidation, and quality control of Chinese herbal polysaccharides

The therapeutic efficacy of traditional Chinese medicine has been widely acknowledged due to its extensive history of clinical effectiveness. However, the precise active components underlying each prescription remain incompletely understood. Polysaccharides, as a major constituent of water decoctions-the most common preparation method for Chinese medicinals-may provide a crucial avenue for deepening our understanding of the efficacy principles of Chinese medicine and establishing a framework for its modern development. The structural complexity and diversity of Chinese herbal polysaccharides present significant challenges in their separation and analysis compared to small molecules. This paper aims to explore the potential of Chinese herbal polysaccharides efficiently by briefly summarizing recent advancements in polysaccharide chemical research, focusing on methods of acquisition, structure elucidation, and quality control.

Self-assembled near-infrared-photothermal antibacterial Hericium erinaceus β-glucan/tannic acid/Fe (III) hydrogel for accelerating infected wound healing

Bacterial infection severely hinders skin wound healing, highlighting the critical application value of developing antibacterial and anti-inflammatory hydrogel dressings. In this work, we focused on β-glucan from Hericium erinaceus (HEBG) as the research object, and proposed a solvent-induced combined temperature manipulation technique to trigger multilevel self-assembly of β-glucan. Furthermore, we incorporated green synthesized near-infrared photosensitizer tannic acid (TA)/iron (III) complex into the system. A hydrogel with exceptional antibacterial properties, capable of responding to near-infrared photothermal stimuli while exhibiting remarkable stiffness and structural consistency, was successfully synthesized. Under near-infrared radiation, HEBG/TA/Fe hydrogels produced local hyperthermia and exhibited excellent antibacterial activity against bacteria-infected wounds. Moreover, the HEBG/TA/Fe hydrogel demonstrates its ability to regulate cytokines by effectively inhibiting the production of inflammatory mediators TNF-α and IL-6, while simultaneously enhancing the expression of cell proliferation factor KI-67 and markers associated with angiogenesis such as CD31 and α-SMA. Notably, the results of tissue staining revealed that the NIR + HEBG/TA/Fe5 hydrogel could effectively promoting granulation and vascularization, improving collagen deposition in infected wounds thereby accelerating the healing process. These findings indicate that mixed hydrogels exhibit potential as viable options for the treatment of bacterial infections.

Research progress on production and biomedical applications of Schizophyllan as a tailor-made polysaccharide: A review

Schizophyllan (SPG) is a polysaccharide of Schizophyllum commune with a β-(1 → 3)-glucan backbone structure, which has been discussed in recent years for its extensive biomedical applications. Among the biological properties of this polysaccharide are anti-cancer, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and strengthening of the immune system. Its unique triple helix structure offers various advantages as a carrier for genes or other biomolecules. The side chains of SPG can be effectively modified to change its neutral state and produce aldehyde or carboxylate groups. This review provides a detailed evaluation of the methods of production, extraction, structure and applications of schizophyllan. First, the methods of production in solid and submerged culture of this polysaccharide and its extraction with different solvents will be investigated. Then the structure of this polysaccharide, its unique structural features, including triple helix conformation, complex formation gelation behavior will be investigated. Various modifications of this polysaccharide will be described and finally, the biomedical applications of this polysaccharide will be discussed as a therapeutic agent, the use of which can be a new path in treatment and a solution to existing challenges.

An arabinan from Citrus grandis fruits alleviates ischemia/reperfusion-induced myocardial cell apoptosis via the Nrf2/Keap1 and IRE1/GRP78 signaling pathways

Citrus grandis fruit is a famous traditional Chinese medicine with various bioactivities, including cardioprotective effects. Polysaccharides are one of the key active ingredients responsible for its cardioprotective effects. This study aimed to investigate the structure and cardioprotective effect of a homogeneous polysaccharide from C. grandis fruit (CGP80-1) and explore its mechanism against myocardial ischemia-reperfusion (MI/R) injury. Structure analysis showed that CGP80-1 (11,917 Da) is an arabinan with compact coil chain conformation, containing →5)-α-L-Araf-(1→, →3,5)-α-L-Araf-(1→, and →2,3,5)-α-L-Araf-(1→ as the backbone, as well as →5)-α-L-Araf-(1→ and t-α-L-Araf as side-chains substituted at the C2 and C3 positions. Pharmacological experiments showed that pre-treatment with CGP80-1 could effectively alleviate MI/R injury by improving endogenous antioxidant enzymes and cardiac enzymes, reducing reactive oxygen species levels, and regulating apoptosis-related proteins such as caspase-3, Bax, and Bcl-2. The protective effects were correlated with the Nrf2/Keap1 and IRE1/GRP78 signaling pathways. Further analysis of structure-activity relationships revealed that the myocardial protection effects of CGP80-1 might be attributed to its appropriate molecular weight, high arabinose content, and unique compact coil chain conformation. Overall, our results provide insight into the chemical structure of CGP80-1 and its mechanism of action, suggesting that CGP80-1 could be a candidate drug for myocardial protection.

Recent advances in polysaccharide-based drug delivery systems for cancer therapy: a comprehensive review

Cancer has a high rate of incidence and mortality throughout the world. Although several conventional approaches have been developed for the treatment of cancer, such as surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy and thermal therapy, they have remarkable disadvantages which result in inefficient treatment of cancer. For example, immunogenicity, prolonged treatment, non-specificity, metastasis and high cost of treatment, are considered as the major drawbacks of chemotherapy. Therefore, there is a fundamental requirement for the development of breakthrough technologies for cancer suppression. Polysaccharide-based drug delivery systems (DDSs) are the most reliable drug carriers for cancer therapy. Polysaccharides, as a kind of practical biomaterials, are divided into several types, including chitosan, alginates, dextran, hyaluronic acid, cyclodextrin, pectin, etc. Polysaccharides are extracted from different natural resources (like herbal, marine, microorganisms, etc.). The potential features of polysaccharides have made them reliable candidates for therapeutics delivery to cancer sites; the simple purification, ease of modification and functionalization, hydrophilicity, serum stability, appropriate drug loading capacity, biocompatibility, bioavailability, biodegradability and stimuli-responsive and sustained drug release manner are considerable aspects of these biopolymers. This review highlights the practical applications of polysaccharides-based DDSs in pharmaceutical science and cancer therapy.

Identification and Analysis of Anticancer Therapeutic Targets from the Polysaccharide Krestin (PSK) and Polysaccharopeptide (PSP) Using Inverse Docking

The natural compounds PSK and PSP have antitumor and immunostimulant properties. These pharmacological benefits have been documented in vitro and in vivo, although there is no information in silico which describes the action mechanisms at the molecular level. In this study, the inverse docking method was used to identify the interactions of PSK and PSP with two local databases: BPAT with 66 antitumor proteins, and BPSIC with 138 surfaces and intracellular proteins. This led to the identification interactions and similarities of PSK and the AB680 inhibitor in the active site of CD73. It was also found that PSK binds to CD59, interacting with the amino acids APS22 and PHE23, which coincide with the rlLYd4 internalization inhibitor. With the isoform of the K-RAS protein, PSK bonded to the TYR32 amino acid at switch 1, while with BAK it bonded to the region of the α1 helix, while PSP bonded to the activation site and the C-terminal and N-terminal ends of that helix. In Bcl-2, PSK interacted at the binding site of the Venetoclax inhibitor, showing similarities with the amino acids ASP111, VAL133, LEU137, MET115, PHE112, and TYR108, while PSP had similarities with THR132, VAL133, LEU137, GLN118, MET115, APS111, PHE112, and PHE104.

A novel antidepressant homogeneous polysaccharide YLP-1 from Millettia pulchra ameliorates tryptophan metabolism and SCFAs through modulating gut microbiota

The root of Millettia pulchra (YLS) has been traditionally used as a folk medicine for the treatment of depression and insomnia in the Zhuang nationality of China, and its polysaccharides have potential antidepressant effect. In this study, a novel homogeneous polysaccharide (YLP-1) was purified from the crude polysaccharides of YLS, and it is mainly composed of glucose, arabinose and mannose with molar ratio of 87.25%, 10.77%, and 1.98%, respectively. YLP-1 is a novel α-glucan with the backbone of 1,4-Glcp and branched at C6 of 1,4,6-Glcp to combine 1,4-Manp and 1,5-Araf. The microstructure of YLP-1 displayed a uniform ellipsoidal-like chain morphology and dispersed uniformly in solution. YLP-1 effectively ameliorated depression-like ethological behaviors and restored the decreased catecholamine levels in chronic variable stress (CVS)-induced depression rats. Additionally, it significantly improved the disturbance of gut microbiota induced by CVS stimuli, particularly affecting bacteria that produce short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), such as bacteria species Lactobacillus spp.. In vitro fermentation study further confirmed that YLP-1 intake could promote SCFAs production by Lactobacillus spp. YLP-1 also mitigated the disruption of tryptophan metabolites in urine and serum. These findings provide evidences for the further development of YLP-1 as a macromolecular antidepressant drug.

A highly branched glucomannan from the fruiting body of Schizophyllum commune: Structural characteristics and antitumor properties analysis

In this study, a highly branched glucomannan (SCP-1) from Schizophyllum commune fruiting body with good solubility was isolated, and its structural characteristics and antitumor properties were analyzed. The monosaccharides of SCP-1 were fucose, glucosamine hydrochloride, galactose, glucose and mannose with a relative molar ratio of 14:6:210:593:177, and the molecular weight (Mw) of SCP-1 was 15.1 kDa. SCP-1 showed a rough and dense surface, and it was aggregated to particles in distilled water, though it might have triple-helix conformation. The main backbone chain of SCP-1 was →[3)-β-D-Glcp-(1]3→3)-β-D-Glcp-(1→2)-α-D-Manp-(1→2)-α-D-Manp-(1→3)-α-D-Glcp-(1→ and three sides chains including α-D-Glcp-(1→[6)-β-D-Glcp-(1]2→, α-D-Glcp-(1→3)-α-D-Manp-(1→ and α-D-Glcp-(1→[6)-α-D-Galp-(1]3→ were linked with 1,6-glycosidic bond, which was significantly different with the schizophyllan isolated from the mycelia of S. commune. SCP-1 could significantly inhibit the growth of A549 cells, the inhibition rate reached 41.62 % and the percentage of cells in S phase increased from 27.17 % to 56.40 % (400 μg/mL, 48 h). Moreover, SCP-1 could induce cell apoptosis and the total apoptosis rate reached 28.13 %. SCP-1 exerted apoptosis inducing effect probably by reducing the expression ratio of Bcl-2/Bax and the p-PI3K, p-Akt and p-mTOR expression level. The results showed that SCP-1 might have the potential to act as an antitumor agent for lung cancer therapy.

Molecular dynamics simulation: Effect of sulfation on the structure of curdlan triple helix in aqueous solution

In this work, by using molecular dynamics simulations, we elucidate the effect of sulfation substitution on the stability of the curdlan triple helix structure. The simulation results indicate that the stability of the triple helix structure is significantly influenced by the sites of sulfation substitution. The substitution at the O2 site directly disrupts the hydrogen bonding network between the triple helix chains, significantly destroying the triple helix conformation. When substitutions occur at both the O4 and O6 sites simultaneously (O4,6), the electrostatic repulsion between numerous sulfate groups introduces considerable energy perturbation to the triple helix, leading to alterations in the glucan chain conformation and consequent destabilization of the triple helix structure. Meanwhile, we find that even if the sulfation substitution is performed at the same substitution sites, the difference in the degree of substitution also has an impact on the triple helix stability. The resistance of the triple helix to sulfation substitution at O2 is weak, and low degree of substitution can lead to the unwinding of the triple helix. However, it demonstrates higher resistance to substitution at O4,6 where only higher degree of substitution results in triple helix destabilization.

Burn Wound Healing Abilities of a Uronic Acid Containing Exopolysaccharide Produced by the Marine Bacterium Halomonas malpeensis YU-PRIM-29 T

Bacterial exopolysaccharides (EPS) are an emerging class of biopolymers with extensive applications in different fields due to their versatile physico-chemical and biological properties. The role of EPS in healing of different wound types is gaining interest in the tissue engineering sector. Burn is one of the devitalizing injuries that causes greater physical harm and can be fatal. Appropriate treatment modalities have to be followed for faster healing outcomes and to minimize the risk. In this study, a bacterial EPS (EPS-H29) from the marine bacterium Halomonas malpeensis YU-PRIM-29 T was used to treat the burn wound in vivo. The biochemical and structural characterizations of EPS-H29 were carried out using standard methods. In addition, FE-SEM, conformational, rheological, and HP-GPC analyses were carried out. In vitro biocompatibility of EPS-H29 was studied in human dermal fibroblasts (HDFs) and keratinocytes (HaCaT). Scratch assay was used to study the wound healing in vitro. For in vivo evaluation, burn wound (second-degree) was created on Wistar albino rats and treated with EPS-H29 along with appropriate control groups. The total sugar and protein contents of EPS-H29 were 72.0 ± 1.4% and 4.0 ± 0.5%, respectively, with a molecular weight of 5.2 × 105 Da. The lyophilized samples exhibited porous surface features, and in solution, it showed triple helical conformation and shear thickening behavior. In vitro cell-based assays showed biocompatibility of EPS-H29 up to 200 μg/mL concentration. At a concentration up to 50 μg/mL, EPS-H29 promoted cell proliferation. Significant increase in the HDF cell migration was evident with EPS-H29 (15 μg/mL) treatment in vitro and induced significantly higher (p ≤ 0.0001) closure of the scratch area (90.3 ± 1.1%), compared to the control (84.3 ± 1.3%) at 24 h. Enhanced expression of Ki-67 was associated with the cell proliferative activities of EPS-H29. The animals treated with EPS-H29 showed improved healing of burn wounds with significantly higher wound contraction rate (80.6 ± 9.4%) compared to the positive control (54.6 ± 8.0%) and untreated group (49.2 ± 3.7%) with histopathological evidence of epidermal tissue formation at 15 days of treatment. These results demonstrate the biocompatibility and burn wound healing capability of EPS-H29 and its potential as an effective topical agent for the burn wound care.

A polysaccharide with a triple helix structure from Agaricus bisporus: Characterization and anti-colon cancer activity

In this study, A polysaccharide WAAP-2 (121 kDa) with a triple-helical structure was isolated and purified from Agaricus bisporus for the first time. The physicochemical properties, structural characteristics and anti-colon cancer activity were preliminarily investigated. The primary structure indicated that WAAP-2 was composed of mannose, glucose and galactose and determined the position of the linkage between monosaccharide residues. The advanced structure revealed that WAAP-2 has a triple helix and tangled chain conformation. In the anti-colon cancer activity investigation, WAAP-2 exerted an apoptosis-inducing effect by causing HT-29 cell cycle arrest in S phase. WAAP-2 promoted HT-29 cell apoptosis by up-regulating the expression of Caspase-3 and Bax proteins while down-regulating the expression of Bcl-2 protein. Besides, WAAP-2 could inhibit the migration and invasion of colorectal cancer cells by inducing E-cadherin expression and inhibiting Vimentin expression to affect epithelial mesenchymal transition. This paper is of importance for the application of WAAP-2, a triple-helical structural polysaccharide from Agaricus bisporus, to low-toxicity anti-colon cancer drugs.

A novel strategy to enhance inhibition of Hela cervical cancer by combining Lentinus β-glucan and autophagic flux blockage

Lentinus β-D-glucan (LNT), derived from artificially cultured mushrooms of Lentinus edodes, shows an important yet incompletely understood biological functions in cancer. In this work, the chemical structure of the refined LNT comprising a β-D-(1, 6)-branched β-D-(1,3)-glucan was further clarified via 1D- and 2D-NMR with high resolution, and its drug resistance resulted from autophagy in human cervical cancer (CC) Hela cells besides its anti-cancer function were revealed in vitro and in vivo. In detail, LNT destroyed cellular homeostasis by significantly increasing the intracellular Ca2+ levels and promoted autophagic flux in vitro Hela cells, which was found to at least partially depend on the PI3K/Akt/mTOR-mediated pathway by up-regulating LC3-II levels and down-regulating the expression of p62, PI3K, p-Akt, and mTOR in Hela cells-transplanted BALB/c nude mice. In particular, LNT-induced autophagy led to a drug resistance against LNT-induced proliferation inhibition and apoptosis in Hela cells, and the co-treatment of autophagy inhibitors and LNT significantly enhanced the inhibition of Hela cells and tumor growth in vitro and in vivo. Therefore, the combination of LNT and autophagy inhibitors will be a novel therapeutic strategy to reduce the resistance and improve the prognosis of CC patients in the clinical.

Recent advances in Artemisia argyi Levl. et Vant. polysaccharides: Extractions, purifications, structural characteristics, pharmacological activities, and existing and potential applications

Artemisia argyi Levl. et Vant. (A. argyi) is an important member of Asteraceae (Compositae) family, which has good medicinal potential and edible value. Phytochemical studies have shown that the A. argyi has a variety of bioactive components, mainly including polysaccharides, flavonoids, alkaloids, and volatile oil. More and more evidences show that A. argyi polysaccharide is a kind of representative pharmacological and biological active macromolecules, which has a variety of pharmacological activities in vitro and in vivo, such as estrogen-like effect, anti-bacterial, anti-tumor, anti-oxidant and immune regulation effect. As far as we know, there are few comprehensively reviews on A. argyi polysaccharide. This review aims to comprehensively and systematically review the research progress on the extractions and purifications, structural characteristics, pharmacological activities, structure-activity relationships, existing and potential applications of A. argyi polysaccharides in the past 12 years, in order to support their therapeutic potential and health functions. Finally, prospects were made for the further development and utilization of A. argyi polysaccharides in four fields: food, medicine, packaging materials, and daily chemicals.

Lentinan-based pH-responsive nanoparticles achieve the combination therapy of tumors

Cancer poses a significant threat to human health, and there is an urgent need for more effective treatments. Combining chemotherapy and immunotherapy is an effective strategy to enhance curative outcomes and holds great potential for widespread application. The natural phytochemical genistein (GEN) exhibits cytotoxicity against tumors and is a potential chemotherapeutic agent. Lentinan (LTN) is a natural polysaccharide with immune-enhancing properties that has been utilized in tumor treatment. This study constructed a pH-responsive nanoparticle GEN@LTN-BDBA with chemotherapy and immunotherapy functions using GEN and LTN. After characterizing the nanoparticles, the molecular mechanism of GEN@LTN-BDBA formation was explored using in silico simulation. GEN@LTN-BDBA can significantly inhibit the proliferation of A549 and HepG2 cells in vitro. The in vivo experiment results demonstrated that treatment with GEN@LTN-BDBA can significantly reduce tumor cell mass and prevent metastasis. In this nanoparticle, GEN induced oxidative stress and apoptosis of tumor cells. Meanwhile, the released LTN initiated an anti-tumor immune response by promoting dendritic cell (DC) maturation and upregulating the expression of costimulatory molecules and major histocompatibility complex. The construction method of GEN@LTN-BDBA can be extended to the preparation of other polysaccharides and hydrophobic chemotherapy molecules, offering a novel strategy to enhance the efficacy of monotherapy.

Hericium erinaceus β-glucan/tannic acid hydrogels based on physical cross-linking and hydrogen bonding strategies for accelerating wound healing

The majority of natural fungal β-glucans exhibit diverse biological functionalities, such as immunomodulation and anti-inflammatory effects, attributed to their distinctive helix or highly branched conformation This study utilized β-glucan with helix conformation and high-viscosity extracted from Hericium erinaceus, employing freeze-thaw and solvent exchange strategies to induce multiple hydrogen bonding between molecules, thereby initiating the self-assembly process of β-glucan from random coil to stable helix conformation without chemical modifications. Subsequently, the natural bioactive compound tannic acid was introduced through physical entanglement, imparting exceptional antioxidant properties to the hydrogel. The HEBG/TA hydrogel exhibited injectable properties, appropriate mechanical characteristics, degradability, temperature-responsive tannic acid release, antioxidant activity, and hemostatic potential. In vivo experiments using skin full-thickness defect and deep second-degree burn wound models demonstrated significant therapeutic efficacy, including neovascularization, and tissue regeneration. Moreover, the HEBG/TA hydrogel demonstrated its ability to regulate cytokines by effectively inhibiting the production of inflammatory mediators (TNF-α, IL-6), while simultaneously enhancing the expression of cell proliferation factor KI-67 and markers associated with angiogenesis such as CD31 and α-SMA. This study highlights the potential of combining natural β-glucan with bioactive molecules for skin repair.

One-step construction of silver nanoparticles immersed hydrogels by triple-helix β-glucans and the application in infectious wound healing

Hydrogels composed of polysaccharides and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are widely recognized for their applications in wound dressings, particularly for healing wounds prone to infection. Traditional methods for preparing AgNPs immersed hydrogels are often complex, costly, and may lead to sustained cytotoxicity. To address these challenges, we developed a biocompatible, one-step green reduction strategy to generate AgNPs within hydrogels using a triple-helix β-glucan (PCPA) derived from Poria cocos, a renowned Chinese traditional herb. PCPA serves as a reducing agent, converting silver ions into AgNPs while its triple-helix conformation prevents AgNPs aggregation. The resulting hydrogel (PAg-G) is injectable and contains uniformly distributed AgNPs. PAg-G exhibits broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity and enhanced bioactivity. The in vivo study on S.aureus-infected SD rats demonstrated that PAg-G can accelerate wound healing within 12 days by down-regulating inflammatory factors such as IL-6 and TNF-α, and up-regulating VEGF and CD31 expression, promoting neovascularization in wound tissues. This innovative one-step construction of AgNPs immersed hydrogels offers a promising approach for the development of antimicrobial hydrogels, especially for treating bacterial-infected wounds.

Elastic and recoverable sponges based on collagen/yeast β-glucan for quick hemostasis

In this investigation, we aimed to engineer sponges with exceptional mechanical and hemostatic capabilities for effective wound healing. By combining collagen, a stiff fibril protein in ECM, with β-glucan, an elastic and triple-helical polysaccharide from yeast cell wall, we prepared a series of composite sponges, designated as CY sponges. This material exhibited a uniform pore structure, displaying enhanced elasticity and shape recovery ability compared to pure collagen sponges. Also, the incorporation of Yeast β-glucan (YG) significantly improved the fluid absorption ability and stability of the sponges. In vitro hemostasis tests demonstrated that the CY sponges exhibited a notably lower in vitro coagulation index (19.21 %) compared to the collagen control (64.84 %), accompanied by superior erythrocyte (64.64 %) and platelet (64.95 %) adhesion properties. Animal studies further substantiated the sponge's hemostatic efficacy, as CY40 led to a reduction in average bleeding volume by 25.26 % and 28.97 %, and a shorter hemostatic time by 31.70 % and 30.77 % compared to collagen, indicating accelerated wound healing. These findings suggest that the addition of yeast β-glucan into collagen sponges can improve their elasticity, shape recovery ability, hemostatic performance and wound repair ability.

Multidisciplinary structural optimization of polysaccharides preventing alcohol-induced liver disease with computer-aided molecular design

Here, we optimized the active units of polysaccharides and investigated the conformational relationship between the polysaccharides and alcoholic liver disease (ALD) at the molecular level. We used data mining to screen polysaccharide structural parameters for ALD (PSP-ALD). Most ALD-resistant polysaccharides against ALD comprised glucose (Glc), mannose (Man), galactose (Gal), arabinose (Ara), and rhamnose (Rha). Additionally, (1 → 6)-, (1 → 3)-, and (1 → 4)- glycosidic linkages were mainly contained. Polysaccharides against ALD have a wide molecular weight distribution (2.1 × 103 Da - 9.6 × 107 Da). Based on the PSP-ALD analysis, six commercially available oligosaccharides were selected and their structures were built. After molecular docking, the binding affinities between stachyose and the key ALD targets were stronger, indicating that stachyose may be a polysaccharide-active unit against ALD (PAU-ALD). Furthermore, histological examination of liver tissue combined with serum levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and triglycerides (TG) showed that stachyose had a significant protective effect against ALD in mice. In summary, we optimized a PAU-ALD and developed a method for studying the structure-activity relationship between polysaccharides and ALD at the molecular level, which provides a new research direction for the development and utilization of polysaccharides and their clinical applications in ALD.

Mechanisms of action of fungal polysaccharides and their therapeutic effect

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this article is to discuss the relationship between the therapeutic bioactivity of basidial fungal polysaccharides (BFPs) BFPs and their structural characteristics and conformational features, as well as to characterize the mechanisms of action of BFPs in diseases of various origins.

METHODS

The review was conducted using the PubMed (Medline), Scopus, Web of Science and the Russian Science Citation Index databases. 8645 records were identified, of which 5250 were studies (86 were randomized controlled trials). The period covered is from 1960 to the present. The most significant studies conducted mainly in Southeast Asian countries were selected for the review.

RESULTS

Based on clinical studies, as well as the results obtained on in vivo, in vitro and ex vivo models, it has been proven that BFPs have diverse and highly effective biological activity in the human body in various diseases. The production of BFPs-based vaccines is an innovative strategy from a clinical and biochemical point of view, since as potential immunoprotective and low-toxic biopolymers they have innate immune receptors in the body. Promising results have been obtained in the development of antidiabetic drugs, probiotic, renoprotective and neurodegenerative dietary supplements.

CONCLUSIONS

The biological activity, mechanism of action and specific therapeutic effect of BFPs largely depend on their structural and physicochemical characteristics. BFPs as multifunctional macromolecular complexes with low toxicity and high safety are ideal as new powerful pharmaceuticals for the treatment and prevention of many diseases.

A review: Polysaccharides targeting mitochondria to improve obesity

Polysaccharides are one of the most important and widely used bioactive components of natural products, which can be used to treat metabolic diseases. Natural polysaccharides (NPs) have been the subject of much study and research in the field of treating obesity in recent years. Studies in the past have demonstrated that mitochondria are important for the initiation, progression, and management of obesity. Additionally, NPs have the ability to improve mitochondrial dysfunction via a variety of mechanisms. This review summarized the relationship between the structure of NPs and their anti-obesity activity, focusing on the anti-obesity effects of these compounds at the mitochondrial level. We discussed the association between the structure and anti-obesity action of NPs, including molecular weight, monosaccharide composition, glycosidic linkage, conformation and extraction methods. Furthermore, NPs can demonstrate a range of functions in adipose tissue, including but not limited to improving the mitochondrial oxidative respiratory chain, inhibiting oxidative stress, and maintaining mitochondrial mass homeostasis. The purpose of this work is to acquire a thorough understanding of the function that mitochondria play in the anti-obesity effects of NPs and to offer fresh insights for the investigation of how NPs prevent obesity and the creation of natural anti-obesity medications.

A General Strategy toward Self-assembled Nanovaccine Based on Cationic Lentinan to Induce Potent Humoral and Cellular Immune Responses

Adjuvants play a critical role in the induction of effective immune responses by vaccines. Here, a self-assembling nanovaccine platform that integrates adjuvant functions into the delivery vehicle is prepared. Cationic Lentinan (CLNT) is mixed with ovalbumin (OVA) to obtain a self-assembling nanovaccine (CLNTO nanovaccine), which induces the uptake and maturation of bone marrow dendritic cells (BMDCs) via the toll-like receptors 2/4 (TLR2/4) to produce effective antigen cross-presentation. CLNTO nanovaccines target lymph nodes (LNs) and induce a robust OVA-specific immune response via TLR and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) signaling pathways, retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I) receptor, and cytokine-cytokine receptor interactions. In addition, CLNTO nanovaccines are found that promote the activation of follicular helper T (Tfh) cells and induce the differentiation of germinal center (GC) B cells into memory B cells and plasma cells, thereby enhancing the immune response. Vaccination with CLNTO nanovaccine significantly inhibits the growth of ovalbumin (OVA)-expressing B16 melanoma cell (B16-OVA) tumors, indicating its great potential for cancer immunotherapy. Therefore, this study presents a simple, safe, and effective self-assembling nanovaccine that induces helper T cell 1 (Th1) and helper T cell (Th2) immune responses, making it an effective vaccine delivery system.

Size exclusion chromatography and asymmetrical flow field-flow fractionation for structural characterization of polysaccharides: A comparative review

Natural polysaccharides exhibit a wide range of biological activities, which are closely related to their structural characteristics, including their molecular weight distribution, size, monosaccharide composition, glycosidic bond types and spatial conformation, etc. Size exclusion chromatography (SEC) and asymmetrical flow field-flow fractionation (AF4), as two potent separation techniques, both harbor potential for continuous development and enhancement. This manuscript reviewed the fundamental principles and separation applications of SEC and AF4. The structural information and spatial conformation of polysaccharides can be obtained using SEC or AF4 coupled with multiple detectors. In addition, this manuscript elaborates in detail on the shear degradation of samples such as polysaccharides separated by SEC. In addition, the abnormal elution that occurs during the application of the two methods is also discussed. Both SEC and AF4 possess considerable potential for ongoing development and refinement, thereby offering increased possibilities and opportunities for polysaccharide separation and characterization.

Structural properties, bioactivities, structure-activity relationships and bio-applications of polysaccharides from Auricularia auricula: A review

Auricularia auricula (A. auricula), is a medicinal and edible fungus in China for thousands of years with rich nutrition and delicious taste. The main active ingredient of A. auricula is polysaccharide, which has antitumor, hypoglycemic, antioxidant, and immune regulation bioactivities. It is widely recognized that the biological activity of polysaccharides is closely related to the chemical structure and advanced structure. In terms of polysaccharides extracted from A. auricula (AAPs), there were distinguished structures reported due to the different original resources and extraction methods, leading to various bioactivities. However, the structure-activity relationship of AAPs has scarcely been reviewed till now. In addition, polysaccharides were found to have specific self-assembly properties recently, together with their bioactivities, endowing them with unique physicochemical properties. Nowadays, an increasing number of polysaccharides, such as cellulose, chitin, and pectin, have been used to construct various functional materials in the fields of food, cosmetics, and biomedical materials. Therefore, the construction of functional materials by AAPs is of great research significance. This article aims to provide a systematic review of the structure-activity relationship of AAPs and summarize the functional materials constructed based on AAPs to provide theoretical references for further research and application of AAPs.

Preparation, structure and application of polysaccharides from Poria cocos

Poria cocos polysaccharides (PCPs) are fungal polysaccharides derived from the traditional Chinese medicine Poria cocos. They are considered an important active ingredient for their pharmacological activity. Herein, the extraction, separation and purification, structure, and application of PCPs are reviewed. Additional research is necessary to fully understand the advanced structure of PCPs, which has implications for their structure-activity relationship. Their application mostly involves the medical industry, with less involvement in other fields. This article highlights the current research status on PCPs in the above-mentioned areas and some problems that need to be solved in future research. Additionally, it points the way for further studies on PCPs in the hopes that they will be more widely and realistically used in various industries.

Potential Bioactivities, Chemical Composition, and Conformation Studies of Exopolysaccharide-Derived Aspergillus sp. Strain GAD7

This research identified a marine fungal isolate, Aspergillus sp. strain GAD7, which produces an acidic and sulfated extracellular polysaccharide (EPS) with notable anticoagulant and antioxidant properties. Six fungal strains from the Egyptian Mediterranean Sea were screened for EPS production, with Aspergillus sp. strain GAD7 (EPS-AG7) being the most potent, yielding ~5.19 ± 0.017 g/L. EPS-AG7 was characterized using UV-Vis and FTIR analyses, revealing high carbohydrate (87.5%) and sulfate (24%) contents. HPLC and GC-MS analyses determined that EPS-AG7 is a heterogeneous acidic polysaccharide with an average molecular weight (Mw¯) of ~7.34 × 103 Da, composed of mannose, glucose, arabinose, galacturonic acid, galactose, and lyxose in a molar ratio of 6.6:3.9:1.8:1.3:1.1:1.0, linked through α- and β-glycosidic linkages as confirmed by NMR analysis. EPS-AG7 adopted a triple helix-like conformation, as evidenced by UV-Vis (Congo Red experiment) and circular dichroism (CD) studies. This helical arrangement demonstrated stability under various experimental conditions, including concentration, ionic strength, temperature, and lipid interactions. EPS-AG7 exhibited significant anticoagulant activity, doubling blood coagulation time at a concentration of 3.0 mg/mL, and showed significant antioxidant activity, with scavenging activities reaching up to 85.90% and 58.64% in DPPH and ABTS+ assays at 5.0 mg/mL, and EC50 values of 1.40 mg/mL and 3.80 mg/mL, respectively. These findings highlight the potential of EPS-AG7 for therapeutic applications due to its potent biological activities.

Solvent stabilizing effects on the order-disorder transition of schizophyllan in aqueous mixtures of carboxylic acids

Schizophyllan is a triple helical β-1,3-D-glucan, and shows the cooperative order-disorder transition in the aqueous solution at the triple helix state. In this paper, the solvent stabilizing effects of two carboxylic acids, acetic acid and citric acid, on the cooperative order-disorder transition of aqueous schizophyllan solution were investigated from DSC and SEC-MALS measurements. The transition temperature (Tr) was shifted to higher temperature with increasing the molar fraction of carboxylic acid in the mixture (x). The transition enthalpy (ΔHr) was increased with increasing x. These solvent stabilizing effects indicate that these carboxylic acid molecules were selectively associated with the branched side chains of schizophyllan to stabilize the ordered state. The composition dependencies of Tr and ΔHr were analyzed by the linear cooperative transition theory to estimate the association parameters between the side chains and carboxylic acid. The theoretical parameters obtained were compared with those for the other active substances for the transition to discuss the molecular interactions between the triple helix and carboxylic acid.

Polysaccharides in fruits: Biological activities, structures, and structure-activity relationships and influencing factors-A review

Fruits are a rich source of polysaccharides, and an increasing number of studies have shown that polysaccharides from fruits have a wide range of biological functions. Here, we thoroughly review recent advances in the study of the bioactivities, structures, and structure-activity relationships of fruit polysaccharides, especially highlighting the structure-activity influencing factors such as extraction methods and chemical modifications. Different extraction methods cause differences in the primary structures of polysaccharides, which in turn lead to different polysaccharide biological activities. Differences in the degree of modification, molecular weight, substitution position, and chain conformation caused by chemical modification can all affect the biological activities of fruit polysaccharides. Furthermore, we summarize the applications of fruit polysaccharides in the fields of pharmacy and medicine, foods, cosmetics, and materials. The challenges and perspectives for fruit polysaccharide research are also discussed.

Insights into dynamic evolution of glucuronofucogalactoglucan from water extract of Agrocybe cylindracea during maturation

This study explored the physicochemical properties and structural characteristics of Agrocybe cylindracea polysaccharides at four developmental stages, as well as their dynamic evolution during maturation. Results showed that the polysaccharides from A. cylindracea water extract exhibited similar structural characteristics across all four maturity stages, despite a significant reduction in yields. Four water-soluble heteroglycans, including one high molecular weight (ACPM-Et50-I) and three low molecular weight (ACPM-Et50-II, ACPM-Et60, ACPM-Et80), were isolated from A. cylindracea at each maturity stage. ACPM-Et50-I was identified as branched heterogalactans, while ACPM-Et60 and ACPM-Et80 were branched heteroglucans. However, ACPM-Et50-II was characterized as a branched glucuronofucogalactoglucan at the tide-turning stage but a glucuronofucoglucogalactan at the pileus expansion stage due to the increase of its α-(1 → 6)-D-Galp. In general, although the structural skeletons of most A. cylindracea heteroglycans were similar during maturation as shown by their highly consistent glycosyl linkages, there were still differences in the distribution of some heteroglucans. This work has for the first time reported a glucuronofucogalactoglucan in A. cylindracea and its dynamic evolution during maturation, which may facilitate the potential application of A. cylindracea in food and biomedicine industries.

A Review of Ganoderma lucidum Polysaccharide: Preparations, Structures, Physicochemical Properties and Application

Ganoderma lucidum (GL) is a kind of edible fungus with various functions and a precious medicinal material with a long history. Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharide (GLP) is one of the main bioactive substances in GL, with anti-tumor, anti-oxidation, anti-cancer, and other biological activities. GLP is closely related to human health, and the research on GLP is getting deeper. This paper reviewed the extraction and purification methods of GLP, the relationship between structure and activity, and the qualitative and quantitative methods. This review provides solutions for the analysis and application of GLP. At the same time, some new methods for extraction, purification and analysis of GLP, the relationship between advanced structures and activity, and future applications of and research into GLP were emphasized. As a kind of bioactive macromolecule, GLP has unique functional properties. Through the comprehensive summary of the extraction, purification, and analysis of GLP and its future prospects, we hope that this review can provide valuable reference for the further study of GLP.

Progress on the Anti-Inflammatory Activity and Structure-Efficacy Relationship of Polysaccharides from Medical and Edible Homologous Traditional Chinese Medicines

Medicinal food varieties developed according to the theory of medical and edible homologues are effective at preventing and treating chronic diseases and in health care. As of 2022, 110 types of traditional Chinese medicines from the same source of medicine and food have been published by the National Health Commission. Inflammation is the immune system's first response to injury, infection, and stress. Chronic inflammation is closely related to many diseases such as atherosclerosis and cancer. Therefore, timely intervention for inflammation is the mainstay treatment for other complex diseases. However, some traditional anti-inflammatory drugs on the market are commonly associated with a number of adverse effects, which seriously affect the health and safety of patients. Therefore, the in-depth development of new safe, harmless, and effective anti-inflammatory drugs has become a hot topic of research and an urgent clinical need. Polysaccharides, one of the main active ingredients of medical and edible homologous traditional Chinese medicines (MEHTCMs), have been confirmed by a large number of studies to exert anti-inflammatory effects through multiple targets and are considered potential natural anti-inflammatory drugs. In addition, the structure of medical and edible homologous traditional Chinese medicines' polysaccharides (MEHTCMPs) may be the key factor determining their anti-inflammatory activity, which makes the underlying the anti-inflammatory effects of polysaccharides and their structure-efficacy relationship hot topics of domestic and international research. However, due to the limitations of the current analytical techniques and tools, the structures have not been fully elucidated and the structure-efficacy relationship is relatively ambiguous, which are some of the difficulties in the process of developing and utilizing MEHTCMPs as novel anti-inflammatory drugs in the future. For this reason, this paper summarizes the potential anti-inflammatory mechanisms of MEHTCMPs, such as the regulation of the Toll-like receptor-related signaling pathway, MAPK signaling pathway, JAK-STAT signaling pathway, NLRP3 signaling pathway, PI3K-AKT signaling pathway, PPAR-γ signaling pathway, Nrf2-HO-1 signaling pathway, and the regulation of intestinal flora, and it systematically analyzes and evaluates the relationships between the anti-inflammatory activity of MEHTCMPs and their structures.

A review of the polysaccharides against fatigue and the underlying mechanism

Fatigue is a common physiological state that affects normal human activities. Prolonged fatigue induces a variety of diseases and seriously affects human health, so it is imperative to discover nutritional dietary supplements and treatments without side effects, among which natural anti-fatigue polysaccharides have shown great potential. Polysaccharides, a class of biomolecules produced by a variety of organisms such as plants, animals, bacteria and algae, have attracted much attention in recent years due to their anti-fatigue activity and fewer side effects. This review summarizes the classification, dosage and experimental models of polysaccharides with anti-fatigue activity obtained from different natural sources. We also review the fatigue-relieving effects of these polysaccharides through mechanisms such as modulating oxidative damage, regulating energy metabolism and influencing intestinal flora, as well as the effects of molecular weights, monosaccharide compositions, structural features and chemical modifications of the polysaccharides on their anti-fatigue activities to support their potential application value in functional foods and pharmaceuticals. New valuable insights for future research on natural polysaccharides are also presented in the field of natural production of bio-based functional materials, functional foods and therapeutic agents.

pH-Responsive β-Glucans-Complexed mRNA in LNPs as an Oral Vaccine for Enhancing Cancer Immunotherapy

mRNA vaccines for cancer immunotherapy are commonly delivered using lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), which, when administered intravenously, may accumulate in the liver, potentially limiting their therapeutic efficacy. To overcome this challenge, the study introduces an oral mRNA vaccine formulation tailored for efficient uptake by immune cells in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, known for its high concentration of immune cells, including dendritic cells (DCs). This formulation comprises mRNA complexed with β-glucans (βGlus), a potential adjuvant for vaccines, encapsulated within LNPs (βGlus/mRNA@LNPs). The βGlus/mRNA complexes within the small compartments of LNPs demonstrate a distinctive ability to partially dissociate and reassociate, responding to pH changes, effectively shielding mRNA from degradation in the harsh GI environment. Upon oral administration to tumor-bearing mice, βGlus/mRNA@LNPs are effectively taken up by intestinal DCs and local nonimmune cells, bypassing potential liver accumulation. This initiates antigen-specific immune responses through successful mRNA translation, followed by drainage into the mesenteric lymph nodes to stimulate T cells and trigger specific adaptive immune responses, ultimately enhancing antitumor effects. Importantly, the vaccine demonstrates safety, with no significant inflammatory reactions observed. In conclusion, the potential of oral βGlus/mRNA@LNPs delivery presents a promising avenue in cancer immunotherapy, offering needle-free and user-friendly administration for widespread adoption and self-administration.

Screening of Poria cocos polysaccharide with immunomodulatory activity and its activation effects on TLR4/MD2/NF-κB pathway

PCP-W1, the Poria cocos polysaccharide with the strong immunomodulatory activity, was isolated through column chromatography and screened for in vitro immune activity in RAW 264.7 cells in this study. The structure analysis results revealed that the PCP-W1 were composed of galactose, glucose, fucose and mannose in a molar percentage of 35.87: 28.56: 21.77: 13.64. And it exhibited a random coil and branched conformational features with a molecular weight of 18.38 kDa. The main chain consisted of residues→3)-β-D-Glcp-(1 → 3,6)-β-D-Glcp-(1 → 3)-β-D-Glcp-(1 → 6)-β-D-Glcp-(1 → 6)-α-D-Galp-(1 → 6)-α-D-Galp-(1 → 2,6)-α-D-Galp-(1→6)-α-D-Galp-(1 → 6)-α-D-Galp-(1 → , while branching occurred at β-D-Glcp-(1→, α-D-Manp-(1→, and α-L-Fucp-(1 → 3)- α-L-Fucp-(1→. The pharmacodynamic studies demonstrated that PCP-W1 activated the release of NO, IL-6, IL-β, TNF-α, CD86, and ROS to induce polarization of RAW 264.7 murine macrophages towards M1-type through modulation of the TLR4/MD2/NF-κB pathway. The molecular docking results showed that PCP-W1 could primarily dock onto the hydrophobic binding site of TLR4/MD2 complex via its galactose chain. Furthermore, molecular dynamics simulation displayed stable modeling for TLR4-MD2-PCP-W1 complex. Overall, we screened the most immunoactive components of the polysaccharide, analyzed its structure, demonstrated its impact on TLR4/MD2/NF-kB pathway, and studied the interaction between TLR4/MD2 and the polysaccharide fragments. These results provide further support for the structure-activity relationship study of the immunomodulatory effects of Poria cocos polysaccharide.