Exosome-like Nanoparticles from Ginger Rhizomes Inhibited NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation

Advances in preparation and engineering of plant-derived extracellular vesicles for nutrition intervention

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PLEVs), as a type of naturally occurring lipid bilayer membrane structure, represent an emerging delivery vehicle with immense potential due to their ability to encapsulate hydrophobic and hydrophilic compounds, shield them from external environmental stresses, control release, exhibit biocompatibility, and demonstrate biodegradability. This comprehensive review analyzes engineering preparation strategies for natural vesicles, focusing on PLEVs and their purification and surface engineering. Furthermore, it encompasses the latest advancements in utilizing PLEVs to transport active components, serving as a nanotherapeutic system. The prospects and potential development of PLEVs are also discussed. It is anticipated that this work will not only address existing knowledge gaps concerning PLEVs but also provide valuable guidance for researchers in the fields of food science and biomedical studies, stimulating novel breakthroughs in plant-based therapeutic options.

Palmitoleate protects against Lipopolysaccharide-induced Inflammation and Inflammasome Activity

Inflammation is part of natural immune defense mechanism against any form of infection or injury. However, prolonged inflammation could perturb cell homeostasis and contribute to the development of metabolic and inflammatory diseases including maternal obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver diseases. Polyunsaturated fatty acids have been shown to mitigate inflammatory response by generating specialized pro-resolving lipid mediators which take part in resolution of inflammation. Here, we show that palmitoleate, an omega-7 monounsaturated fatty acid exerts anti-inflammatory properties in response to lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-mediated inflammation. Exposure of bone-marrow derived macrophages (BMDMs) to LPS or TNFα induces robust increase in the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and supplementation of palmitoleate inhibited LPS-mediated upregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines. We also observed that palmitoleate was able to block LPS+ATP-induced inflammasome activation mediated cleavage of pro-caspase 1 and pro-interleukin (IL)-1β. Further, treatment of palmitoleate protects against LPS-induced inflammation in human THP-1 derived macrophages and trophoblasts. Co-exposure of LPS and palmitate (saturated free fatty acid) induces inflammasome and cell death in BMDMs, however, treatment of palmitoleate blocked LPS and palmitate-induced cell death in BMDMs. Further, LPS and palmitate together results in the activation of mitogen activated protein kinases (MAPK) and pretreatment of palmitoleate inhibited the activation of MAPKs and nuclear translocation of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kB) in BMDMs. In conclusion, palmitoleate shows anti-inflammatory properties against LPS-induced inflammation and LPS+palmitate/ATP-induced inflammasome activity and cell death.

Ginger-derived nanovesicles attenuate osteoarthritis progression by inhibiting oxidative stress via the Nrf2 pathway

Aim: Osteoarthritis (OA) is a common degenerative joint disease. Previous studies demonstrated ginger-derived exosome-like nanovesicles (GDN) showed therapeutic effects in degenerative diseases. However, it remains unknown whether GDN could alleviate OA progression.Materials & methods: In this study, GDN were obtained and characterized. Then we evaluated the effects of GDN in tert-butyl hydroperoxide (TBHP)-induced chondrocytes, posttraumatic OA rat model and ex vivo cultured human OA cartilage explants.Results: We demonstrated GDN promoted cartilage anabolism and alleviated oxidative stress in TBHP-induced chondrocytes and OA rat. Our results also showed GDN exhibited protective effects in cultured cartilage explants. Furthermore, we verified the Nrf2 pathway was associated with protective effects of GDN.Conclusion: Altogether, our findings demonstrated GDN hold great potential for OA treatment.

Lycium ruthenicum Murray derived exosome-like nanovesicles inhibit Aβ-induced apoptosis in PC12 cells via MAPK and PI3K/AKT signaling pathways

Plant-derived exosome-like nanovesicles (ELNs) are nano-sized vesicles extracted from edible plants. Lycium ruthenicum Murray (LRM) has been gaining increasing attention due to its nutritional and medicinal value, but the ELNs in LRM has not been reported. In this study, LRM-ELNs were obtained, and the proteins, lipids, microRNAs (miRNAs) and active components in LRM tissues and LRM-ELNs was analyzed by LC-MS/MS, LC-MS, high-throughput sequencing techniques, and physical and chemical analysis. LRM-ELNs can be uptaken by PC12 cells through macropinocytosis and caveolin-mediated endocytosis primarily. Transcriptomic and western blot experiments indicate that LRM-ELNs can inhibit Aβ-induced apoptosis in PC12 cells through the MAPK and PI3K/AKT signaling pathways, with miRNAs playing a crucial role. These results indicate that LRM-ELNs have the protection effect on PC12 cells and can be considered as dietary supplements for alleviating neurodegenerative diseases.

Mechanistic and therapeutic role of NLRP3 inflammasome in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD), a progressive neurodegenerative disorder, has emerged as the most common form of dementia in the elderly. Several pathological hallmarks have been identified, including neuroinflammation. A comprehensive insight into the underlying mechanisms that can fuel the development of novel therapeutic approaches is necessary because of the alarmingly rapid increase in the frequency of incidence. Recently, NLRP3 inflammasome was identified as a critical mediator of neuroinflammation. Activation of nucleotide-binding domain (NOD)-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome by amyloid, neurofibrillary tangles, impaired autophagy and endoplasmic reticulum stress, triggers the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β and IL-18. Subsequently, these cytokines can promote neurodegeneration and cognitive impairment. It is well established that genetic or pharmacological ablation of NLRP3 alleviates AD-related pathological features in in vitro and in vivo models. Therefore, several synthetic and natural compounds have been identified that exhibit the potential to inhibit NLRP3 inflammasome and alleviate AD-associated pathology. The current review article will highlight the various mechanisms by which activation of NLRP3 inflammation occurs during Alzheimer's disease, and how it influences neuroinflammation, neurodegeneration and cognitive impairment. Moreover, we will summarise the different small molecules that possess the potential to inhibit NLRP3 and can pave the path for developing novel therapeutic interventions for AD.

Alternatives of mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes as potential therapeutic platforms

With outstanding therapeutic potential in the tissue regeneration and anti-inflammation, mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes (MSC-EXOs) have emerged as a prominent therapeutic in recent. However, poor production yield and reproducibility have remained as significant challenges of their practical applications. To surmount these challenges, various alternative materials with stem cell-like functions, have been recently investigated, however, there has been no comprehensive analysis in these alternatives so far. Here, we discuss the recent progress of alternatives of MSC-EXOs, including exosomes and exosome-like nanovesicles from various biological sources such as plants, milk, microbes, and body fluids. Moreover, we extensively compare each alternative by summarizing their unique functions and mode of actions to suggest the expected therapeutic target and future directions for developing alternatives for MSC-EXOs.

Yin-Yang: two sides of extracellular vesicles in inflammatory diseases

The concept of Yin-Yang, originating in ancient Chinese philosophy, symbolizes two opposing but complementary forces or principles found in all aspects of life. This concept can be quite fitting in the context of extracellular vehicles (EVs) and inflammatory diseases. Over the past decades, numerous studies have revealed that EVs can exhibit dual sides, acting as both pro- and anti-inflammatory agents, akin to the concept of Yin-Yang theory (i.e., two sides of a coin). This has enabled EVs to serve as potential indicators of pathogenesis or be manipulated for therapeutic purposes by influencing immune and inflammatory pathways. This review delves into the recent advances in understanding the Yin-Yang sides of EVs and their regulation in specific inflammatory diseases. We shed light on the current prospects of engineering EVs for treating inflammatory conditions. The Yin-Yang principle of EVs bestows upon them great potential as, therapeutic, and preventive agents for inflammatory diseases.

Plant-Derived Extracellular Vesicles as a Novel Frontier in Cancer Therapeutics

Recent advancements in nanomedicine and biotechnology have unveiled the remarkable potential of plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) as a novel and promising approach for cancer treatment. These naturally occurring nanoscale particles exhibit exceptional biocompatibility, targeted delivery capabilities, and the capacity to load therapeutic agents, positioning them at the forefront of innovative cancer therapy strategies. PDEVs are distinguished by their unique properties that facilitate tumor targeting and penetration, thereby enhancing the efficacy of drug delivery systems. Their intrinsic biological composition allows for the evasion of the immune response, enabling the efficient transport of loaded therapeutic molecules directly to tumor sites. Moreover, PDEVs possess inherent anti-cancer properties, including the ability to induce cell cycle arrest and promote apoptotic pathways within tumor cells. These vesicles have also demonstrated antimetastatic effects, inhibiting the spread and growth of cancer cells. The multifunctional nature of PDEVs allows for the simultaneous delivery of multiple therapeutic agents, further enhancing their therapeutic potential. Engineering and modification techniques, such as encapsulation, and the loading of therapeutic agents via electroporation, sonication, and incubation, have enabled the customization of PDEVs to improve their targeting efficiency and therapeutic load capacity. This includes surface modifications to increase affinity for specific tumor markers and the encapsulation of various types of therapeutic agents, such as small molecule drugs, nucleic acids, and proteins. Their plant-derived origin offers an abundant and renewable source to produce therapeutic vesicles, reducing costs and facilitating scalability for clinical applications. This review provides an in-depth analysis of the latest research on PDEVs as emerging anti-cancer agents in cancer therapy.

Momordica charantia L.-derived exosome-like nanovesicles stabilize p62 expression to ameliorate doxorubicin cardiotoxicity

BACKGROUND

Doxorubicin (DOX) is a first-line chemotherapeutic drug for various malignancies that causes cardiotoxicity. Plant-derived exosome-like nanovesicles (P-ELNs) are growing as novel therapeutic agents. Here, we investigated the protective effects in DOX cardiotoxicity of ELNs from Momordica charantia L. (MC-ELNs), a medicinal plant with antioxidant activity.

RESULTS

We isolated MC-ELNs using ultracentrifugation and characterized them with canonical mammalian extracellular vesicles features. In vivo studies proved that MC-ELNs ameliorated DOX cardiotoxicity with enhanced cardiac function and myocardial structure. In vitro assays revealed that MC-ELNs promoted cell survival, diminished reactive oxygen species, and protected mitochondrial integrity in DOX-treated H9c2 cells. We found that DOX treatment decreased the protein level of p62 through ubiquitin-dependent degradation pathway in H9c2 and NRVM cells. However, MC-ELNs suppressed DOX-induced p62 ubiquitination degradation, and the recovered p62 bound with Keap1 promoting Nrf2 nuclear translocation and the expressions of downstream gene HO-1. Furthermore, both the knockdown of Nrf2 and the inhibition of p62-Keap1 interaction abrogated the cardioprotective effect of MC-ELNs.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings demonstrated the therapeutic beneficials of MC-ELNs via increasing p62 protein stability, shedding light on preventive approaches for DOX cardiotoxicity.

Honey vesicle-like nanoparticles protect aged liver from non-alcoholic steatohepatitis

Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), an advanced form of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), has emerged as the leading cause of liver failure and related death. Currently, no medication is specifically approved to treat NAFLD or NASH. Here we report that oral administration of honey vesicle-like nanoparticles (H-VLNs) to naturally aged mice protects the liver from NASH development. H-VLNs are dominantly taken up by Kupffer cells in the liver and suppress hepatic chronic inflammation and further development of fibrosis and nodule formation in aged mice. Besides their reported anti-inflammasome function, H-VLNs are found to inhibit the transcriptional activities of C-JUN and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB). MicroRNAs miR5119 and miR5108 and phenolic compound luteolin in H-VLNs are identified in suppressing both the C-JUN and NF-κB pathways. Collectively, oral intake of H-VLNs represents a promising new user-friendly modality to prevent the development of NASH.

Herbal Medicine-Derived Exosome-Like Nanovesicles: A Rising Star in Cancer Therapy

Plant-derived exosome-like nanovesicles (PDNVs) are small nanoscale vesicles containing lipids, RNAs, proteins and some plant natural products secreted by plant cells. Over the last decade, PDNVs have garnered significant interest due to its exceptional therapeutic benefits in the treatment of various diseases. Herbal medicine, as a medicinal plant, plays an important role in the treatment of diseases including cancer. Especially in recent years, the function of herbal medicine derived exosome-like nanovesicles (HMDNVs) in the treatment of cancer has been widely concerned, and has become a research hotspot of nanomedicine. In this review, the biological characteristics, functions and the therapeutic advantages of PDNVs are reviewed, as well as the recent achievements and research progress of HMDNVs in cancer treatment, demonstrating its enormous promise as a cancer therapy, and new insights are provided for future research and development of anti-tumor drugs.

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles as a promising anti-tumor approach: A comprehensive assessment of effectiveness, safety, and mechanisms

BACKGROUND

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEs) are expected to be a compelling alternative for cancer treatment due to their low cytotoxicity, low immunogenicity, high yield, and potential anti-tumor efficacy. Despite the significant advantages of PDEs, the reliable evidence for PDEs as promising anti-tumor approach remains unsystematic and insufficient. Some challenges remain for the clinical application and large-scale industrial production of PDEs.

PURPOSE

Through systematic evaluation and meta-analysis, the objective was to provide scientific, systematic and reliable preclinical evidence to support the clinical use of PDEs in cancer therapy.

METHODS

The search for relevant literature, conducted up to March 2024, encompassed various databases including Web of Science, the Cochrane Library, Embase, PubMed, CNKI, Wanfang Data, and the China Science and Technology Journal Database. The SYRCLE´s risk of bias tool was used to assess the methodological quality of the animal studies. For overall effect analysis and subgroup analysis, RevMan 5.4 and Stata 12.0 were utilized.

RESULTS

The analysis incorporated a total of 38 articles, comprising 29 in vivo studies and 9 in vitro studies. Meta-analysis indicated that PDEs significantly reduced cancer cell activity and induced apoptosis, reduced tumor volume and tumor weight when used as therapeutic agents, as well as exhibited synergistic anti-cancer via combination therapy. Additionally, PDEs-drugs exerted stronger inhibition of tumor volume compared to the free drug or commercial liposome-drugs. Their therapeutic effects were closely related to regulating tumor cell biological behavior and remodeling the tumor microenvironment. The safety was associated with administration route of PDEs, oral administration was currently preferred until more in-depth studies on the safety of other methods are conducted.

CONCLUSIONS

The meta-analysis revealed that PDEs have systematic and reliable preclinical evidence in preclinical studies of cancer therapy, and their efficacy and certain safety could support the clinical application of PDEs in cancer therapy. Of course, further researches are required for large-scale industrial production to meet the needs of clinical applications.

Biyang floral mushroom-derived exosome-like nanovesicles: characterization, absorption stability and ionizing radiation protection

Diet-derived exosome-like nanovesicles are a class of natural active substances that have similar structures and functions to mammalian exosomes. Biyang floral mushrooms and their active extracts have been found to possess radioprotective effects and to deeply explore their novel active substances, the radioprotective effects of Biyang floral mushroom-derived exosome-like nanovesicles (BFMELNs) were investigated in this study. Results showed that these surface-negatively charged vesicles possessed an ideal size and good stability against environmental changes such as temperature and gastrointestinal digestion. Furthermore, BFMELNs could effectively be taken up by HL-7702 cells and Caco-2 cells through cellular phagocytosis mediated by clathrin and dynein. Emphatically, BFMELNs with an exosome-like morphology contained RNA, proteins, lipids, polyphenols and flavonoids to exert good antioxidant and radioprotective effects in vitro. Meanwhile, BFMELNs also exhibited good radioprotective effects by restoring peripheral blood indexes, mitigating damage to organs, and regulating the redox state in mice. Collectively, BFMELNs showed promise as novel and natural radioprotective nano-agents for preventing IR-induced oxidative stress damage.

Recognition on pharmacodynamic ingredients of natural products

Natural products (NPs) play an irreplaceable role in the intervention of various diseases and have been considered a critical source of drug development. Many new pharmacodynamic compounds with potential clinical applications have recently been derived from NPs. These compounds range from small molecules to polysaccharides, polypeptides, proteins, self-assembled nanoparticles, and extracellular vesicles. This review summarizes various active substances found in NPs. The investigation of active substances in NPs can potentiate new drug development and promote the in-depth comprehension of the mechanism of action of NPs that can be beneficial in the prevention and treatment of human diseases.

Unveiling the Complex Role of Exosomes in Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative illness, characterized by memory loss and cognitive decline, accounting for 60-80% of dementia cases. AD is characterized by senile plaques made up of amyloid β (Aβ) protein, intracellular neurofibrillary tangles caused by hyperphosphorylation of tau protein linked with microtubules, and neuronal loss. Currently, therapeutic treatments and nanotechnological developments are effective in treating the symptoms of AD, but a cure for the illness has not yet been found. Recently, the increased study of extracellular vesicles (EVs) has led to a growing awareness of their significant involvement in neurodegenerative disorders, including AD. Exosomes are small extracellular vesicles that transport various components including messenger RNAs, non-coding RNAs, proteins, lipids, DNA, and other bioactive compounds from one cell to another, facilitating information transmission and material movement. There is growing evidence indicating that exosomes have complex functions in AD. Exosomes may have a dual role in Alzheimer's disease by contributing to neuronal death and also helping to alleviate the pathological progression of the disease. Therefore, the primary aim of this review is to outline the updated understandings on exosomes biogenesis and many functions of exosomes in the generation, conveyance, distribution, and elimination of hazardous proteins related to Alzheimer's disease. This review is intended to provide novel insights for understanding the development, specific treatment, and early detection of Alzheimer's disease.

NLRP3 Inflammasome Inhibitors for Antiepileptogenic Drug Discovery and Development

Epilepsy is one of the most prevalent and serious brain disorders and affects over 70 million people globally. Antiseizure medications (ASMs) relieve symptoms and prevent the occurrence of future seizures in epileptic patients but have a limited effect on epileptogenesis. Addressing the multifaceted nature of epileptogenesis and its association with the Nod-like receptor family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome-mediated neuroinflammation requires a comprehensive understanding of the underlying mechanisms of these medications for the development of targeted therapeutic strategies beyond conventional antiseizure treatments. Several types of NLRP3 inhibitors have been developed and their effect has been validated both in in vitro and in vivo models of epileptogenesis. In this review, we discuss the advances in understanding the regulatory mechanisms of NLRP3 activation as well as progress made, and challenges faced in the development of NLRP3 inhibitors for the treatment of epilepsy.

Unlocking the Medicinal Potential of Plant-Derived Extracellular Vesicles: current Progress and Future Perspectives

Botanical preparations for herbal medicine have received more and more attention from drug researchers, and the extraction of active ingredients and their successful clinical application have become an important direction of drug research in major pharmaceutical companies, but the complexity of extracts, multiple side effects, and significant individual differences have brought many difficulties to the clinical application of herbal preparations. It is noteworthy that extracellular vesicles as active biomolecules extracted from medicinal plants are believed to be useful for the treatment of a variety of diseases, including cancer, inflammation, regenerative-restorative and degenerative diseases, which may provide a new direction for the clinical utilization of herbal preparations. In this review, we sort out recent advances in medicinal plant extracellular vesicles and discuss their potential as disease therapeutics. Finally, future challenges and research directions for the clinical translation of medicinal plant extracellular vesicles are also discussed, and we expect that continued development based on medicinal plant extracellular vesicles will facilitate the clinical application of herbal preparations.

Plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles for microRNA delivery in cancer treatment

Plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (PELNs) are natural nanocarriers and effective delivery systems for plant microRNAs (miRNAs). These PELN-carrying plant miRNAs can regulate mammalian genes across species, thereby increasing the diversity of miRNAs in mammals and exerting multi-target effects that play a crucial role in diseases, particularly cancer. PELNs demonstrate exceptional stability, biocompatibility, and targeting capabilities that protect and facilitate the up-take and cross-kingdom communication of plant miRNAs in mammals. Primarily ingested and absorbed within the gastrointestinal tract of mammals, PELNs preferentially act on the intestine to regulate intestinal homeostasis through functional miRNA activity. The oncogenesis and progression of cancer are closely associated with disruptions in intestinal barriers, ecological imbalances, as well as secondary changes, such as abnormal inflammatory reactions caused by them. Therefore, it is imperative to investigate whether PELNs exert their anticancer effects by regulating mammalian intestinal homeostasis and inflammation. This review aims to elucidate the intrinsic crosstalk relationships and mechanisms of PELNs-mediated miRNAs in maintaining intestinal homeostasis, regulating inflammation and cancer treatment. Furthermore, serving as exceptional drug delivery systems for miRNAs molecules, PELNs offer broad prospects for future applications, including new drug research and development along with drug carrier selection within targeted drug delivery approaches for cancer therapy.

Plant-derived exosome-like nanovesicles: A novel nanotool for disease therapy

Exosomes are extracellular vesicles comprising bilayer phospholipid membranes and are secreted by eukaryotic cells. They are released via cellular exocytosis, contain DNA, RNA, proteins, and other substances, and participate in various cellular communications between tissues and organs. Since the discovery of exosomes in 1983, animal-derived exosomes have become a research focus for small-molecule drug delivery in biology, medicine, and other fields owing to their good biocompatibility and homing effects. Recent studies have found that plant-derived exosome-like nanovesicles (PELNVs) exhibit certain biological effects, such as anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor abilities, and have minimal toxic side effects. Because they are rich in active lipid molecules with certain pharmacological effects, PELNVs could be novel carriers for drug delivery. In this review, the biological formation and effects, isolation, and extraction of PELNVs, as well as characteristics of transporting drugs as carriers are summarized to provide new ideas and methods for future research on plant-derived exosome-like nanovesicles.

Isolation of Extracellular Vesicles from Agri-Food Wastes: A Novel Perspective in the Valorization of Agri-Food Wastes and By-Products

Agri-food wastes generated by industrial food processing are valorized through the extraction of biomolecules to obtain value-added products useful for various industrial applications. In the present review, we describe the valuable by-products and bioactive molecules that can be obtained from agricultural wastes and propose extracellular vesicles (EVs) as innovative nutraceutical and therapeutic compounds that could be derived from agriculture residues. To support this idea, we described the general features and roles of EVs and focused on plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) that are considered natural carriers of bioactive molecules and are involved in intercellular communication between diverse kingdoms of life. Consistently, PDEVs exert beneficial effects (anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, and immune-modulatory) on mammalian cells. Although this research field is currently in its infancy, in the near future, the isolation of EVs and their use as nutraceutical tools could represent a new and innovative way to valorize waste from the agri-food industry in an ecofriendly way.

Co-Treatment with Phlorotannin and Extracellular Vesicles from Ecklonia cava Inhibits UV-Induced Melanogenesis

Hyperpigmentation due to ultraviolet (UV)-induced melanogenesis causes various esthetic problems. Phlorotannin (PT) and extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from various plants suppress melanogenesis pathways. We used UV-exposed keratinocytes and animal skin to determine if co-treatment with PT and EVs from Ecklonia cava (EVE) could inhibit melanogenesis by reducing UV-induced oxidative stress and the expression of the thioredoxin-interacting protein (TXNIP)/nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor family pyrin domain containing the 3 (NLRP3)/interleukin-18 (IL-18) pathway, which are upstream signals of the microphthalmia-associated transcription factor. UV exposure increased oxidative stress in keratinocytes and animal skin, as evaluated by 8-OHdG expression, and this effect was reduced by co-treatment with PT and EVE. UV also increased binding between NLRP3 and TXNIP, which increased NLRP3 inflammasome activation and IL-18 secretion, and this effect was reduced by co-treatment with PT and EVE in keratinocytes and animal skin. In melanocytes, conditioned media (CM) from UV-exposed keratinocytes increased the expression of melanogenesis-related pathways; however, these effects were reduced with CM from UV-exposed keratinocytes treated with PT and EVE. Similarly, PT and EVE treatment reduced melanogenesis-related signals, melanin content, and increased basement membrane (BM) components in UV-exposed animal skin. Thus, co-treatment with PT and EVE reduced melanogenesis and restored the BM structure by reducing oxidative stress and TXNIP/NLRP3/IL-18 pathway expression.

Emerging Drug Delivery Vectors: Engineering of Plant-Derived Nanovesicles and Their Applications in Biomedicine

Extracellular vesicles can transmit intercellular information and transport biomolecules to recipient cells during various pathophysiological processes in the organism. Animal cell exosomes have been identified as potential nanodrugs delivery vehicles, yet they have some shortcomings such as high immunogenicity, high cytotoxicity, and complicated preparation procedures. In addition to exosomes, plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDVs), which carry a variety of active substances, are another promising nano-transport vehicles emerging in recent years due to their stable physicochemical properties, wide source, and low cost. This work briefly introduces the collection and characterization of PDVs, then focuses on the application of PDVs as natural or engineered drug carriers in biomedicine, and finally discusses the development and challenges of PDVs in future applications.

Applications of emerging extracellular vesicles technologies in the treatment of inflammatory diseases

The emerging extracellular vesicles technologies is an advanced therapeutic approach showing promising potential for addressing inflammatory diseases. These techniques have been proven to have positive effects on immune modulation and anti-inflammatory responses. With these advancements, a comprehensive review and update on the role of extracellular vesicles in inflammatory diseases have become timely. This review aims to summarize the research progress of extracellular vesicle technologies such as plant-derived extracellular vesicles, milk-derived extracellular vesicles, mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles, macrophage-derived extracellular vesicles, etc., in the treatment of inflammatory diseases. It elucidates their potential significance in regulating inflammation, promoting tissue repair, and treating diseases. The goal is to provide insights for future research in this field, fostering the application and development of extracellular vesicle technology in the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

Exploring the Potential of Plant-Derived Exosome-like Nanovesicle as Functional Food Components for Human Health: A Review

Plant-derived exosome-like nanovesicles (PELNs) are bilayer membrane-enclosed nanovesicles secreted by plant cells, serving as carriers of various substances such as proteins, RNA, and metabolites. The mounting evidence suggests that PELN plays a crucial role in transmembrane signaling, nutrient transportation, apoptosis, and regulation of gut microbiota composition. This makes it a promising "dark nutrient" for plants to modulate human physiology and pathogenesis. A comprehensive understanding of PELN formation, uptake, and functional mechanisms can offer novel insights into plant nutrition and functional properties, thereby facilitating the precise development of plant-based foods and drugs. This article provides a summary of PELN extraction and characterization, as well as absorption and delivery processes. Furthermore, it focuses on the latest discoveries and underlying physiological mechanisms of PELN's functions while exploring future research directions.

Engineered plant extracellular vesicles for natural delivery across physiological barriers

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanoscale luminal vesicles that participate in the information transfer of proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids between cells, thereby playing a role in the treatment of diseases and the delivery of nutrients. In recent years, plant-derived EVs (PDEVs) containing bioactive compounds have attracted increasing interest due to their better biocompatibility and lower cytotoxicity in healthy tissues. In the biomedical field, PDEVs have been used as cargo carriers to achieve various functions through engineering modification techniques. This review focuses on the biogenesis, isolation, and identification of PDEVs. We discuss the surface functionalization of PDEVs to enhance therapeutic efficacy, thereby improving their efficiency as a next-generation drug delivery vehicle and their feasibility to treat diseases across the physiological barriers, while critically analyzing the current challenges and opportunities.

Plant-Derived Extracellular Vesicles: A New Revolutionization of Modern Healthy Diets and Biomedical Applications

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) have recently emerged as a promising area of research due to their potential health benefits and biomedical applications. Produced by various plant species, these EVs contain diverse bioactive molecules, including proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Increasing in vitro and in vivo studies have shown that PDEVs have inherent pharmacological activities that affect cellular processes, exerting anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticancer activities, which can potentially contribute to disease therapy and improve human health. Additionally, PDEVs have shown potential as efficient and biocompatible drug delivery vehicles in treating various diseases. However, while PDEVs serve as a potential rising star in modern healthy diets and biomedical applications, further research is needed to address their underlying knowledge gaps, especially the lack of standardized protocols for their isolation, identification, and large-scale production. Furthermore, the safety and efficacy of PDEVs in clinical applications must be thoroughly evaluated. In this review, we concisely discuss current knowledge in the PDEV field, including their characteristics, biomedical applications, and isolation methods, to provide an overview of the current state of PDEV research. Finally, we discuss the challenges regarding the current and prospective issues for PDEVs. This review is expected to provide new insights into healthy diets and biomedical applications of vegetables and fruits, inspiring new advances in natural food-based science and technology.

Therapeutic application and potential mechanism of plant-derived extracellular vesicles in inflammatory bowel disease

BACKGROUND

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) are membrane vesicles characterized by a phospholipid bilayer as the basic skeleton that is wrapped by various functional components of proteins and nucleic acids. An increasing number of studies have confirmed that PDEVs can be a potential treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and can, to some extent, compensate for the limitations of existing therapies.

AIM OF REVIEW

This review summarizes the recent advances and potential mechanisms underlying PDEVs obtained from different sources to alleviate IBD. In addition, the review discusses the possible applications and challenges of PDEVs, providing a theoretical basis for exploring novel and practical therapeutic strategies for IBD.

KEY SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS OF REVIEW

In IBD, the crosstalk mechanism of PDEVs may regulate the intestinal microenvironment homeostasis, especially immune responses, the intestinal barrier, and the gut microbiota. In addition, drug loading enhances the therapeutic potential of PDEVs, particularly regarding improved tissue targeting and stability. In the future, not only immunotherapy based on PDEVs may be an effective treatment for IBD, but also the intestinal barrier and intestinal microbiota will be a new direction for the treatment of IBD.

Bioactive compounds and biological functions of medicinal plant-derived extracellular vesicles

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are tiny lipid bilayer-enclosed membrane particles released from a variety of cell types into the surrounding environment. These EVs have massive participated in cell-to-cell communication and interspecies communication. In recent years, plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) and "exosome-like" EVs populations found in distinct plants have attracted widespread attention. Especially, research on medicinal plant-derived extracellular vesicles (MPDEVs) are increasing, which are considered a kind of promising natural compound. This review summarizes current knowledge on MPDEVs in terms of bioactive compounds, including small RNA, protein, lipid, and metabolite, have been found on the surface and/or in the lumen of MPDEVs. Moreover, both in vitro and in vivo experiments have shown that MPDEVs exert broad biomedical functions, such as anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antioxidant, modulate microbiota, etc. MPDEVs may be a better substitute than animal-derived extracellular vesicles (ADEVs) because of safety and biocompatibility in the future.

Potential Impact of Bioactive Compounds as NLRP3 Inflammasome Inhibitors: An Update

The inflammasome NLRP3 comprises a caspase recruitment domain, a pyrin domain containing receptor 3, an apoptosis-linked protein like a speck containing a procaspase-1, and an attached nucleotide domain leucine abundant repeat. There are a wide variety of stimuli that can activate the inflammasome NLRP3. When activated, the protein NLRP3 appoints the adapter protein ASC. Adapter ASC protein then recruits the procaspase-1 protein, which causes the procaspase- 1 protein to be cleaved and activated, which induces cytokines. At the same time, abnormal activation of inflammasome NLRP3 is associated with many diseases, such as diabetes, atherosclerosis, metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. As a result, a significant amount of effort has been put into comprehending the mechanisms behind its activation and looking for their specific inhibitors. In this review, we primarily focused on phytochemicals that inhibit the inflammasome NLRP3, as well as discuss the defects caused by NLRP3 signaling. We conducted an in-depth research review by searching for relevant articles in the Scopus, Google Scholar, and PubMed databases. By gathering information on phytochemical inhibitors that block NLRP3 inflammasome activation, a complicated balance between inflammasome activation or inhibition with NLRP3 as a key role was revealed in NLRP3-driven clinical situations.

Prospects of plant-derived exosome-like nanocarriers in oncology and tissue engineering

Almost all cell types, either in vivo or in vitro, create extracellular vesicles (EVs). Among them are exosomes (EXOs), i.e., tiny nanovesicles containing a lipid bilayer, proteins, and RNAs that are actively involved in cellular communication, indicating that they may be exploited as both diagnostics and therapeutics for conditions like cancer. These nanoparticles can also be used as nanocarriers in many types of research to carry agents such as drugs. Plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (PENs) are currently under investigation as a substitute for EXOs formed from mammalian cells, allowing researchers to get beyond the technical constraints of mammalian vesicles. Because of their physiological, chemical, and biological properties, PENs have a lot of promise for use as nanocarriers in drug delivery systems that can deliver various dosages, especially when it comes to large-scale repeatability. The present study has looked at the origins and isolation techniques of PENs, their anticancer properties, their usage as nanocarriers in the treatment of different illnesses, and their antioxidant properties. These nanoparticles can aid in the achievement of therapeutic objectives, as they have benign, non-immunogenic side effects and can pass biological barriers. Time-consuming and perhaps damaging PEN separation techniques is used. For the current PEN separation techniques to be used in commercial and therapeutic settings, they must be altered. In this regard, the concurrent application of biological sciences can be beneficial for improving PEN separation techniques. PENs' innate metabolic properties provide them a great deal of promise for application in drug delivery systems. However, there could be a risk to both the loaded medications and the intrinsic bioactive components if these particles are heavily armed with drugs. Therefore, to prevent these side effects, more studies are needed to devise sophisticated drug-loading procedures and to learn more about the physiology of PENs.

Plant-derived nanovesicles as an emerging platform for cancer therapy

Plant-derived nanovesicles (PDNVs) derived from natural green products have emerged as an attractive nanoplatform in biomedical application. They are usually characterized by unique structural and biological functions, such as the bioactive lipids/proteins/nucleic acids as therapeutics and targeting groups, immune-modulation, and long-term circulation. With the rapid development of nanotechnology, materials, and synthetic chemistry, PDNVs can be engineered with multiple functions for efficient drug delivery and specific killing of diseased cells, which represent an innovative biomaterial with high biocompatibility for fighting against cancer. In this review, we provide an overview of the state-of-the-art studies concerning the development of PDNVs for cancer therapy. The original sources, methods for obtaining PDNVs, composition and structure are introduced systematically. With an emphasis on the featured application, the inherent anticancer properties of PDNVs as well as the strategies in constructing multifunctional PDNVs-based nanomaterials will be discussed in detail. Finally, some scientific issues and technical challenges of PDNVs as promising options in improving anticancer therapy will be discussed, which are expected to promote the further development of PDNVs in clinical translation.

The emerging role of medical foods and therapeutic potential of medical food-derived exosomes

Medical food is consumed for the purpose of improving specific nutritional requirements or disease conditions, such as inflammation, diabetes, and cancer. It involves partial or exclusive feeding for fulfilling unique nutritional requirements of patients and is different from medicine, consisting of basic nutrients, such as polyphenols, vitamins, sugars, proteins, lipids, and other functional ingredients to nourish the patients. Recently, studies on extracellular vesicles (exosomes) with therapeutic and drug carrier potential have been actively conducted. In addition, there have been attempts to utilize exosomes as medical food components. Consequently, the application of exosomes is expanding in different fields with increasing research being conducted on their stability and safety. Herein, we introduced the current trends of medical food and the potential utilization of exosomes in them. Moreover, we proposed Medi-Exo, a exosome-based medical food. Furthermore, we comprehensively elucidate various disease aspects between medical food-derived exosomes (Medi-Exo) and therapeutic natural bionanocomposites. This review highlights the therapeutic challenges regarding Medi-Exo and its potential health benefits.

Ginger exosome-like nanoparticles (GELNs) induced apoptosis, cell cycle arrest, and anti-metastatic effects in triple-negative breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cells

Ginger exosome-like nanoparticles (GELNs) have been extensively implicated in alleviating inflammation, maintaining intestinal microbiome and are considered competent drug delivery vehicles. Despite this, the current knowledge of the GELN interaction with cancer cells is limited. Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), an aggressive variant lacking efficient therapeutics, necessitates novel natural counterparts with minimal side effects. This study investigates the action of GELNs isolated from ginger rhizomes against TNBC cells. GELNs were isolated by ultracentrifugation and characterized physicochemically. The interaction of GELNs with TNBC cells (MDA-MB-231) was studied in detail. The GELNs induced a concentration-dependent decrease in cell viability in MDA-MB-231 cells without affecting the normal cell lines tested. GELNs induced apoptosis as indicated by morphological changes, nuclear fragmentation, membrane damage, phosphatidyl serine translocation, ROS generation, drop in mitochondrial membrane potential, expression of apoptotic specific proteins, and increased caspase activity. GELNs also instigated cell cycle arrest, retarded cell migration and colony formation in TNBC cells. These findings report a novel action of GELNs against TNBC cells and a closer look at the underlying molecular mechanism of this interspecies communication. This opens newer prospects for using dietary ELNs to target therapeutically challenging cancers.

Plant-derived nanovesicles: harnessing nature's power for tissue protection and repair

Tissue damage and aging lead to dysfunction, disfigurement, and trauma, posing significant global challenges. Creating a regenerative microenvironment to resist external stimuli and induce stem cell differentiation is essential. Plant-derived nanovesicles (PDNVs) are naturally bioactive lipid bilayer nanovesicles that contain proteins, lipids, ribonucleic acid, and metabolites. They have shown potential in promoting cell growth, migration, and differentiation into various types of tissues. With immunomodulatory, microbiota regulatory, antioxidant, and anti-aging bioactivities, PDNVs are valuable in resisting external stimuli and facilitating tissue repair. The unique structure of PDNVs provides an optimal platform for drug encapsulation, and surface modifications enhance their stability and specificity. Moreover, by employing synergistic administration strategies, PDNVs can maximize their therapeutic potential. This review summarized the progress and prospects of PDNVs as regenerative tools, provided insights into their selection for repair activities based on existing studies, considered the key challenge for clinical application, and anticipated their continued prominent role in the field of biomedicine.

Plant-Derived Vesicles: A New Era for Anti-Cancer Drug Delivery and Cancer Treatment

Lipid-structured vesicles have been applied for drug delivery system for over 50 years. Based on their origin, lipid-structured vesicles are divided into two main categories, namely synthetic lipid vesicles (SLNVEs) and vesicles of mammalian origin (MDVEs). Although SLNVEs can stably transport anti-cancer drugs, their biocompatibility is poor and degradation of exogenous substances is a potential risk. Unlike SLNVEs, MDVEs have excellent biocompatibility but are limited by a lack of stability and a risk of contamination by dangerous pathogens from donor cells. Since the first discovery of plant-derived vesicles (PDVEs) in carrot cell supernatants in 1967, emerging evidence has shown that PDVEs integrate the advantages of both SLNVEs and MDVEs. Notably, 55 years of dedicated research has indicated that PDVEs are an ideal candidate vesicle for drug preparation, transport, and disease treatment. The current review systematically focuses on the role of PDVEs in cancer therapy and in particular compares the properties of PDVEs with those of conventional lipid vesicles, summarizes the preparation methods and quality control of PDVEs, and discusses the application of PDVEs in delivering anti-cancer drugs and their underlying molecular mechanisms for cancer therapy. Finally, the challenges and future perspectives of PDVEs for the development of novel therapeutic strategies against cancer are discussed.

Perilla-Leaf-Derived Extracellular Vesicles Selectively Inhibit Breast Cancer Cell Proliferation and Invasion

Breast cancer is a common type of cancer characterized by high mortality rates. However, chemotherapy is not selective and often leads to side-effects. Therefore, there is a need for the development of highly efficient drugs. Recent studies have shown that some extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from cell cultures possess anti-cancer activity and hold great potential as cancer therapeutics. However, the use of mammalian cell cultures for EV production results in low productivity and high costs. To address this issue, extracellular vesicles derived from perilla leaves (Perex) were isolated and investigated for their anti-cancer activity in various cancer cells. Initially, a high concentration of Perex with a low level of impurities was successfully purified through a combination of ultrafiltration and size-exclusion chromatography. Perex exhibited potent anti-cancer activities, inhibiting the proliferation, migration, and invasion of MDA-MB-231 cancer cells, which have high levels of caveolin-1 compared to other cancer and normal cells. This selective attack on cancer cells with high levels of caveolin-1 reduces unwanted side-effects on normal cells. Considering its high productivity, low production cost, selective anti-cancer activity, and minimal side-effects, Perex represents a promising candidate for the therapeutic treatment of breast cancer.

Identifying the Potential of miRNAs in Houttuynia cordata-Derived Exosome-Like Nanoparticles Against Respiratory RNA Viruses

Introduction

Pathogenic respiratory RNA viruses, including influenza A virus (IAV), respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), and SARS-CoV-2, are major causes of causes of acute respiratory infection globally. Plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles containing miRNAs have shown substantial cross-kingdom regulatory effects on both viral and human transcripts. Houttuynia cordata (H. cordata), a traditional Chinese medicine frequently used to treat respiratory diseases. However, the role of H. cordata-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (HELNs) and the miRNA they encapsulated are unclear.

Methods

HELNs were isolated from fresh underground roots (uHELNs) and above ground stems and leaves (aHELNs) using differential centrifugation. The HELNs were identified using transmission electron microscopy, nanoparticle tracking analysis, and zeta potential. Small RNA sequencing and RT-PCR were employed to determine the miRNA expression in uHELNs and aHELNs. All genomes were sourced from the NCBI database. Target prediction of viral genomes was performed using RNAhybrid, while human target prediction was conducted using both RNAhybrid and Miranda. Functional enrichment analysis was applied to the predicted human targets to explore the hub targets and their roles in antiviral effects. The accessibility of miRNA target sites was determined through the MFOLD web server, and customized dual-luciferase reporter assays were administered to validate the computational findings.

Results

A total of 12 highly enriched miRNAs were identified in both uHELNs and aHELNs. Upon prediction and verification, miR858a and miR858b were shown to target the NP gene in H1N1, while miR166a-3p targeted the ORF1ab in SARS-CoV-2. However, no valid miRNA targets were found for RSV. Regarding human transcripts, miR168a-3p, miR168b-3p, and miR8175 were found to inhibit MAPK3 expression, and novel_mir2 could suppress both AKT1 and MAPK3 expression.

Discussion

This study sheds light on the collaborative antiviral mechanism of miRNAs in HELNs across two species and explores the potential antiviral scopes of both H. cordata miRNAs and HELNs.

Extraction, Isolation, and Component Analysis of Turmeric-Derived Exosome-like Nanoparticles

As one kind of plant-derived extracellular vesicle, turmeric-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (TELNs) are composed of proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and small-molecule compounds, which possess good biocompatibility and safety. They are especially rich in information from the "mother plant", which provides more applications in biological fields. In this study, we isolated and purified TELNs using differential centrifugation and ultracentrifugation and systematically detected their physicochemical properties using multi-omics. The TELNs possessed a typical teacup-like exosome morphology, and the extraction rate was approximately 1.71 ± 0.176 mg/g. The average particle size was 183.2 ± 10.9 nm, and the average zeta potential was -17.6 ± 1.19 mV. They were rich in lipids, mainly phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) (17.4%), triglyceride (TG) (12.3%), phosphatidylinositol (PI) (9.82%), and phosphatidylcholine (PC) (7.93%). All of them are the key lipids in the exosomes. The protein content was approximately 12% (M/M), mainly curcumin synthase and other proteins involved in secondary metabolite biosynthesis. In addition, there are critical essential genes for curcumin biosynthesis, such as curcumin synthase (CURS) and diketocoenzyme A synthase (DCS). More importantly, a greater variety of small-molecule compounds, primarily curcumin and curcumin analogs such as demethoxycurcumin and volatile oleoresins such as curcuminoids, have now been revealed. In conclusion, TELNs were successfully isolated, containing 0.17% (M/M) turmeric and a large amount of chemical information, the same as the parent-of-origin plant. This is the first time combining multi-omics to analyze the characteristics and nature of the TELNs, which laid a solid material foundation for the further development of turmeric.

Exosome-like nanoparticles derived from Allium tuberosum prevent neuroinflammation in microglia-like cells

OBJECTIVE

Exosome-like nanoparticles (ELNs), which are plant-derived extracellular membrane vesicles, can regulate mammalian gene expression. ELNs can cross the blood-brain barrier, making them potential therapeutic agents or drug-delivery carriers for neuroinflammation-related diseases. Here, we investigated the anti-neuroinflammatory potential of ELNs extracted from Allium tuberosum (A-ELNs).

METHODS

A-ELNs were extracted, and their miRNA profile was characterized. A-ELNs were also applied to BV-2 microglial and MG-6 cells derived from C57/BL6 mice stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), followed by an examination of levels of inflammatory-related factors. To test their drug-carrying potential, A-ELNs were mixed with dexamethasone, an anti-inflammatory drug, to prepare dexamethasone-incorporated A-ELNs (Dex-A-ELNs).

KEY FINDINGS

A-ELNs showed a particle size of 145 ± 2 nm and characteristic miRNAs. A-ELNs significantly decreased the LPS-induced nitric oxide (NO) and inflammatory cytokines levels in BV-2 and MG-6 cells. The mRNA expression of heme oxygenase-1 was significantly increased, and that of inducible NO synthase and inflammatory cytokines was significantly decreased by A-ELNs in BV-2 cells. Dex-A-ELNs inhibited NO production in BV-2 cells more potently than either A-ELNs or dexamethasone alone.

CONCLUSION

A-ELNs can alleviate microglial inflammation. Their effects can be potentiated by incorporating anti-inflammatory drugs, such as dexamethasone, making them potential therapeutic agents or drug-delivery carriers for neuroinflammation.

Tomato-fruit-derived extracellular vesicles inhibit Fusobacterium nucleatum via lipid-mediated mechanism

Nano-sized extracellular vesicles (EV) are essential for cell communication. Studies on EV from natural sources including edible plants are gaining momentum due to the biological implications. In this study, EV from tomato fruit were isolated by ultracentrifugation and their physical and morphological features along with their biocargo profiles were analyzed. We found that tomato EV promote the growth of probiotic Lactobacillus species, while inhibiting growth of the opportunistic intestinal pathogens Clostridioides difficile and Fusobacterium nucleatum. Tomato EV reversed microbiota dysbiosis caused by F. nucleatum in a simulator of the gut microbiota fermentation model. Phospholipid analysis of tomato EV revealed that the anti-bacterial effect of tomato-EV was driven by the presence of specific lipids in the EV, as demonstrated by lipid depletion and reconstitution experiments. The findings suggest the potential of tomato-derived EV for treating gut microbiota dysbiosis and preventing intestinal bacterial infections.

Advances in the Study of Plant-Derived Vesicle-Like Nanoparticles in Inflammatory Diseases

All humans are universally affected by inflammatory diseases, and there is an urgent need to identify new anti-inflammatory drugs with good therapeutic benefits and minimal side effects to the organism. Recently, it has been found that plant-derived vesicle-like nanoparticles (PDVLNs) have good biocompatibility, with their active ingredients exhibiting good therapeutic effects on inflammation. They can also be used as drug carriers for targeted delivery of anti-inflammatory drugs. Therefore, PDVLNs represent a popular research area for novel anti-inflammatory drugs. This paper details the origin, biological functions, isolation and purification, and identification of PDVLNs, as well as the therapeutic effects of their intrinsic bioactive components on inflammatory diseases. It also introduces their targets as drug carriers to facilitate the development and application of PDVLNs anti-inflammatory drugs.

Natural exosomes-like nanoparticles in mung bean sprouts possesses anti-diabetic effects via activation of PI3K/Akt/GLUT4/GSK-3β signaling pathway

BACKGROUND

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a chronic metabolic disease characterized by hyperglycemia and insulin resistance. Mung bean sprouts are traditionally considered a "folk" hypoglycemic food and their pharmacological effects and underlying mechanisms warrant further investigation.

PURPOSE

This study aimed to investigate the anti-diabetic effects of the exosomes-like nanoparticles in mung bean sprouts (MELNs) and explore the related molecular mechanisms.

RESULTS

MELNs were isolated using a differential centrifugation-polyethylene glycol (PEG) method, and the identification of MELNs were confirmed by PAGE gel electrophoresis, agarose gel electrophoresis, thin-layer chromatography (TLC), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). In the high-fat diet/streptozotocin (HFD/STZ) mouse model, MELNs ameliorated the progression of T2DM by increasing oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) and insulin tolerance test (ITT) results, decreasing the fasting blood glucose level, and reducing the serum triglycerides (TG) and total cholesterol (TC). Histopathological examinations indicated MELNs diminished inflammatory infiltration of hepatocytes and amplified the area of islet B cells. In addition, MELNs decreased the oxidative stress levels in liver tissue and had good biocompatibility. In vitro experiments verified that MELNs improved the viability of glucosamine (GlcN) induced insulin-resistant hepatocytes. Furthermore, this study also revealed that MELNs upregulated GLUT4 & Nrf2 and down-regulated GSK-3β via activating the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway, promoting the production of antioxidant enzymes, such as HO-1 and SOD, to reduce oxidative stress.

CONCLUSION

MELNs mitigated the progression of type 2 diabetes in HFD/STZ mouse model. The underlying molecular mechanism is related to PI3K/Akt/GLUT4/GSK-3β signaling pathway.

Critical contributions of protein cargos to the functions of macrophage-derived extracellular vesicles

BACKGROUND

Macrophages are highly plastic innate immune cells that play key roles in host defense, tissue repair, and homeostasis maintenance. In response to divergent stimuli, macrophages rapidly alter their functions and manifest a wide polarization spectrum with two extremes: M1 or classical activation and M2 or alternative activation. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) secreted from differentially activated macrophages have been shown to have diverse functions, which are primarily attributed to their microRNA cargos. The role of protein cargos in these EVs remains largely unexplored. Therefore, in this study, we focused on the protein cargos in macrophage-derived EVs.

RESULTS

Naïve murine bone marrow-derived macrophages were treated with lipopolysaccharide or interlukin-4 to induce M1 or M2 macrophages, respectively. The proteins of EVs and their parental macrophages were subjected to quantitative proteomics analyses, followed by bioinformatic analyses. The enriched proteins of M1-EVs were involved in proinflammatory pathways and those of M2-EVs were associated with immunomodulation and tissue remodeling. The signature proteins of EVs shared a limited subset of the proteins of their respective progenitor macrophages, but they covered many of the typical pathways and functions of their parental cells, suggesting their respective M1-like and M2-like phenotypes and functions. Experimental examination validated that protein cargos in M1- or M2-EVs induced M1 or M2 polarization, respectively. More importantly, proteins in M1-EVs promoted viability, proliferation, and activation of T lymphocytes, whereas proteins in M2-EVs potently protected the tight junction structure and barrier integrity of epithelial cells from disruption. Intravenous administration of M2-EVs in colitis mice led to their accumulation in the colon, alleviation of colonic inflammation, promotion of M2 macrophage polarization, and improvement of gut barrier functions. Protein cargos in M2-EVs played a key role in their protective function in colitis.

CONCLUSION

This study has yielded a comprehensive unbiased dataset of protein cargos in macrophage-derived EVs, provided a systemic view of their potential functions, and highlighted the important engagement of protein cargos in the pathophysiological functions of these EVs.

Stability of Blueberry Extracellular Vesicles and Their Gene Regulation Effects in Intestinal Caco-2 Cells

Plant extracellular vesicles (P-EVs) are considered promising functional food ingredients due to their various health benefits. In this study, blueberry extracellular vesicles (B-EVs) were collected and purified by size exclusion chromatography (SEC). The chemical compounds in B-EV extracts were analyzed by LC-MS/MS. In addition, the stability of B-EVs was evaluated during short- and long-term storage, heating, and in vitro digestion. The results showed that the B-EVs had a desirable particle size (88.2 ± 7.7 nm). Protein and total RNA concentrations were 582 ± 11.2 μg/mL and 15.4 μg/mL, respectively. The optimal storage temperatures for B-EVs were 4 °C and -80 °C for short- and long-term storage, respectively. Fluorescent labeling and qRT-PCR tests showed that B-EVs could be specifically internalized by Caco-2 cells, whereas virtually no cytotoxic or growth-inhibitory effects were observed. B-EVs down-regulated the expression levels of IL-1β and IL-8 and up-regulated the expression levels of NF-κβ and TLR5 in Caco-2 cells. Overall, the results proved that the intact structure of B-EVs could be preserved during food storage and processing conditions. B-EVs had the ability to reach the human intestine through oral delivery. Moreover, they could be absorbed by intestinal cells and affect human intestinal function.

Plant and mammalian-derived extracellular vesicles: a new therapeutic approach for the future

Background: In recent years, extracellular vesicles have been recognized as important mediators of intercellular communication through the transfer of active biomolecules (proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids) across the plant and animal kingdoms and have considerable roles in several physiological and pathological mechanisms, showing great promise as new therapeutic strategies for a variety of pathologies. Methods: In this study, we carefully reviewed the numerous articles published over the last few decades on the general knowledge of extracellular vesicles, their application in the therapy of various pathologies, and their prospects as an approach for the future. Results: The recent discovery and characterization of extracellular vesicles (EVs) of diverse origins and biogenesis have altered the current paradigm of intercellular communication, opening up new diagnostic and therapeutic perspectives. Research into these EVs released by plant and mammalian cells has revealed their involvement in a number of physiological and pathological mechanisms, such as embryonic development, immune response, tissue regeneration, and cancer. They are also being studied as potential biomarkers for disease diagnosis and vectors for drug delivery. Conclusion: Nanovesicles represent powerful tools for intercellular communication and the transfer of bioactive molecules. Their molecular composition and functions can vary according to their origin (plant and mammalian), so their formation, composition, and biological roles open the way to therapeutic applications in a variety of pathologies, which is arousing growing interest in the scientific community. Clinical Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT03608631.

MiRNAs Expression Modulates Osteogenesis in Response to Exercise and Nutrition

In recent years, many articles have been published describing the impact of physical activity and diet on bone health. This review has aimed to figure out the possible epigenetic mechanisms that influence bone metabolism. Many studies highlighted the effects of macro and micronutrients combined with exercise on the regulation of gene expression through miRs. The present review will describe how physical activity and nutrition can prevent abnormal epigenetic regulation that otherwise could lead to bone-metabolism-related diseases, the most significant of which is osteoporosis. Nowadays, it is known that this effect can be carried out not only by endogenously produced miRs, but also through those intakes through the diet. Indeed, they have also been found in the transcriptome of animals and plants, and it is possible to hypothesise an interaction between miRNAs produced by different kingdoms and epigenetic influences on human gene expression. In particular, the key to the activation pathways triggered by diet and physical activity appears to be the activation of Runt-related transcription factor 2 (RUNX2), the expression of which is regulated by several miRs. Among the main miRs involved are exercise-induced miR21 and 21-5p, and food-induced miR 221-3p and 222-3p.

Current Knowledge and Future Perspectives of Exosomes as Nanocarriers in Diagnosis and Treatment of Diseases

Exosomes, as natural nanocarriers, characterized with low immunogenicity, non-cytotoxicity and targeted delivery capability, which have advantages over synthetic nanocarriers. Recently, exosomes have shown great potential as diagnostic markers for diseases and are also considered as a promising cell-free therapy. Engineered exosomes have significantly enhanced the efficacy and precision of delivering therapeutic agents, and are currently being extensively employed in targeted therapeutic investigations for various ailments, including oncology, inflammatory disorders, and degenerative conditions. Particularly, engineered exosomes enable therapeutic agent loading, targeted modification, evasion of MPS phagocytosis, intelligent control, and bioimaging, and have been developed as multifunctional nano-delivery platforms in recent years. The utilization of bioactive scaffolds that are loaded with exosome delivery has been shown to substantially augment retention, extend exosome release, and enhance efficacy. This approach has advanced from conventional hydrogels to nanocomposite hydrogels, nanofiber hydrogels, and 3D printing, resulting in superior physical and biological properties that effectively address the limitations of natural scaffolds. Additionally, plant-derived exosomes, which can participate in gut flora remodeling via oral administration, are considered as an ideal delivery platform for the treatment of intestinal diseases. Consequently, there is great interest in exosomes and exosomes as nanocarriers for therapeutic and diagnostic applications. This comprehensive review provides an overview of the biogenesis, composition, and isolation methods of exosomes. Additionally, it examines the pathological and diagnostic mechanisms of exosomes in various diseases, including tumors, degenerative disorders, and inflammatory conditions. Furthermore, this review highlights the significance of gut microbial-derived exosomes. Strategies and specific applications of engineered exosomes and bioactive scaffold-loaded exosome delivery are further summarized, especially some new techniques such as large-scale loading technique, macromolecular loading technique, development of multifunctional nano-delivery platforms and nano-scaffold-loaded exosome delivery. The potential benefits of using plant-derived exosomes for the treatment of gut-related diseases are also discussed. Additionally, the challenges, opportunities, and prospects of exosome-based nanocarriers for disease diagnosis and treatment are summarized from both preclinical and clinical viewpoints.

Development of Blueberry-Derived Extracellular Nanovesicles for Immunomodulatory Therapy

Over the past decade, there has been a significant expansion in the development of plant-derived extracellular nanovesicles (EVs) as an effective drug delivery system for precision therapy. However, the lack of effective methods for the isolation and characterization of plant EVs hampers progress in the field. To solve a challenge related to systemic separation and characterization in the plant-derived EV field, herein, we report the development of a simple 3D inner filter-based method that allows the extraction of apoplastic fluid (AF) from blueberry, facilitating EV isolation as well as effective downstream applications. Class I chitinase (PR-3) was found in blueberry-derived EVs (BENVs). As Class I chitinase is expressed in a wide range of plants, it could serve as a universal marker for plant-derived EVs. Significantly, the BENVs exhibit not only higher drug loading capacity than that reported for other EVs but also possess the ability to modulate the release of the proinflammatory cytokine IL-8 and total glutathione in response to oxidative stress. Therefore, the BENV is a promising edible multifunctional nano-bio-platform for future immunomodulatory therapies.

Plant-derived nanovesicles: Further exploration of biomedical function and application potential

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are phospholipid bilayer vesicles actively secreted by cells, that contain a variety of functional nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids, and are important mediums of intercellular communication. Based on their natural properties, EVs can not only retain the pharmacological effects of their source cells but also serve as natural delivery carriers. Among them, plant-derived nanovesicles (PNVs) are characterized as natural disease therapeutics with many advantages such as simplicity, safety, eco-friendliness, low cost, and low toxicity due to their abundant resources, large yield, and low risk of immunogenicity in vivo. This review systematically introduces the biogenesis, isolation methods, physical characterization, and components of PNVs, and describes their administration and cellular uptake as therapeutic agents. We highlight the therapeutic potential of PNVs as therapeutic agents and drug delivery carriers, including anti-inflammatory, anticancer, wound healing, regeneration, and antiaging properties as well as their potential use in the treatment of liver disease and COVID-19. Finally, the toxicity and immunogenicity, the current clinical application, and the possible challenges in the future development of PNVs were analyzed. We expect the functions of PNVs to be further explored to promote clinical translation, thereby facilitating the development of a new framework for the treatment of human diseases.

Ginger: a representative material of herb-derived exosome-like nanoparticles

Edible plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (PELNs) provide numerous benefits, including high yield, low cost, ethical compatibility, and multiple health benefits, which enable them to address technical constraints associated with mammalian nanoparticles. Herbs, known for their abundant bioactive components, are considered the primary source of natural medicines within the plant kingdom. Recently, a number of herbaceous sources have been investigated for the isolation and functionality of exosome-like nanoparticles (ELNs). However, they are commonly referred to as PELNs, and their distinct pharmacological properties are overlooked. In this review, these herb-derived ELNs are designated as HELNs, a novel herbal product that may also exhibit superior pharmacological activity compared to other types of PELNs. Among the documented HELNs, ginger-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (GELNs) are the most extensively studied. This review employs GELNs as an exemplar to delineate the process of extraction and purification, together with their physical and biochemical characteristics and therapeutic potential. The aim of this review is to promote the development and application of HELNs, and future research is encouraged to uncover their additional properties, extending beyond those of GELNs.