Targeted and Suspect Screening of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Cosmetics and Personal Care Products

The Total Mass of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs) in California Cosmetics

Cosmetics make up one of the consumer product categories most widely known to contain perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), including precursors to perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and other perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs). Because of the way cosmetics are used, most of the PFASs present in these products are likely to reach wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), which suggests that cosmetics may contribute significantly to the load of PFOA and other PFASs at WWTPs. However, the majority of PFASs present as intentional ingredients in cosmetics cannot be quantified with the available analytical methods. To address this issue, we developed a methodology to estimate the total PFAS mass in cosmetics as well as the corresponding mass of total organic fluorine and of fluorinated side chains associated with PFAA precursors, using various ingredient databases and ingredient concentrations reported by manufacturers. Our results indicate that the cosmetics sold in California during a one-year period cumulatively contain 650-56 000 kg of total PFASs, 370-37 000 kg of organic fluorine, and 330-20 000 kg of fluorinated side chains associated with PFAA precursors. Among the 16 product subcategories considered, >90% of the PFAS mass came from shaving creams and gels, hair care products, facial cleansers, sun care products, and lotions and moisturizers, while the sum of all nine makeup subcategories accounted for <3%. Comparing our estimates to available WWTP influent data from the San Francisco Bay Area suggests that cosmetics may account for at least 4% of the precursor-derived PFAAs measured in wastewater. As the first study ever to estimate the total mass of PFASs contained in cosmetics sold in California, our results shed light on the significance of certain cosmetics as a source of PFASs to WWTPs and can inform effective source reduction efforts.

Why are nH-perfluoroalkanoate ions more mobile than expected? Implications for identifying an emerging environmental pollutant

nH-Perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (nH-PFCAs) are emerging pollutants. Their identification by ion mobility is frustrated by the nH-PFCAs having unexpectedly small collision cross sections (CCS). Theory and experiment agree that this is because nH-PFCA ions undergo internal hydrogen bridging, and this insight will help guide the creation of more accurate methods for pollutant identification.

Simultaneous size and defect control of metal-organic framework by deep eutectic solvent for efficient perfluoroalkyl substances adsorption: Delving into mechanism

This study reports an environment-friendly protocol to prepare a metal-organic framework (MOF) with simultaneously controlled particle size and open metal site for adsorption removal of perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs). The successful preparation of UiO-66 with defect and crystal size modulation was achieved using a green and straightforward method, adjusting the components and molar ratios of ammonium salt/glycolic acid deep eutectic solvents (DESs). The corresponding modulation mechanism primarily relied on the combined regulation of the deprotonation and competitive coordination abilities of the eutectic solvent components. The adsorption process was thoroughly examined using spectral analyses, adsorption behavior profiling, and ab initio molecular dynamics simulations. The results revealed that PFAS adsorption is driven by combined capturing effects, such as CF-π, acid/base coordination, C-F⋯Zr, hydrogen bonding, and hydrophobic interactions. Our findings were not thus that the smaller the crystal size of MOF and the higher the defect concentration in the material, the better the PFAS adsorption performance. The result demonstrated the combined effect of these adsorbent features on PFAS mixtures. Furthermore, they revealed unique differences in sorption properties between these targets with different carbon chain lengths. Extensive defects in DES-based UiO-66 led to larger pores, increasing the availability of many adsorption sites and aiding in PFAS adsorption and diffusion. Nevertheless, the surplus of larger pores in the substance increased the competitive adsorption, reducing the total quantity of PFASs absorbed. Furthermore, various interactions and a less restrictive configuration increased the contact of functional groups with adsorbates, substantially enhancing the adsorption. This study investigates the basic questions about how PFAS molecules are adsorbed on DES-based MOFs and the relationship among the structure, properties, and performance to improve the efficiency of this novel adsorbent.

Hepatotoxicity and lipid metabolism disorders of 8:2 polyfluoroalkyl phosphate diester in zebrafish: In vivo and in silico evidence

8:2 polyfluoroalkyl phosphate diester (8:2 diPAP) has been shown to accumulate in the liver, but whether it induces hepatotoxicity and lipid metabolism disorders remains largely unknown. In this study, zebrafish embryos were exposed to 8:2 diPAP for 7 d. Hepatocellular hypertrophy and karyolysis were noted after exposure to 0.5 ng/L 8:2 diPAP, suggesting suppressed liver development. Compared to the water control, 8:2 diPAP led to significantly higher triglyceride and total cholesterol levels, but markedly lower levels of low-density lipoprotein, implying disturbed lipid homeostasis. The levels of two peroxisome proliferator activated receptor (PPAR) subtypes (pparα and pparγ) involved in hepatotoxicity and lipid metabolism were significantly upregulated by 8:2 diPAP, consistent with their overexpression as determined by immunohistochemistry. In silico results showed that 8:2 diPAP formed hydrogen bonds with PPARα and PPARγ. Among seven machine learning models, Adaptive Boosting performed the best in predicting the binding affinities of PPARα and PPARγ on the test set. The predicted binding affinity of 8:2 diPAP to PPARα (7.12) was higher than that to PPARγ (6.97) by Adaptive Boosting, which matched well with the experimental results. Our results revealed PPAR - mediated adverse effects of 8:2 diPAP on the liver and lipid metabolism of zebrafish larvae.

Adsorption of perfluoroalkyl substances on deep eutectic solvent-based amorphous metal-organic framework: Structure and mechanism

Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are a class of emerging organic pollutants characterized by high toxicity, environmental persistence, and widespread detection in water sources. The removal of PFASs from water is a matter of global concern, given their detrimental impact on both the environment and public health. Many commonly used PFAS adsorbents demonstrate limited adsorption capacities and/or slow adsorption kinetics. Therefore, there is an urgent need for the development of efficient adsorbents. For the first time, this work systematically investigated the performance of a deep eutectic solvent (DES)-based amorphous metal-organic framework (MOF) for the adsorption of PFASs with different carbon-chain lengths under the state of the mixture in aquatic environments. The adsorption mechanism was probed by a suite of adsorption kinetics studies, adsorption isotherm profiling, spectral characterization, and ab initio molecular dynamics (AIMD) simulations, revealing that PFAS adsorption is driven by synergistic capturing effects including acid/base coordination, CF-π (carbon-fluorine-π), hydrogen bonding, and hydrophobic interactions. Furthermore, the adsorption processes of short-chain and long-chain targets were found to involve different rate-controlling steps and interaction sites. Hydrophobic interactions facilitated the swift arrival of long-chain PFASs at the coordinatively interacting sites between carboxyl termini and Lewis acid Zr unsaturated sites, thanks to their lower reaction barriers. On the other hand, the adsorption of short-chain PFASs primarily relied on a Zr hydroxyl-based ligand exchange force, which would take place at Brønsted acid sites. The existence of massive structural disorder in amorphous UiO-66 led to the development of larger pores, thus improving the accessibility of abundant adsorption sites and facilitating adsorption and diffusion. The presence of multiple types of interactions and flexible structure in defect-rich amorphous UiO-66 significantly increased the exposure of functional groups to the adsorbates. Additionally, this material possessed outstanding regeneration efficiency and outperformed other MOF-based adsorbents with high affinity for targets. It enhances our understanding of the adsorption performances and mechanisms of amorphous materials toward PFASs, thereby paving the way for designing more efficient PFAS adsorbents.

Bioaccumulation of Perfluoroalkyl Sulfonamides (FASA)

Hundreds of sites across the United States have high concentrations of perfluoroalkyl sulfonamides (FASA), but little is known about their propensity to accumulate in fish. FASA are precursors to terminal per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) that are abundant in diverse consumer products and aqueous film-forming foams manufactured using electrochemical fluorination (ECF AFFF). In this study, FASA with C3-C8 carbon chain lengths were detected in all fish samples from surface waters up to 8 km downstream of source zones with ECF AFFF contamination. Short-chain FASA ≤ C6 have rarely been included in routine screening for PFAS, but availability of new standards makes such analyses more feasible. Bioaccumulation factors (BAF) for FASA were between 1 and 3 orders of magnitude greater than their terminal perfluoroalkyl sulfonates. Across fish species, BAF for FASA were greater than for perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS), which is presently the focus of national advisory programs. Similar concentrations of the C6 FASA (<0.36-175 ng g-1) and PFOS (0.65-222 ng g-1) were detected in all fish species. No safety thresholds have been established for FASA. However, high concentrations in fish next to contaminated sites and preliminary findings on toxicity suggest an urgent need for consideration by fish advisory programs.

Predictors of Serum Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances Concentrations among U.S. Couples Attending a Fertility Clinic

Previous studies have examined the predictors of PFAS concentrations among pregnant women and children. However, no study has explored the predictors of preconception PFAS concentrations among couples in the United States. This study included 572 females and 279 males (249 couples) who attended a U.S. fertility clinic between 2005 and 2019. Questionnaire information on demographics, reproductive history, and lifestyles and serum samples quantified for PFAS concentrations were collected at study enrollment. We examined the PFAS distribution and correlation within couples. We used Ridge regressions to predict the serum concentration of each PFAS in females and males using data of (1) socio-demographic and reproductive history, (2) diet, (3) behavioral factors, and (4) all factors included in (1) to (3) after accounting for temporal exposure trends. We used general linear models for univariate association of each factor with the PFAS concentration. We found moderate to high correlations for PFAS concentrations within couples. Among all examined factors, diet explained more of the variation in PFAS concentrations (1-48%), while behavioral factors explained the least (0-4%). Individuals reporting White race, with a higher body mass index, and nulliparous women had higher PFAS concentrations than others. Fish and shellfish consumption was positively associated with PFAS concentrations among both females and males, while intake of beans (females), peas (male), kale (females), and tortilla (both) was inversely associated with PFAS concentrations. Our findings provide important data for identifying sources of couples' PFAS exposure and informing interventions to reduce PFAS exposure in the preconception period.

Determination of per- and polyfluoroalkyl compounds in paper recycling grades using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry

Globally, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)-related research on paper products has focused on food packaging with less consideration on the presence of PFAS at different stages of the paper recycling chain. This study analysed the prevalence of PFAS in paper grades used for the manufacture of recycled paperboard. The presence of PFAS was attributed to the use of PFAS-containing additives, consumer usage, exposure to packed goods as well as contamination during mingling, sorting, collection, and recovery of paper recycling material. Q Orbitrap mass spectrometry was used to analyse the paper samples after accelerated solvent extraction and solid phase extraction. The distribution and possible propagation of 22 PFAS were determined in pre-consumer, retail and post-consumer paper products. Post-consumer samples had the highest combined average concentration (ΣPFAS) at 213 ng/g, while the ΣPFAS in retail (159 ng/g) and pre-consumer samples (121 ng/g) was detected at lower concentrations. This study showed that waste collection and recycling protocols may influence PFAS propagation and that measures must be developed to minimise and possibly eliminate exposure opportunities.

Investigation of pH-dependent extraction methods for PFAS in (fluoropolymer-based) consumer products: A comparative study between targeted and sum parameter analysis

Here, we report a comparative study of different sum parameter analysis methods for the extraction of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) from manufactured consumer products, which can be measured by combustion ion chromatography (CIC). Therefore, a hydrolysis-based extraction method was further developed, which accounts for the addition of hydrolyzable covalently bound polyfluoroalkylated side-chain polymers (SFPs) to the extractable organic fluorine portion of the mass balance proposed as "hydrolyzable organically bound fluorine" (HOF). To test this hypothesis, the method was applied to 39 different consumer products containing fluoropolymers or monomeric PFAS taken from four different categories: outdoor textiles, paper packaging, carpeting, and permanent baking sheets. We also evaluated the method's efficiency by extracting four synthesized fluorotelomer polyacrylate reference compounds. The total fluorine (TF) and extractable organically bound fluorine (EOF) values were measured through CIC using established protocols. The TF values ranged from sub-ppb to %-levels, depending on the compound class. All samples showed results for hydrolyzed organofluorine (HOF) between 0.03 and 76.3 μg/g, while most EOF values were lower ( Collapse

Key Words

• Combustion ion chromatography (CIC)
• Extractable organically bound fluorine (EOF)
• Hydrolytic extraction
• Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) sum parameter
• Side-chain fluorinated polymers (SFPs)
• Solid-liquid extraction

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MESH Headings

• Fluorocarbon Polymers/analysis
• Fluorocarbons/analysis
• Chromatography, Liquid
• Fluorine/chemistry
• Tandem Mass Spectrometry
• Hydrogen-Ion Concentration

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Grants Collapse

Affiliation(s)

Philipp Roesch Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing, Division 4.3 - Contaminant Transfer and Environmental Technologies, Unter den Eichen 87, 12205, Berlin, Germany.
Andrea Schinnen Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing, Division 4.3 - Contaminant Transfer and Environmental Technologies, Unter den Eichen 87, 12205, Berlin, Germany
Maren Riedel Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing, Division 4.3 - Contaminant Transfer and Environmental Technologies, Unter den Eichen 87, 12205, Berlin, Germany
Thomas Sommerfeld Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing, Division 1.7 - Organic Trace and Food Analysis, Richard-Willstätter-Straße 11, 12489, Berlin, Germany
George Sawal German Environment Agency, Colditzstr. 34, 12099, Berlin, Germany
Nicole Bandow German Environment Agency, Colditzstr. 34, 12099, Berlin, Germany
Christian Vogel Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing, Division 4.3 - Contaminant Transfer and Environmental Technologies, Unter den Eichen 87, 12205, Berlin, Germany
Ute Kalbe Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing, Division 4.3 - Contaminant Transfer and Environmental Technologies, Unter den Eichen 87, 12205, Berlin, Germany
Franz-Georg Simon Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing, Division 4.3 - Contaminant Transfer and Environmental Technologies, Unter den Eichen 87, 12205, Berlin, Germany

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Characterization and dermal bioaccessibility of residual- and listed PFAS ingredients in cosmetic products

As a large group of chemicals with diverse properties, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) have found extensive application throughout consumer products, including cosmetics. Little is known about the importance of dermal uptake as a human exposure pathway for PFAS. Here we investigate a suite of listed-ingredient and residual PFAS in cosmetic products, along with their dermal bioaccessibility using in vitro incubations with artificial sweat. Concentrations of volatile listed ingredients (including cyclic perfluorinated alkanes, perfluorinated ethers, and polyfluorinated silanes) in three products ranged from 876-1323 μg g-1, while polar listed ingredients (i.e., polyfluoroalkyl phosphate esters [PAPs]) in a single product occurred at up to 2427 μg g-1 (6 : 2/6 : 2 diPAP)). Residual perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs) were also measured at concentrations ranging from 0.02-29 μg g-1. When listed ingredients were included, our targeted analysis accounted for up to 103% of the total fluorine, while highlighting ambiguous and/or incorrect International Nomenclature of Cosmetic Ingredient (INCI) names used in several products. Bioaccessibility experiments revealed that residual PFCAs readily partitioned to artificial sweat (bioaccessible fractions ranging from 43-76% for detectable substances) while listed ingredients (i.e., PAPs and neutral/volatile PFAS) displayed negligible partitioning. This work provides new insight into the occurrence of PFAS in cosmetic products, while furthering our understanding on their mechanisms of dermal uptake.

Polyfluoroalkyl phosphate esters (PAPs) as PFAS substitutes and precursors: An overview

Polyfluoroalkyl phosphate esters (PAPs) are emerging substitutes for legacy per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), which are widely applied in consumer products and closely related to people's daily lives. Increasing concern has been raised about the safety of PAPs due to their metabolism into perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and other perfluorinated carboxylates (PFCAs) in vivo. This review summarizes the current knowledge on PAPs and highlights the knowledge gaps. PAPs dominated the PFAS profiles in wastewater, sludge, household dust, food-contact materials, paper products, paints, and cosmetics. They exhibit biomagnification due to their higher levels in top predators. PAPs have been detected in human blood worldwide, with the highest mean levels being found in the United States (1.9 ng/mL) and China (0.4 ng/mL). 6:2 diPAP is the predominant PAP among all identified matrices, followed by 8:2 diPAP. Toxicokinetic studies suggest that after entering the body, most PAPs undergo biotransformation, generating phase Ⅰ (i.e., PFCAs), phase II, and intermediate products with toxicity to be verified. Several epidemiological and toxicological studies have reported the antiandrogenic effect, estrogenic effect, thyroid disruption, oxidative damage, and reproductive toxicity of PAPs. More research is urgently needed on the source and fate of PAPs, human exposure pathways, toxicity other than reproductive and endocrine systems, toxic effects of metabolites, and mixed exposure effects.

Assessing the performance of a targeted absolute quantification isotope dilution liquid chromatograhy tandem mass spectrometry assay versus a commercial nontargeted relative quantification assay for detection of three major perfluoroalkyls in human blood

Isotope dilution ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) is commonly used for trace analysis of polyfluoroalkyl and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in difficult matrices. Commercial nontargeted analysis of major PFAS where relative concentrations are obtained cost effectively is rapidly emerging and is claimed to provide comparable results to that of absolute quantification using matrix matched calibration and isotope dilution UHPLC-MS/MS. However, this remains to be demonstrated on a large scale. We aimed to assess the performance of a targeted absolute quantification isotope dilution LC-MS/MS assay versus a commercial nontargeted relative quantification assay for detection of three major PFAS in human blood. We evaluated a population-based cohort of 503 individuals. Correlations were assessed using Spearman's rank correlation coefficients (rho). Precision and bias were assessed using Bland-Altman plots. For perfluorooctane sulfonic acid, the median concentrations were 5.10 ng/mL (interquartile range [IQR] 3.50-7.24 ng/mL), the two assays correlated with rho 0.83. For perfluorooctanoic acid, the median concentrations were 2.14 ng/mL (IQR 1.60-3.0 ng/mL), the two assays correlated with rho 0.92. For perfluorohexanesulfonate, the median concentrations were 5.5 ng/mL (IQR 2.50-11.61 ng/mL), the two assays correlated with rho 0.96. The Bland-Altman statistical test showed agreement of the mean difference for the majority of samples (97-98%) between the two assays. Absolute plasma concentrations of PFAS obtained using matrix matched calibration and isotope dilution UHPLC-MS/MS show agreement with relative plasma concentrations from a nontargeted commercial platform by Metabolon. We observed striking consistency between the two assays when examining the associations of the three PFAS with cholesterol, offering additional confidence in the validity of utilizing the nontargeted approach for correlations with various health phenotypes.

Comparison of aggregated exposure to perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) from diet and personal care products with concentrations in blood using a PBPK model - Results from the Norwegian biomonitoring study in EuroMix

BACKGROUND

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) constitute a large group of compounds that are water, stain, and oil repellent. Numerous sources contribute to the blood levels of PFAS in the European population. The main contributor for perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) is food, house dust, consumer products and personal care products (PCPs).

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of the present work is to calculate the dietary and dermal external exposure to PFOA, estimate the aggregated internal exposure from diet and PCPs using a PBPK model, and compare estimates with measured concentrations.

METHODS

Detailed information on diet and PCP use from the EuroMix study is combined with concentration data of PFOA in food and PCPs in a probabilistic exposure assessment. A physiologically based pharmacokinetic model (PBPK) was further refined by incorporating a dermal exposure pathway, and changes in the kidney and faecal excretion.

RESULTS

The aggregated internal exposure using the PBPK model shows that the major contributor to the internal exposure is diet for both males and females. The estimated internal exposure of PFOA for the EuroMix population was in the same range but lower than the measured blood concentrations using the lower bound (LB) external exposure estimates, showing that the LB estimates are underestimations. For seven females the internal exposure of PFOA were higher from PCPs than from diet.

CONCLUSION

PCPs and diet contributed in the same range to the internal PFOA exposure for several women participating in EuroMix. This calls for additional studies on exposure to PFOA and possibly other PFAS from PCPs, especially for women. Overall, PBPK modelling was shown as valuable tool in understanding the sources of PFOA exposure and in guiding risk assessments and regulatory decisions.

Determination of polyfluoroalkyl substances in cosmetic products using dispersed liquid-liquid extraction coupled with UHPLC-MS/MS

Human exposure to polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) via cosmetics has been of increasing concern due to the tremendous detrimental health impacts of PFASs. Developing an effective method for extracting and determining PFASs in cosmetics is crucial in accurately assessing their corresponding human exposure risk. Herein, this study developed a new sample pre-treatment method to address the challenges posed by the variety and complexity of cosmetic matrices. Seventeen PFASs in cosmetic products, including 9 perfluoro carboxylic acids and 8 perfluorosulfonic acids, were simultaneously determined using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). The whole pre-treatment process can be divided into three steps. In step 1, cosmetics with diverse matrix types can be effectively dispersed during extraction by using saturated sodium chloride-acetonitrile and saturated sodium chloride-tetrahydrofuran as extraction solvents. In step 2, the pre-purification step employs a potassium ferrocyanide-zinc acetate co-precipitant to remove high molecular weight interferents from the extraction solution, thereby enhancing the efficiency of solid-phase extraction (SPE). In step 3, WAX-SPE is utilized to further eliminate interferents from the extraction solution while concentrating the analytes, meeting the trace analysis requirements for PFASs in cosmetics. The method detection limits were 0.09-0.26 ng g-1. The recoveries ranged from 70.1% to 114.7%, with relative standard deviations in the range of 2.0-19.1%. The method was applied to cosmetic samples in the Guangzhou market, and the total concentration of PFASs ranged from 0 to 10.8 ng g-1. This method has strong anti-interference ability, good applicability, high sensitivity, and good reproducibility, making it suitable for the analysis and detection of perfluorinated acids in cosmetic samples. It provides technical support for cosmetics safety regulation.

Characteristic and health risk of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances from cosmetics via dermal exposure

In this work, 45 cosmetic samples were collected from China, and 27 target per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) were analyzed by ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry. PFAS were found in all samples, including the products marketed for pregnant women, and the total concentrations of PFAS measured in each sample were in the range of 4.05 - 94.9 ng/g. Short-chain perfluorinated carboxylic acids were the dominant compounds contributing to over 60% of the total content. Perfluorobutanoic acid, with high placental transfer efficiency, was the major PFAS in cosmetics for pregnant women. Three emerging PFAS, 2-perfluorohexyl ethanoic acid, 3-perfluoropentyl propanoic acid (5:3) and perfluoro-2-propoxypropanoic acid, were also identified in the cosmetic samples at quantifiable levels. Significantly, positive correlations between individual PFAS were observed, indicating that there may be a common source for PFAS in these samples. Statistical analyses suggested that using plastic containers and precursor substances may be potential sources of PFAS in terminal products, and product aging may increase PFAS levels. From the PFAS analysis of the cosmetics, the margin of safety (MoS) and hazard quotient (HQ) were calculated to assess human health risks through dermal exposure by using these products. Although the MoS and HQ values obtained were deemed acceptable, the cumulative effect caused by composite and long-term exposure to these contaminants needs to be given greater attention by health authorities.

Case-Cohort Study of the Association between PFAS and Selected Cancers among Participants in the American Cancer Society's Cancer Prevention Study II LifeLink Cohort

BACKGROUND

Previous epidemiological studies found associations between exposure to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and some cancer types. Many studies considered highly exposed populations, so relevance to less-exposed populations can be uncertain. Additionally, many studies considered only cancer site, not histology.

OBJECTIVES

We conducted a case-cohort study within the American Cancer Society's prospective Cancer Prevention Study II (CPS-II) LifeLink cohort to examine associations between PFAS exposure and risk of selected cancers, considering histologic subtypes.

METHODS

Serum specimens were collected from cohort participants during the period 1998-2001. This study included a subcohort (500 men, 499 women) randomly selected from participants without prior cancer diagnoses at serum collection, and all participants with incident (after serum collection) first cancers of the breast (females only, n = 786 ), bladder (n = 401 ), kidney (n = 158 ), pancreas (n = 172 ), prostate (males only, n = 1,610 ) or hematologic system (n = 635 ). PFAS concentrations [perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), perfluorohexane sulfonic acid (PFHxS), and perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA)] were measured in stored serum. We assessed associations between PFAS concentrations and incident cancers, by site and histologic subtype, using multivariable Cox proportional hazards models stratified by sex and controlling for age and year at blood draw, education, race/ethnicity, smoking, and alcohol use.

RESULTS

Serum PFOA concentrations were positively associated with renal cell carcinoma of the kidney among women [hazard ratio (HR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) per PFOA doubling: 1.54 (95% CI: 1.05, 2.26)] but not men. Among men, we observed a positive association between PFHxS concentrations and chronic lymphocytic leukemia/small lymphocytic lymphoma [CLL/SLL, HR and 95% CI per PFHxS doubling: 1.34 (95% CI: 1.02, 1.75)]. We observed some heterogeneity of associations by histologic subtype within sites.

DISCUSSION

This study supports the previously observed association between PFOA and renal cell carcinoma among women and suggests an association between PFHxS and CLL/SLL among men. Consideration of histologic subtypes might be important in future studies of PFAS-cancer associations. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP13174.

Target and nontarget analysis of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in surface water, groundwater and sediments of three typical fluorochemical industrial parks in China

The objectives of this study were to identify both legacy and emerging per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) from three typical fluoridated industrial parks (FIPs) in China, and to assess their environmental occurrence and fate. Complementary suspect target and nontarget screening were implemented, and a total of 111 emerging PFAS were identified. Based on the multi-mass scale analysis, 25 emerging PFAS were identified for the first time, including 24 per- and polyfluoroalkyl ether carboxylic acids (PFECAs) and 1 ultra-short chlorinated perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (Cl-PFCAs, C2), with a maximum percentage of 48.2 % in nontarget PFAS (exclude target PFAS). The composition of PFAS identified in different media was influenced by functional groups, carbon chain length, substituents and ether bond insertion, with poly-hydrogen substituted being preferably in water and a more diverse pattern of PFECAs in sediments. The patterns of PFAS homologs revealed distinct differences among the three typical FIPs in the shift of PFAS production patterns. The C4-PFAS and short-chain carboxylic acids (≤C6) were the main PFAS in the Fuxin and Changshu, respectively. In contrast, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA, C8) remained dominant in Zibo, and the highest point concentrations in water and sediment were up to 706 µg/L and 553 µg/g, respectively.

The wide presence of fluorinated compounds in common chemical products and the environment: a review

The C-F bonds, due to their many unique features, have been incorporated into numerous compounds in countless products and applications. These fluorinated compounds eventually are disposed of and released into the environment through different pathways. In this review, we analyzed the occurrence of these fluorinated compounds in seven types of products (i.e., refrigerants/propellants, aqueous film-forming foam, cosmetics, food packaging, agrochemicals, pharmaceuticals, coating materials) and discussed their fate in the environment. This is followed by describing the quantity of fluorinated compounds from each source based on available data. Total on- and off-site disposal or other releases of 536 fluorinated compounds in 2021 were analyzed using the data sourced from the U.S. EPA Toxics Release Inventory (TRI). Among the chemicals examined, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) were the primary contributors in terms of total mass. Upon examining the seven sources of fluorinated compounds, it became evident that additional contributors are also responsible for the presence of organofluorine compounds in the environment. Although various toxic degradation products of fluorinated compounds could form in the environment, trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) was specifically highlighted in this review given the fact that it is a common dead-end degradation product of > 1 million chemicals. This paper ended with a discussion of several questions raised from this study. The path forward was elaborated as well for the purpose of protecting the environment and human health.

Environmental metabolomics uncovers oxidative stress, amino acid dysregulation, and energy impairment in Daphnia magna with exposure to industrial effluents

Anthropogenic activities are regarded as point sources of pollution entering freshwater bodies worldwide. With over 350,000 chemicals used in manufacturing, wastewater treatment and industrial effluents are comprised of complex mixtures of organic and inorganic pollutants of known and unknown origins. Consequently, their combined toxicity and mode of action are not well understood in aquatic organisms such as Daphnia magna. In this study, effluent samples from wastewater treatment and industrial sectors were used to examine molecular-level perturbations to the polar metabolic profile of D. magna. To determine if the industrial sector and/or the effluent chemistries played a role in the observed biochemical responses, Daphnia were acutely (48 h) exposed to undiluted (100%) and diluted (10, 25, and 50%) effluent samples. Endogenous metabolites were extracted from single daphnids and analyzed using targeted mass spectrometry-based metabolomics. The metabolic profile of Daphnia exposed to effluent samples resulted in significant separation compared to the unexposed controls. Linear regression analysis determined that no single pollutant detected in the effluents was significantly correlated with the responses of metabolites. Significant perturbations were uncovered across many classes of metabolites (amino acids, nucleosides, nucleotides, polyamines, and their derivatives) which serve as intermediates in keystone biochemical processes. The combined metabolic responses are consistent with oxidative stress, disruptions to energy metabolism, and protein dysregulation which were identified through biochemical pathway analysis. These results provide insight into the molecular processes driving stress responses in D. magna. Overall, we determined that the metabolic profile of Daphnia could not be predicted by the chemical composition of environmentally relevant mixtures. The findings of this study demonstrate the advantage of metabolomics in conjunction with chemical analyses to assess the interactions of industrial effluents. This work further demonstrates the ability of environmental metabolomics to characterize molecular-level perturbations in aquatic organisms exposed to complex chemical mixtures directly.

Non-targeted analysis (NTA) and suspect screening analysis (SSA): a review of examining the chemical exposome

Non-targeted analysis (NTA) and suspect screening analysis (SSA) are powerful techniques that rely on high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) and computational tools to detect and identify unknown or suspected chemicals in the exposome. Fully understanding the chemical exposome requires characterization of both environmental media and human specimens. As such, we conducted a review to examine the use of different NTA and SSA methods in various exposure media and human samples, including the results and chemicals detected. The literature review was conducted by searching literature databases, such as PubMed and Web of Science, for keywords, such as "non-targeted analysis", "suspect screening analysis" and the exposure media. Sources of human exposure to environmental chemicals discussed in this review include water, air, soil/sediment, dust, and food and consumer products. The use of NTA for exposure discovery in human biospecimen is also reviewed. The chemical space that has been captured using NTA varies by media analyzed and analytical platform. In each media the chemicals that were frequently detected using NTA were: per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and pharmaceuticals in water, pesticides and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in soil and sediment, volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds in air, flame retardants in dust, plasticizers in consumer products, and plasticizers, pesticides, and halogenated compounds in human samples. Some studies reviewed herein used both liquid chromatography (LC) and gas chromatography (GC) HRMS to increase the detected chemical space (16%); however, the majority (51%) only used LC-HRMS and fewer used GC-HRMS (32%). Finally, we identify knowledge and technology gaps that must be overcome to fully assess potential chemical exposures using NTA. Understanding the chemical space is essential to identifying and prioritizing gaps in our understanding of exposure sources and prior exposures. IMPACT STATEMENT: This review examines the results and chemicals detected by analyzing exposure media and human samples using high-resolution mass spectrometry based non-targeted analysis (NTA) and suspect screening analysis (SSA).

Environmental and health impacts of PFAS: Sources, distribution and sustainable management in North Carolina (USA)

Poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a class of manufactured chemicals that have recently attracted a great deal of attention from environmental regulators and the general public because of their high prevalence, resistance to degradation, and potential toxicity. This review summarizes the current state of PFAS and its effects on the environment of North Carolina, USA. Specific emphasis has been placed to identify i) the sources of PFAS in North Carolina ii) distribution of PFAS in different environmental segments of North Carolina, including surface water, groundwater, air, and sediment iii) drinking water contamination iv) impact of PFAS on human health v) PFAS accumulation in fish and other biota vi) status of PFAS removal from drinking water and finally vi) socioeconomic impact of PFAS uncertainties. Continuous discharges of PFAS occur in the North Carolina environment from direct and indirect sources, including manufacturing sites, firefighting foam, waste disposal and treatment plants, landfill leachate, and industrial emissions. PFAS are widespread in many environmental segments of North Carolina. They are more likely to be detected in surface and groundwater sediments and can enter aquatic bodies through direct discharge and wet and dry deposition of emissions. Eventually, some adverse effects of PFAS have already been reported in North Carolina residents who could have been exposed to the chemicals through contaminated drinking water. Furthermore, PFAS were also found in blood samples from fish and alligators. PFAS were confirmed to be present in water, sediment, organic compounds, and aquatic species at all levels of the food web. However, there is still a substantial amount of work to be done to understand the actual contamination by PFAS in North Carolina comprehensively.

Determinants of maternal and neonatal PFAS concentrations: a review

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are used for their properties such as stain and water resistance. The substances have been associated with adverse health outcomes in both pregnant mothers and infants, including pre-eclampsia and low birthweight. A growing body of research suggests that PFAS are transferred from mother to fetus through the placenta, leading to in utero exposure. A systematic review was performed using the PubMed database to search for studies evaluating determinants of PFAS concentrations in blood matrices of pregnant mothers and neonates shortly after birth. Studies were included in this review if an observational study design was utilized, exposure to at least one PFAS analyte was measured, PFAS were measured in maternal or neonatal matrices, at least one determinant of PFAS concentrations was assessed, and results such as beta estimates were provided. We identified 35 studies for inclusion in the review and evaluated the PFAS and determinant relationships among the factors collected in these studies. Parity, breastfeeding history, maternal race and country of origin, and household income had the strongest and most consistent evidence to support their roles as determinants of certain PFAS concentrations in pregnant mothers. Reported study findings on smoking status, alcohol consumption, and pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI) suggest that these factors are not important determinants of PFAS concentrations in pregnant mothers or neonates. Further study into informative factors such as consumer product use, detailed dietary information, and consumed water sources as potential determinants of maternal or neonatal PFAS concentrations is needed. Research on determinants of maternal or neonatal PFAS concentrations is critical to estimate past PFAS exposure, build improved exposure models, and further our understanding on dose-response relationships, which can influence epidemiological studies and risk assessment evaluations. Given the potential for adverse outcomes in pregnant mothers and neonates exposed to PFAS, it is important to identify and understand determinants of maternal and neonatal PFAS concentrations to better implement public health interventions in these populations.