Using Genome Sequence to Enable the Design of Medicines and Chemical Probes

NMR structures of small molecules bound to a model of an RNA CUG repeat expansion

Trinucleotide repeat expansions fold into long, stable hairpins and cause a variety of incurable RNA gain-of-function diseases such as Huntington's disease, the myotonic dystrophies, and spinocerebellar ataxias. One approach for treating these diseases is to bind small molecules to the structured RNAs. Both Huntington's disease-like 2 (HDL2) and myotonic dystrophy type 1 (DM1) are caused by a r(CUG) repeat expansion, or r(CUG) exp . The RNA folds into a hairpin structure with a periodic array of 1×1 nucleotide UU loops (5'C U G/3'G U C; where the underlined nucleotides indicate the Us in the internal loop) that sequester various RNA-binding proteins (RBP) and hence the source of its gain-of-function. Here, we report NMR-refined structures of single 5'C U G/3'G U C motifs in complex with three different small molecules, a diguandinobenzoate ( 1 ), a derivative of 1 where the guanidino groups have been exchanged for imidazole ( 2 ), and a quinoline with improved drug-like properties ( 3 ). These structures were determined using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and simulated annealing with restrained molecular dynamics (MD). Compounds 1 , 2 , and 3 formed stacking and hydrogen bonding interactions with the 5'C U G/3'G U C motif. Compound 3 also formed van der Waals interactions with the internal loop. The global structure of each RNA-small molecule complexes retains an A-form conformation, while the internal loops are still dynamic but to a lesser extent compared to the unbound form. These results aid our understanding of ligand-RNA interactions and enable structure-based design of small molecules with improved binding affinity for and biological activity against r(CUG) exp . As the first ever reported structures of RNA r(CUG) repeats bound to ligands, these structures can enable virtual screening campaigns combined with machine learning assisted de novo design.

Heterobifunctional small molecules to modulate RNA function

RNA has diverse cellular functionality, including regulating gene expression, protein translation, and cellular response to stimuli, due to its intricate structures. Over the past decade, small molecules have been discovered that target functional structures within cellular RNAs and modulate their function. Simple binding, however, is often insufficient, resulting in low or even no biological activity. To overcome this challenge, heterobifunctional compounds have been developed that can covalently bind to the RNA target, alter RNA sequence, or induce its cleavage. Herein, we review the recent progress in the field of RNA-targeted heterobifunctional compounds using representative case studies. We identify critical gaps and limitations and propose a strategic pathway for future developments of RNA-targeted molecules with augmented functionalities.

Smartphone conducted DNA portable quantitative detection platform based on photonic crystals chip and magnetic nanoparticles

It is of great significance to develop a highly sensitive and intuitive virus detection tool. A portable platform is constructed for quantitative detection of viral DNA based on the principle of fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) between upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) and graphene oxide nanosheets (GOs) in this work. To implement a high sensitivity and low detection limit, GOs are modified by magnetic nanoparticles to prepare magnetic graphene oxide nanosheets (MGOs). Among them, the application of MGOs can not only eliminate the background interference, but also amplify the fluorescence intensity to a certain extent. Whereafter, a simple carrier chip based on photonic crystals (PCs) is introduced to realize a visual solid-phase detection, which also amplifies the luminescence intensity of the detection system. Finally, under the application of the 3D printed accessory and smartphone program of red-green-blue (RGB) evaluation, the portable detection can be completed simply and accurately. In a word, this work proposes a portable DNA biosensor with the triple functions of quantification, visualization and real-time detection can be used as a high-quality viral detection strategy and clinical diagnosis method.

Structural Insights into the Advances and Mechanistic Understanding of Human Dicer

The RNase III endoribonuclease Dicer was discovered to be associated with cleavage of double-stranded RNA in 2001. Since then, many advances in our understanding of Dicer function have revealed that the enzyme plays a major role not only in microRNA biology but also in multiple RNA interference-related pathways. Yet, there is still much to be learned regarding Dicer structure-function in relation to how Dicer and Dicer-like enzymes initiate their cleavage reaction and release the desired RNA product. This Perspective describes the latest advances in Dicer structural studies, expands on what we have learned from this data, and outlines key gaps in knowledge that remain to be addressed. More specifically, we focus on human Dicer and highlight the intermediate processing steps where there is a lack of structural data to understand how the enzyme traverses from pre-cleavage to cleavage-competent states. Understanding these details is necessary to model Dicer's function as well as develop more specific microRNA-targeted therapeutics for the treatment of human diseases.

Interrogating the Human Diplome: Computational Methods, Emerging Applications, and Challenges

Human DNA sequencing protocols have revolutionized human biology, biomedical science, and clinical practice, but still have very important limitations. One limitation is that most protocols do not separate or assemble (i.e., "phase") the nucleotide content of each of the maternally and paternally derived chromosomal homologs making up the 22 autosomal pairs and the chromosomal pair making up the pseudo-autosomal region of the sex chromosomes. This has led to a dearth of studies and a consequent underappreciation of many phenomena of fundamental importance to basic and clinical genomic science. We discuss a few protocols for obtaining phase information as well as their limitations, including those that could be used in tumor phasing settings. We then describe a number of biological and clinical phenomena that require phase information. These include phenomena that require precise knowledge of the nucleotide sequence in a chromosomal segment from germline or somatic cells, such as DNA binding events, and insight into unique cis vs. trans-acting functionally impactful variant combinations-for example, variants implicated in a phenotype governed by compound heterozygosity. In addition, we also comment on the need for reliable and consensus-based diploid-context computational workflows for variant identification as well as the need for laboratory-based functional verification strategies for validating cis vs. trans effects of variant combinations. We also briefly describe available resources, example studies, as well as areas of further research, and ultimately argue that the science behind the study of human diploidy, referred to as "diplomics," which will be enabled by nucleotide-level resolution of phased genomes, is a logical next step in the analysis of human genome biology.

MTUS1 is a promising diagnostic and prognostic biomarker for colorectal cancer

Background

The morbidity and mortality of colorectal cancer (CRC) remain high, posing a serious threat to human life and health. The early diagnosis and prognostic evaluation of CRC are two major challenges in clinical practice. MTUS1 is considered a tumour suppressor and can play an important role in inhibiting cell proliferation, migration, and tumour growth. Moreover, the expression of MTUS1 is decreased in different human cancers, including CRC. However, the biological functions and molecular mechanisms of MTUS1 in CRC remain unclear.

Methods

In the present study, data from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database were analysed using R statistical software (version 3.6.3.) to evaluate the expression of MTUS1 in tumour tissues and adjacent normal tissues using public databases such as the TIMER and Oncomine databases. Then, 38 clinical samples were collected, and qPCR was performed to verify MTUS1 expression. We also investigated the relationship between MTUS1 expression and clinicopathological characteristics and elucidated the diagnostic and prognostic value of MTUS1 in CRC. In addition, the correlation between MTUS1 expression and immune infiltration levels was identified using the TIMER and GEPIA databases. Furthermore, we constructed and analysed a PPI network and coexpression modules of MTUS1 to explore its molecular functions and mechanisms.

Results

CRC tissues exhibited lower levels of MTUS1 than normal tissues. The logistic regression analysis indicated that the expression of MTUS1 was associated with N stage, TNM stage, and neoplasm type. Moreover, CRC patients with low MTUS1 expression had poor overall survival (OS). Multivariate analysis revealed that the downregulation of MTUS1 was an independent prognostic factor and was correlated with poor OS in CRC patients. MTUS1 expression had good diagnostic value based on ROC analysis. Furthermore, we identified a group of potential MTUS1-interacting proteins and coexpressed genes. GO and KEGG enrichment analyses showed that MTUS1 was involved in multiple cancer-related signalling pathways. Moreover, the expression of MTUS1 was significantly related to the infiltration levels of multiple cells. Finally, MTUS1 expression was strongly correlated with various immune marker sets.

Conclusions

Our results indicated that MTUS1 is a promising biomarker for predicting the diagnosis and prognosis of CRC patients. MTUS1 can also become a new molecular target for tumour immunotherapy.

Nuclear magnetic resonance reveals a two hairpin equilibrium near the 3'-splice site of influenza A segment 7 mRNA that can be shifted by oligonucleotides

Influenza A kills hundreds of thousands of people globally every year and has the potential to generate more severe pandemics. Influenza A's RNA genome and transcriptome provide many potential therapeutic targets. Here, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) experiments suggest that one such target could be a hairpin loop of 8 nucleotides in a pseudoknot that sequesters a 3' splice site in canonical pairs until a conformational change releases it into a dynamic 2 × 2-nt internal loop. NMR experiments reveal that the hairpin loop is dynamic and able to bind oligonucleotides as short as pentamers. A 3D NMR structure of the complex contains 4 and likely 5 bp between pentamer and loop. Moreover, a hairpin sequence was discovered that mimics the equilibrium of the influenza hairpin between its structure in the pseudoknot and upon release of the splice site. Oligonucleotide binding shifts the equilibrium completely to the hairpin secondary structure required for pseudoknot folding. The results suggest this hairpin can be used to screen for compounds that stabilize the pseudoknot and potentially reduce splicing.

Systemic Therapy for Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Current Updates and Outlook

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) has emerged the culprit of cancer-related mortality worldwide with its dismal prognosis climbing. In recent years, ground-breaking progress has been made in systemic therapy for HCC. Targeted therapy based on specific signaling molecules, including sorafenib, lenvatinib, regorafenib, cabozantinib, and ramucirumab, has been widely used for advanced HCC (aHCC). Immunotherapies such as pembrolizumab and nivolumab greatly improve the survival of aHCC patients. More recently, synergistic combination therapy has boosted first-line (atezolizumab in combination with bevacizumab) and second-line (ipilimumab in combination with nivolumab) therapeutic modalities for aHCC. This review aims to summarize recent updates of systemic therapy relying on the biological mechanisms of HCC, particularly highlighting the approved agents for aHCC. Adjuvant and neoadjuvant therapy, as well as a combination with locoregional therapies (LRTs), are also discussed. Additionally, we describe the promising effect of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) as systemic therapy on HCC. In this setting, the challenges and future directions of systemic therapy for HCC are also explored.

A structure-specific small molecule inhibits a miRNA-200 family member precursor and reverses a type 2 diabetes phenotype

MicroRNA families are ubiquitous in the human transcriptome, yet targeting of individual members is challenging because of sequence homology. Many secondary structures of the precursors to these miRNAs (pri- and pre-miRNAs), however, are quite different. Here, we demonstrate both in vitro and in cellulis that design of structure-specific small molecules can inhibit a particular miRNA family member to modulate a disease pathway. The miR-200 family consists of five miRNAs, miR-200a, -200b, -200c, -141, and -429, and is associated with type 2 diabetes (T2D). We designed a small molecule that potently and selectively targets pre-miR-200c's structure and reverses a pro-apoptotic effect in a pancreatic β cell model. In contrast, an oligonucleotide targeting the RNA's sequence inhibited all family members. Global proteomics and RNA sequencing analyses further demonstrate selectivity for miR-200c. Collectively, these studies establish that miR-200c plays an important role in T2D, and small molecules targeting RNA structure can be an important complement to oligonucleotides.

HOTTIP-dependent R-loop formation regulates CTCF boundary activity and TAD integrity in leukemia

HOTTIP lncRNA is highly expressed in acute myeloid leukemia (AML) driven by MLL rearrangements or NPM1 mutations to mediate HOXA topologically associated domain (TAD) formation and drive aberrant transcription. However, the mechanism through which HOTTIP accesses CCCTC-binding factor (CTCF) chromatin boundaries and regulates CTCF-mediated genome topology remains unknown. Here, we show that HOTTIP directly interacts with and regulates a fraction of CTCF-binding sites (CBSs) in the AML genome by recruiting CTCF/cohesin complex and R-loop-associated regulators to form R-loops. HOTTIP-mediated R-loops reinforce the CTCF boundary and facilitate formation of TADs to drive gene transcription. Either deleting CBS or targeting RNase H to eliminate R-loops in the boundary CBS of β-catenin TAD impaired CTCF boundary activity, inhibited promoter/enhancer interactions, reduced β-catenin target expression, and mitigated leukemogenesis in xenograft mouse models with aberrant HOTTIP expression. Thus, HOTTIP-mediated R-loop formation directly reinforces CTCF chromatin boundary activity and TAD integrity to drive oncogene transcription and leukemia development.

The chiral pyridoxal-catalyzed biomimetic Mannich reaction: the mechanism and origin of stereoselectivity

A biomimetic organocatalyst with a pyridoxal-like structure is one of the most successful examples of catalyzing organic reactions under mild conditions in an asymmetric synthesis field.

Tuning the Reactivity of a Substrate for SNAP-Tag Expands Its Application for Recognition-Driven DNA-Protein Conjugation

Recognition-driven modification has been emerging as a novel approach to modifying biomolecular targets of interest site-specifically and efficiently. To this end, protein modular adaptors (MAs) are the ideal reaction model for recognition-driven modification of DNA as they consist of both a sequence-specific DNA-binding domain (DBD) and a self-ligating protein-tag. Coupling DNA recognition by DBD and the chemoselective reaction of the protein tag could provide a highly efficient sequence-specific reaction. However, combining an MA consisting of a reactive protein-tag and its substrate, for example, SNAP-tag and benzyl guanine (BG), revealed rather nonselective reaction with DNA. Therefore new substrates of SNAP-tag have been designed to realize sequence-selective rapid crosslinking reactions of MAs with SNAP-tag. The reactions of substrates with SNAP-tag were verified by kinetic analyses to enable the sequence-selective crosslinking reaction of MA. The new substrate enables the distinctive orthogonality of SNAP-tag against CLIP-tag to achieve orthogonal DNA-protein crosslinking by six unique MAs.

Research fronts of Chemical Biology

Over the past decades, researchers have witnessed substantially increasing and ever-growing interests and efforts in Chemical Biology studies, thanks to the development of genome and epi-genome sequencing (revealing potential drug targets), synthetic chemistry (producing new medicines), bioorthogonal chemistry (chemistry in living systems) and high-throughput screening technologies (in vitro cell systems, protein binding assays and phenotypic assays). This report presents literature search results for current research in Chemical Biology, to explore basic principles, summarize recent advances, identify key challenges, and provide suggestions for future research (with a focus on Chemical Biology in the context of human health and diseases). Chemical Biology research can positively contribute to delivering a better understanding of the molecular and cellular mechanisms that accompany pathology underlying diseases, as well as developing improved methods for diagnosis, drug discovery, and therapeutic delivery. While much progress has been made, as shown in this report, there are still further needs and opportunities. For instance, pressing challenges still exist in selecting appropriate targets in biological systems and adopting more rational design strategies for the development of innovative and sustainable diagnostic technologies and medical treatments. Therefore, more than ever, researchers from different disciplines need to collaborate to address the challenges in Chemical Biology.

Docking and scoring for nucleic acid-ligand interactions: Principles and current status

Nucleic acid (NA)-ligand interactions have crucial roles in many cellular processes and, thus, are increasingly attracting therapeutic interest in drug discovery. Molecular docking is a valuable tool for studying molecular interactions. However, because NAs differ significantly from proteins in both their physical and chemical properties, traditional docking algorithms and scoring functions for protein-ligand interactions might not be applicable to NA-ligand docking. Therefore, various sampling strategies and scoring functions for NA-ligand interactions have been developed. Here, we review the basic principles and current status of docking algorithms and scoring functions for DNA/RNA-ligand interactions. We also discuss challenges and limitations of current docking and scoring approaches.

Mechanisms and applications of peptide nucleic acids selectively binding to double-stranded RNA

RNAs form secondary structures containing double-stranded base paired regions and single-stranded regions. Probing, detecting and modulating RNA structures and dynamics requires the development of molecular sensors that can differentiate the sequence and structure of RNAs present in viruses and cells, as well as in extracellular space. In this review, we summarize the recent progress on the development of chemically modified peptide nucleic acids (PNAs) for the selective recognition of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) sequences over both single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) and double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) sequences. We also briefly discuss the applications of sequence-specific dsRNA-binding PNAs in sensing and stabilizing dsRNA structures and inhibiting dsRNA-protein interactions.

Synthetic RNA Modulators in Drug Discovery

RNAs are involved in an enormous range of cellular processes, including gene regulation, protein synthesis, and cell differentiation, and dysfunctional RNAs are associated with disorders such as cancers, neurodegenerative diseases, and viral infections. Thus, the identification of compounds with the ability to bind RNAs and modulate their functions is an exciting approach for developing next-generation therapies. Numerous RNA-binding agents have been reported over the past decade, but the design of synthetic molecules with selectivity for specific RNA sequences is still in its infancy. In this perspective, we highlight recent advances in targeting RNAs with synthetic molecules, and we discuss the potential value of this approach for the development of innovative therapeutic agents.

Advances in drug development for hepatocellular carcinoma: clinical trials and potential therapeutic targets

Although hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the deadliest health burdens worldwide, few drugs are available for its clinical treatment. However, in recent years, major breakthroughs have been made in the development of new drugs due to intensive fundamental research and numerous clinical trials in HCC. Traditional systemic therapy schemes and emerging immunotherapy strategies have both advanced. Between 2017 and 2020, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved a variety of drugs for the treatment of HCC, including multikinase inhibitors (regorafenib, lenvatinib, cabozantinib, and ramucirumab), immune checkpoint inhibitors (nivolumab and pembrolizumab), and bevacizumab combined with atezolizumab. Currently, there are more than 1000 ongoing clinical trials involving HCC, which represents a vibrant atmosphere in the HCC drug research and development field. Additionally, traditional Chinese medicine approaches are being gradually optimized. This review summarizes FDA-approved agents for HCC, elucidates promising agents evaluated in clinical phase I/II/III trials and identifies emerging targets for HCC treatment. In addition, we introduce the development of HCC drugs in China. Finally, we discuss potential problems in HCC drug therapy and possible future solutions and indicate future directions for the development of drugs for HCC treatment.

Drugging the "undruggable" microRNAs

As a naturally occurring class of gene regulators, microRNAs (miRNAs) have attracted much attention as promising targets for therapeutic development. However, RNAs including miRNAs have long been considered undruggable, and most efforts have been devoted to using synthetic oligonucleotides to regulate miRNAs. Encouragingly, recent findings have revealed that miRNAs can also be drugged with small molecules that directly target miRNAs. In this review paper, we give a summary of recently emerged small-molecule inhibitors (SMIs) and small-molecule degraders (SMDs) for miRNAs. SMIs are small molecules that directly bind to miRNAs to inhibit their biogenesis, and SMDs are bifunctional small molecules that upon binding to miRNAs induce miRNA degradation. Strategies for discovering SMIs and developing SMDs were summarized. Applications of SMIs and SMDs in miRNA inhibition and cancer therapy were also introduced. Overall, SMIs and SMDs introduced here have high potency and specificity in miRNA inhibition. We envision that these small molecules will pave the way for developing novel therapeutics toward miRNAs that were previously considered undruggable.

Conserved Genomic Terminals of SARS-CoV-2 as Coevolving Functional Elements and Potential Therapeutic Targets

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has infected over 40 million people worldwide, with over 1 million deaths as of October 2020 and with multiple efforts in the development and testing of antiviral drugs and vaccines under way. In order to gain insights into SARS-CoV-2 evolution and drug targets, we investigated how and to what extent the SARS-CoV-2 genome sequence differs from those of other well-characterized human and animal coronavirus genomes, as well as how polymorphic SARS-CoV-2 genomes are generally. We ultimately sought to identify features in the SARS-CoV-2 genome that may contribute to its viral replication, host pathogenicity, and vulnerabilities. Our analyses suggest the presence of unique sequence signatures in the 3' untranslated region (3'-UTR) of betacoronavirus lineage B, which phylogenetically encompasses SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV as well as multiple groups of bat and animal coronaviruses. In addition, we identified genome-wide patterns of variation across different SARS-CoV-2 strains that likely reflect the effects of selection. Finally, we provide evidence for a possible host-microRNA-mediated interaction between the 3'-UTR and human microRNA hsa-miR-1307-3p based on the results of multiple computational target prediction analyses and an assessment of similar interactions involving the influenza A H1N1 virus. This interaction also suggests a possible survival mechanism, whereby a mutation in the SARS-CoV-2 3'-UTR leads to a weakened host immune response. The potential roles of host microRNAs in SARS-CoV-2 replication and infection and the exploitation of conserved features in the 3'-UTR as therapeutic targets warrant further investigation.IMPORTANCE The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak is having a dramatic global effect on public health and the economy. As of October 2020, SARS-CoV-2 has been detected in over 189 countries, has infected over 40 million people, and is responsible for more than 1 million deaths. The genome of SARS-CoV-2 is small but complex, and its functions and interactions with human host factors are being studied extensively. The significance of our study is that, using extensive SARS-CoV-2 genome analysis techniques, we identified potential interacting human host microRNA targets that share similarity with those of influenza A virus H1N1. Our study results will allow the development of virus-host interaction models that will enhance our understanding of SARS-CoV-2 pathogenesis and motivate the exploitation of both the interacting viral and host factors as therapeutic targets.

Chemical Knockdown of MicroRNA with Small-Molecule Chimeras

This concept article introduces the emerging area of small-molecule chimeras (SMCs) for knocking down microRNAs (miRNAs), which are endogenous gene silencers involved in diverse pathological processes. Compared with agents for genetic knockdown, small-molecules hold significant promise in this field due to their ideal pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties. The SMCs introduced here are hetero-bifunctional molecules comprising small-molecule binders (SMBs) of miRNAs and chemical functionalities that either directly cleave RNAs or recruit ribonucleases to destroy RNAs. Binding of SMBs to miRNAs brings SMCs' chemical functionalities close to the miRNA, eventually causing miRNA degradation. Compared with parent SMBs, SMCs exhibit remarkably enhanced potency and specificity in miRNA inhibition. The development and application of SMCs for miRNAs will be discussed.

DNA minor-groove binder Hoechst 33258 destabilizes base-pairing adjacent to its binding site

Understanding the dynamic interactions of ligands to DNA is important in DNA-based nanotechnologies. By structurally tracking the dissociation of Hoechst 33258-bound DNA (d(CGCAAATTTGCG)₂) complex (H-DNA) with T-jump 2D-IR spectroscopy, the ligand is found to strongly disturb the stability of the three C:G base pairs adjacent to A:T the binding site, with the broken base pairs being more than triple at 100 ns. The strong stabilization effect of the ligand on DNA duplex makes this observation quite striking, which dramatically increases the melting temperature and dissociation time. MD simulations demonstrate an important role of hydration water and counter cations in maintaining the separation of terminal base pairs. The hydrogen bonds between the ligand and thymine carbonyls are crucial in stabilizing H-DNA, whose breaking signal appearing prior to the complete dissociation. Thermodynamic analysis informs us that H-DNA association is a concerted process, where H cooperates with DNA single strands in forming H-DNA.

How We Think about Targeting RNA with Small Molecules

RNA offers nearly unlimited potential as a target for small molecule chemical probes and lead medicines. Many RNAs fold into structures that can be selectively targeted with small molecules. This Perspective discusses molecular recognition of RNA by small molecules and highlights key enabling technologies and properties of bioactive interactions. Sequence-based design of ligands targeting RNA has established rules for affecting RNA targets and provided a potentially general platform for the discovery of bioactive small molecules. The RNA targets that contain preferred small molecule binding sites can be identified from sequence, allowing identification of off-targets and prediction of bioactive interactions by nature of ligand recognition of functional sites. Small molecule targeted degradation of RNA targets (ribonuclease-targeted chimeras, RIBOTACs) and direct cleavage by small molecules have also been developed. These growing technologies suggest that the time is right to provide small molecule chemical probes to target functionally relevant RNAs throughout the human transcriptome.

Design of a small molecule that stimulates vascular endothelial growth factor A enabled by screening RNA fold-small molecule interactions

Vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA) stimulates angiogenesis in human endothelial cells, and increasing its expression is a potential treatment for heart failure. Here, we report the design of a small molecule (TGP-377) that specifically and potently enhances VEGFA expression by the targeting of a non-coding microRNA that regulates its expression. A selection-based screen, named two-dimensional combinatorial screening, revealed preferences in small-molecule chemotypes that bind RNA and preferences in the RNA motifs that bind small molecules. The screening program increased the dataset of known RNA motif–small molecule binding partners by 20-fold. Analysis of this dataset against the RNA-mediated pathways that regulate VEGFA defined that the microRNA-377 precursor, which represses Vegfa messenger RNA translation, is druggable in a selective manner. We designed TGP-377 to potently and specifically upregulate VEGFA in human umbilical vein endothelial cells. These studies illustrate the power of two-dimensional combinatorial screening to define molecular recognition events between ‘undruggable’ biomolecules and small molecules, and the ability of sequence-based design to deliver efficacious structure-specific compounds.

Gini Coefficients as a Single Value Metric to Define Chemical Probe Selectivity

Selectivity is a key requirement of high-quality chemical probes and lead medicines; however, methods to quantify and compare the selectivity of small molecules have not been standardized across the field. Herein, we discuss the origins and use of a comprehensive, single value term to quantify selectivity, the Gini coefficient. Case studies presented include compounds that target protein kinases, small molecules that bind RNA structures, and small molecule chimeras that bind to and degrade the target RNA. With an increasing number of transcriptome- and proteome-wide studies, we submit that reporting Gini coefficients as a quantitative descriptor of selectivity should be used broadly.

Regulation of MALAT1 triple helix stability and in vitro degradation by diphenylfurans

Small molecule-based modulation of a triple helix in the long non-coding RNA metastasis-associated lung adenocarcinoma transcript 1 (MALAT1) has been proposed as an attractive avenue for cancer treatment and a model system for understanding small molecule:RNA recognition. To elucidate fundamental recognition principles and structure-function relationships, we designed and synthesized nine novel analogs of a diphenylfuran-based small molecule DPFp8, a previously identified lead binder of MALAT1. We investigated the role of recognition modalities in binding and in silico studies along with the relationship between affinity, stability and in vitro enzymatic degradation of the triple helix. Specifically, molecular docking studies identified patterns driving affinity and selectivity, including limited ligand flexibility, as observed by ligand preorganization and 3D shape complementarity for the binding pocket. The use of differential scanning fluorimetry allowed rapid evaluation of ligand-induced thermal stabilization of the triple helix, which correlated with decreased in vitro degradation of this structure by the RNase R exonuclease. The magnitude of stabilization was related to binding mode and selectivity between the triple helix and its precursor stem loop structure. Together, this work demonstrates the value of scaffold-based libraries in revealing recognition principles and of raising broadly applicable strategies, including functional assays, for small molecule-RNA targeting.

Inhibition of RNA-binding proteins with small molecules

Protein-RNA interactions have crucial roles in various cellular activities, which, when dysregulated, can lead to a range of human diseases. The identification of small molecules that target the interaction between RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) and RNA is progressing rapidly and represents a novel strategy for the discovery of chemical probes that facilitate understanding of the cellular functions of RBPs and of therapeutic agents with new mechanisms of action. In this Review, I present a current overview of targeting emerging RBPs using small-molecule inhibitors and recent progress in this burgeoning field. Small-molecule inhibitors that were reported for three representative emerging classes of RBPs, the microRNA-binding protein LIN28, the single-stranded or double-stranded RNA-binding Toll-like receptors and the CRISPR-associated (Cas) proteins, are highlighted from a medicinal-chemistry and chemical-biology perspective. However, although this field is burgeoning, challenges remain in the discovery and characterization of small-molecule inhibitors of RBPs.

Optimization of the Linker Domain in a Dimeric Compound that Degrades an r(CUG) Repeat Expansion in Cells

RNA repeat expansions are responsible for more than 30 incurable diseases. Among them is myotonic dystrophy type 1 (DM1), the most common form of adult on-set muscular dystrophy. DM1 is caused by an r(CUG) repeat expansion [r(CUG)^exp] located in the 3' untranslated region (UTR) of the dystrophia myotonica protein kinase gene. This repeat expansion is highly structured, forming a periodic array of 5'CUG/3'GUC internal loop motifs. We therefore designed dimeric compounds that simultaneously bind two of these motifs by connecting two RNA-binding modules with peptoid linkers of different geometries and lengths. The optimal linker contains two proline residues and enhances compound affinity. Equipping this molecule with a bleomycin A5 cleaving module converts the simple binding compound into a potent allele-selective cleaver of r(CUG)^exp. This study shows that the linker in modularly assembled ligands targeting RNA can be optimized to afford potent biological activity.

Conserved Genomic Terminals of SARS-CoV-2 as Co-evolving Functional Elements and Potential Therapeutic Targets

To identify features in the genome of the SARS-CoV-2 pathogen responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic that may contribute to its viral replication, host pathogenicity, and vulnerabilities, we investigated how and to what extent the SARS-CoV-2 genome sequence differs from other well-characterized human and animal coronavirus genomes. Our analyses suggest the presence of unique sequence signatures in the 3'-untranslated region (UTR) of betacoronavirus lineage B, which phylogenetically encompasses SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV, as well as multiple groups of bat and animal coronaviruses. In addition, we identified genome-wide patterns of variation across different SARS-CoV-2 strains that likely reflect the effects of selection. Finally, we provide evidence for a possible host microRNA-mediated interaction between the 3'-UTR and human microRNA hsa-miR-1307-3p based on predicted, yet extensive, complementary base-pairings and similar interactions involving the Influenza A H1N1 virus. This interaction also suggests a possible survival mechanism, whereby a mutation in the SARS-CoV-2 3'-UTR leads to a weakened host immune response. The potential roles of host microRNAs in SARS-CoV-2 replication and infection, and the exploitation of conserved features in the 3'-UTR as therapeutic targets warrant further investigation.

Progress toward the development of the small molecule equivalent of small interfering RNA

Given that many small molecules could bind to structured regions at sites that will not affect function, approaches that trigger degradation of RNA could provide a general way to affect biology. Indeed, targeted RNA degradation is an effective strategy to selectively and potently modulate biology. We describe several approaches to endow small molecules with the power to cleave RNAs. Central to these strategies is Inforna, which designs small molecules targeting RNA from human genome sequence. Inforna deduces the uniqueness of a druggable pocket, enables generation of hypotheses about functionality of the pocket, and defines on- and off-targets to drive compound optimization. RNA-binding compounds are then converted into cleavers that degrade the target directly or recruit an endogenous nuclease to do so. Cleaving compounds have significantly contributed to understanding and manipulating biological functions. Yet, there is much to be learned about how to affect human RNA biology with small molecules.

An in silico map of the SARS-CoV-2 RNA Structurome

SARS-CoV-2 is a positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus that has exploded throughout the global human population. This pandemic coronavirus strain has taken scientists and public health researchers by surprise and knowledge of its basic biology (e.g. structure/function relationships in its genomic, messenger and template RNAs) and modes for therapeutic intervention lag behind that of other human pathogens. In this report we used a recently-developed bioinformatics approach, ScanFold, to deduce the RNA structural landscape of the SARS-CoV-2 transcriptome. We recapitulate known elements of RNA structure and provide a model for the folding of an essential frameshift signal. Our results find that the SARS-CoV-2 is greatly enriched in unusually stable and likely evolutionarily ordered RNA structure, which provides a huge reservoir of potential drug targets for RNA-binding small molecules. Our results also predict regions that are accessible for intermolecular interactions, which can aid in the design of antisense therapeutics. All results are made available via a public database (the RNAStructuromeDB) where they may hopefully drive drug discovery efforts to inhibit SARS-CoV-2 pathogenesis.

Bifunctional small molecule-oligonucleotide hybrid as microRNA inhibitor

miRNAs are key regulators of various biological processes. Dysregulation of miRNA is linked to many diseases. Development of miRNA inhibitor has implication in disease therapy and study of miRNA function. The biogenesis pathway of miRNA involves the processing of pre-miRNA into mature miRNA by Dicer enzyme. We previously reported a proximity enabled approach that employs bifunctional small molecules to regulate miRNA maturation through inhibiting the enzymatic activity of Dicer. By conjugating to an RNA targeting unit, an RNase inhibitor could be delivered to the cleavage site of specific pre-miRNA to deactivate the complexed Dicer enzyme. Herein, we expanded this bifunctional strategy by showing that antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs), including morpholinos and γPNAs, could be readily used as the RNA recognition unit to generate bifunctional small molecule-oligonucleotide hybrids as miRNA inhibitors. A systematic comparison revealed that the potency of these hybrids is mainly determined by the RNA binding of the targeting ASO molecules. Since the lengths of the ASO molecules used in this approach were much shorter than commonly used anti-miRNA ASOs, this may provide benefits to the specificity and cellular delivery of these hybrids. We expect that this approach could be complementary to traditional ASO and small molecule based miRNA inhibition and contribute to the study of miRNA.

Driving factors in amiloride recognition of HIV RNA targets

Noncoding RNAs are increasingly promising drug targets yet ligand design is hindered by a paucity of methods that reveal driving factors in selective small molecule : RNA interactions, particularly given the difficulties of high-resolution structural characterization. HIV RNAs are excellent model systems for method development given their targeting history, known structure-function relationships, and the unmet need for more effective treatments. Herein we report a strategy combining synthetic diversification, profiling against multiple RNA targets, and predictive cheminformatic analysis to identify driving factors for selectivity and affinity of small molecules for distinct HIV RNA targets. Using this strategy, we discovered improved ligands for multiple targets and the first ligands for ESSV, an exonic splicing silencer critical to replication. Computational analysis revealed guiding principles for future designs and a predictive cheminformatics model of small molecule : RNA binding. These methods are expected to facilitate progress toward selective targeting of disease-causing RNAs.

Disorders of FZ-CRD; insights towards FZ-CRD folding and therapeutic landscape

The ER is hub for protein folding. Proteins that harbor a Frizzled cysteine-rich domain (FZ-CRD) possess 10 conserved cysteine motifs held by a unique disulfide bridge pattern which attains a correct fold in the ER. Little is known about implications of disease-causing missense mutations within FZ-CRD families. Mutations in FZ-CRD of Frizzled class receptor 4 (FZD4) and Muscle, skeletal, receptor tyrosine kinase (MuSK) and Receptor tyrosine kinase-like orphan receptor 2 (ROR2) cause Familial Exudative Vitreoretinopathy (FEVR), Congenital Myasthenic Syndrome (CMS), and Robinow Syndrome (RS) respectively. We highlight reported pathogenic inherited missense mutations in FZ-CRD of FZD4, MuSK and ROR2 which misfold, and traffic abnormally in the ER, with ER-associated degradation (ERAD) as a common pathogenic mechanism for disease. Our review shows that all studied FZ-CRD mutants of RS, FEVR and CMS result in misfolded proteins and/or partially misfolded proteins with an ERAD fate, thus we coin them as “disorders of FZ-CRD”. Abnormal trafficking was demonstrated in 17 of 29 mutants studied; 16 mutants were within and/or surrounding the FZ-CRD with two mutants distant from FZ-CRD. These ER-retained mutants were improperly N-glycosylated confirming ER-localization. FZD4 and MuSK mutants were tagged with polyubiquitin chains confirming targeting for proteasomal degradation. Investigating the cellular and molecular mechanisms of these mutations is important since misfolded protein and ER-targeted therapies are in development. The P344R-MuSK kinase mutant showed around 50% of its in-vitro autophosphorylation activity and P344R-MuSK increased two-fold on proteasome inhibition. M105T-FZD4, C204Y-FZD4, and P344R-MuSK mutants are thermosensitive and therefore, might benefit from extending the investigation to a larger number of chemical chaperones and/or proteasome inhibitors. Nonetheless, FZ-CRD ER-lipidation it less characterized in the literature and recent structural data sheds light on the importance of lipidation in protein glycosylation, proper folding, and ER trafficking. Current treatment strategies in-place for the conformational disease landscape is highlighted. From this review, we envision that disorders of FZ-CRD might be receptive to therapies that target FZ-CRD misfolding, regulation of fatty acids, and/or ER therapies; thus paving the way for a newly explored paradigm to treat different diseases with common defects.

R-BIND: An Interactive Database for Exploring and Developing RNA-Targeted Chemical Probes

While the opportunities available for targeting RNA with small molecules have been widely appreciated, the challenges associated with achieving specific RNA recognition in biological systems have hindered progress and prevented many researchers from entering the field. To facilitate the discovery of RNA-targeted chemical probes and their subsequent applications, we curated the RNA-targeted BIoactive ligaNd Database (R-BIND). This collection contains an array of information on reported chemical probes that target non-rRNA and have biological activity, and analysis has led to the discovery of RNA-privileged properties. Herein, we developed an online platform to make this information freely available to the community, offering search options, a suite of tools for probe development, and an updated R-BIND data set with detailed experimental information for each probe. We repeated the previous cheminformatics analysis on the updated R-BIND list and found that the distinguishing physicochemical, structural, and spatial properties remained unchanged, despite an almost 50% increase in the database size. Further, we developed several user-friendly tools, including queries based on cheminformatic parameters, experimental details, functional groups, and substructures. In addition, a nearest neighbor algorithm can assess the similarity of user-uploaded molecules to R-BIND ligands. These tools and resources can be used to design small molecule libraries, optimize lead ligands, or select targets, probes, assays, and control experiments. Chemical probes are critical to the study and discovery of novel functions for RNA, and we expect this resource to greatly assist researchers in exploring and developing successful RNA-targeted probes.

Targeted Degradation of a Hypoxia-Associated Non-coding RNA Enhances the Selectivity of a Small Molecule Interacting with RNA

Small-molecule targeted recruitment of nucleases to RNA is a powerful method to affect RNA biology. Inforna, a sequence-based design approach to target RNA, enables the design of small molecules that bind to and cleave RNA in a selective and substoichiometric manner. Here, we investigate the ability of RNA-targeted degradation to improve the selectivity of small molecules targeting RNA. The microRNA-210 hairpin precursor (pre-miR-210) is overexpressed in hypoxic cancers. Previously, a small molecule (Targapremir-210 [TGP-210]) targeted this RNA in cells, but with a 5-fold window for DNA binding. Appendage of a nuclease recruitment module onto TGP-210 locally recruited ribonuclease L onto pre-miR-210, triggering its degradation. The chimera has enhanced selectivity compared with TGP-210 with nanomolar binding to the pre-miR-210, but no DNA binding, and is broadly selective for affecting RNA function in cells. Importantly, it cleaved pre-miR-210 substoichiometrically and induced apoptosis in breast cancer cells.

Synthetic small-molecule RNA ligands: future prospects as therapeutic agents

RNA is one of the most intriguing and promising biological targets for the discovery of innovative drugs in many pathologies and various biologically relevant RNAs that could serve as drug targets have already been identified. Among the most important ones, one can mention prokaryotic ribosomal RNA which is the target of several marketed antibiotics, viral RNAs or oncogenic microRNAs that are tightly involved in the development and progression of various cancers. Oligonucleotides are efficient and specific RNA targeting agents but suffer from poor pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties. For this reason, a number of synthetic small-molecule ligands have been identified and studied upon screening of chemical libraries or focused design of RNA binders. In this review, we report the most relevant examples of synthetic compounds bearing sufficient selectivity to envisage clinical studies and future therapeutic applications with a particular attention for the main strategies that can be undertaken toward the improvement of selectivity and biological activity.

LinearFold: linear-time approximate RNA folding by 5'-to-3' dynamic programming and beam search

MOTIVATION

Predicting the secondary structure of an ribonucleic acid (RNA) sequence is useful in many applications. Existing algorithms [based on dynamic programming] suffer from a major limitation: their runtimes scale cubically with the RNA length, and this slowness limits their use in genome-wide applications.

RESULTS

We present a novel alternative O(n3)-time dynamic programming algorithm for RNA folding that is amenable to heuristics that make it run in O(n) time and O(n) space, while producing a high-quality approximation to the optimal solution. Inspired by incremental parsing for context-free grammars in computational linguistics, our alternative dynamic programming algorithm scans the sequence in a left-to-right (5'-to-3') direction rather than in a bottom-up fashion, which allows us to employ the effective beam pruning heuristic. Our work, though inexact, is the first RNA folding algorithm to achieve linear runtime (and linear space) without imposing constraints on the output structure. Surprisingly, our approximate search results in even higher overall accuracy on a diverse database of sequences with known structures. More interestingly, it leads to significantly more accurate predictions on the longest sequence families in that database (16S and 23S Ribosomal RNAs), as well as improved accuracies for long-range base pairs (500+ nucleotides apart), both of which are well known to be challenging for the current models.

AVAILABILITY AND IMPLEMENTATION

Our source code is available at https://github.com/LinearFold/LinearFold, and our webserver is at http://linearfold.org (sequence limit: 100 000nt).

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.

The RNA encoding the microtubule-associated protein tau has extensive structure that affects its biology

Tauopathies are neurodegenerative diseases that affect millions of people worldwide including those with Alzheimer’s disease. While many efforts have focused on understanding the role of tau protein in neurodegeneration, there has been little done to systematically analyze and study the structures within tau’s encoding RNA and their connection to disease pathology. Knowledge of RNA structure can provide insights into disease mechanisms and how to affect protein production for therapeutic benefit. Using computational methods based on thermodynamic stability and evolutionary conservation, we identified structures throughout the tau pre-mRNA, especially at exon-intron junctions and within the 5′ and 3′ untranslated regions (UTRs). In particular, structures were identified at twenty exon-intron junctions. The 5′ UTR contains one structured region, which lies within a known internal ribosome entry site. The 3′ UTR contains eight structured regions, including one that contains a polyadenylation signal. A series of functional experiments were carried out to assess the effects of mutations associated with mis-regulation of alternative splicing of exon 10 and to identify regions of the 3′ UTR that contain cis-regulatory elements. These studies defined novel structural regions within the mRNA that affect stability and pre-mRNA splicing and may lead to new therapeutic targets for treating tau-associated diseases.

RNA structural analysis of the MYC mRNA reveals conserved motifs that affect gene expression

The MYC gene encodes a human transcription factor and proto-oncogene that is dysregulated in over half of all known cancers. To better understand potential post-transcriptional regulatory features affecting MYC expression, we analyzed secondary structures in the MYC mRNA using a program that is optimized for finding small locally-folded motifs with a high propensity for function. This was accomplished by calculating folding metrics across the MYC sequence using a sliding analysis window and generating unique consensus base pairing models weighted by their lower-than-random predicted folding energy. A series of 30 motifs were identified, primarily in the 5' and 3' untranslated regions, which show evidence of structural conservation and compensating mutations across vertebrate MYC homologs. This analysis was able to recapitulate known elements found within an internal ribosomal entry site, as well as discover a novel element in the 3' UTR that is unusually stable and conserved. This novel motif was shown to affect MYC expression, potentially via the modulation of miRNA target accessibility or other trans-regulatory factors. In addition to providing basic insights into mechanisms that regulate MYC expression, this study provides numerous, potentially druggable RNA targets for the MYC gene, which is considered “undruggable” at the protein level.

Identifying and validating small molecules interacting with RNA (SMIRNAs)

High throughput sequencing has revolutionized our ability to identify aberrant RNA expression and mutations that cause or contribute to disease. These data can be used directly to design oligonucleotide-based modalities using Watson-Crick pairing to target unstructured regions in an RNA. A complementary, although more difficult, strategy to deactivate a malfunctioning RNA is to target highly structured regions with small molecules. Indeed, RNA structures are directly causative of disease. Herein, we discuss emerging strategies to design high affinity, selective, bioactive ligands targeting RNA, or small molecules interacting with RNA (SMIRNAs), and target validation and profiling methods. An experimental foundation is required for a lead identification strategy for RNA structures, constructed from a library-vs.-library screen that probes vast libraries of small molecules for binding RNA three dimensional folds. Dubbed 2-dimensional combinatorial screening (2DCS), the resulting data can be mined against transcriptomes or the composite of RNAs that are produced in an organism to define folded RNA structures that can be targeted. By applying SMIRNAs to cells and using target validation tools such as Chemical Cross-Linking and Isolation by Pull-down (Chem-CLIP) and Small Molecule Nucleic Acid Profiling by Cleavage Applied to RNA (RiboSNAP), all targets engaged in cells can be defined, along with rules for molecular recognition to affect RNA biology. This chapter will describe lessons learned in applying these approaches in vitro, in cells, and in pre-clinical animal models of disease, enabling SMIRNAs to capture opportunities in chemical biology.

Unveiling the druggable RNA targets and small molecule therapeutics

The increasing appreciation for the crucial roles of RNAs in infectious and non-infectious human diseases makes them attractive therapeutic targets. Coding and non-coding RNAs frequently fold into complex conformations which, if effectively targeted, offer opportunities to therapeutically modulate numerous cellular processes, including those linked to undruggable protein targets. Despite the considerable skepticism as to whether RNAs can be targeted with small molecule therapeutics, overwhelming evidence suggests the challenges we are currently facing are not outside the realm of possibility. In this review, we highlight the most recent advances in molecular techniques that have sparked a revolution in understanding the RNA structure-to-function relationship. We bring attention to the application of these modern techniques to identify druggable RNA targets and to assess small molecule binding specificity. Finally, we discuss novel screening methodologies that support RNA drug discovery and present examples of therapeutically valuable RNA targets.

Activity-Based DNA-Encoded Library Screening

Robotic high-throughput compound screening (HTS) and, increasingly, DNA-encoded library (DEL) screening are driving bioactive chemical matter discovery in the postgenomic era. HTS enables activity-based investigation of highly complex targets using static compound libraries. Conversely, DEL grants efficient access to novel chemical diversity, although screening is limited to affinity-based selections. Here, we describe an integrated droplet-based microfluidic circuit that directly screens solid-phase DELs for activity. An example screen of a 67 100-member library for inhibitors of the phosphodiesterase autotaxin yielded 35 high-priority structures for nanomole-scale synthesis and validation (20 active), guiding candidate selection for synthesis at scale (5/5 compounds with IC₅₀ values of 4-10 μM). We further compared activity-based hits with those of an analogous affinity-based DEL selection. This miniaturized screening platform paves the way toward applying DELs to more complex targets (signaling pathways, cellular response) and represents a distributable approach to small molecule discovery.

Targeting RNA with Small Molecules To Capture Opportunities at the Intersection of Chemistry, Biology, and Medicine

The biology of healthy and disease-affected cells is often mediated by RNA structures, desirable targets for small molecule chemical probes and lead medicines. Although structured regions are found throughout the transcriptome, some even with demonstrated functionality, human RNAs are considered recalcitrant to small molecule targeting. However, targeting structured regions with small molecules provides an important alternative to oligonucleotides that target sequence. In this Perspective, we describe challenges and progress in developing small molecules interacting with RNA (SMIRNAs) to capture their significant opportunities at the intersection of chemistry, biology, and medicine. Key to establishing a new paradigm in chemical biology and medicine is the development of methods to obtain, preferably by design, bioactive compounds that modulate RNA targets and companion methods that validate their direct effects in cells and pre-clinical models. While difficult, demonstration of direct target engagement in the complex cellular milieu, along with methods to establish modes of action, is required to push this field forward. We also describe frameworks for accelerated advancements in this burgeoning area, their implications, key new technologies for development of SMIRNAs, and milestones that have led to broader acceptance of RNA as a small molecule druggable target.

Small molecules with big roles in microRNA chemical biology and microRNA-targeted therapeutics

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small, non-coding RNAs that post-transcriptionally regulate gene expression. Aberrant miRNA expression or function have close links with various human diseases. Therefore, therapeutic treatments with disease-associated miRNAs as targets are emerging. However, the intracellular miRNA networks are extremely complicated and poorly understood, which thus hinder the development of miRNA-targeted therapeutics. Small molecules that are able to regulate endogenous miRNAs hold great potential in both elucidation of miRNA networks and treatment of miRNA-related diseases. Herein, we summarize current strategies for discovery of small molecule modifiers of miRNAs, and we highlight aspects of miRNA cellular biology elucidated by using these small molecules and miRNA-targeted therapeutics realized by these small molecules. We envision that this area will expand dramatically in the near future and will ultimately contribute to a better understanding of miRNA-involved cellular processes and development of therapeutic agents for miRNA-associated diseases.

Challenges and current status of computational methods for docking small molecules to nucleic acids

Since the development of the first docking program in 1982, the use of docking-based in silico screening for potentially bioactive molecule discovery has become a common strategy in academia and pharmaceutical industry. Up until recently, application of docking programs has largely focused on drugs binding to proteins. However, with the discovery of promising drug targets in nucleic acids, including RNA riboswitches, DNA G-quadruplexes, and extended repeats in RNA, there has been greater interests in developing drugs for nucleic acids. However, due to major biochemical and physical differences in charges, binding pockets, and solvation, existing docking programs, developed for proteins, face difficulties when adopted directly for nucleic acids. In this review, we cover the current field of in silico docking to nucleic acids, available programs, as well as challenges faced in the field.