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Zhang S, Yu S, Sun J, Huang T, Lin H, Li Z, Xiao Z, Lu W. Au@CuS Nanoshells for Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering Image-Guided Tumor Photothermal Therapy with Accelerated Hepatobiliary Excretion. Pharmaceutics 2024; 16:1089. [PMID: 39204434 PMCID: PMC11360001 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics16081089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2024] [Revised: 08/11/2024] [Accepted: 08/13/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Gold-based nanoparticles for surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) imaging show great potential for precise tumor detection and photothermal therapy (PTT). However, the metabolizability of gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) raises big concerns. Herein, we designed a core-shelled nanostructure of copper sulfide (CuS)-coated Au NPs with surface pegylation (PEG-Au@CuS NSs). The excreted Au in the gallbladders at 1 h and 4 h in mice injected with PEG-Au@CuS NSs was 8.2- and 19.1-fold of that with the pegylated Au NPs (PEG-AuNPs) of the same Au particle size, respectively. By loading the Raman reporter 3,3'-Diethylthiatricarbocyanine iodide (DTTC) in the core-shell junction of PEG-Au@CuS NSs, the PEG-Au-DTTC@CuS NSs exhibited the Raman signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio of 4.01 after 24 h of intravenous (IV) injection in the mice bearing an orthotopic CT26-Luc colon tumor. By contrast, the DTTC-coated PEG-AuNPs (PEG-Au-DTTC NPs) achieved an S/N ratio of 2.71. Moreover, PEG-Au-DTTC@CuS NSs exhibited an increased photothermal conversion effect compared with PEG-Au-DTTC NPs excited with an 808-nm laser. PEG-Au-DTTC@CuS NSs enabled intraoperative SERS image-guided photothermal therapy for a complete cure of the colon tumor-bearing mice. Our data demonstrated that the PEG-Au-DTTC@CuS NSs are promising intraoperative Raman image-guided theranostic nanoplatform with enhanced hepatobiliary excretion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sihang Zhang
- School of Pharmacy & Minhang Hospital, Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery, Ministry of Education & State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Fudan University, 826 Zhangheng Road, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Sheng Yu
- School of Pharmacy & Minhang Hospital, Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery, Ministry of Education & State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Fudan University, 826 Zhangheng Road, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Jingwen Sun
- School of Pharmacy & Minhang Hospital, Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery, Ministry of Education & State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Fudan University, 826 Zhangheng Road, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Teng Huang
- School of Pharmacy & Minhang Hospital, Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery, Ministry of Education & State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Fudan University, 826 Zhangheng Road, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Hongzheng Lin
- School of Pharmacy & Minhang Hospital, Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery, Ministry of Education & State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Fudan University, 826 Zhangheng Road, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Zhe Li
- School of Pharmacy & Minhang Hospital, Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery, Ministry of Education & State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Fudan University, 826 Zhangheng Road, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Zeyu Xiao
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Key Laboratory of Cell Differentiation and Apoptosis of Chinese Ministry of Education, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 280 South Chongqing Road, Shanghai 200025, China
| | - Wei Lu
- School of Pharmacy & Minhang Hospital, Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery, Ministry of Education & State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Fudan University, 826 Zhangheng Road, Shanghai 201203, China
- Quzhou Fudan Institute, 108 Minjiang Avenue, Quzhou 324002, China
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Wang M, Li X, Ma X, Wang J, Jin X, Zhang L, Shi J. High Formate Selectivity and Deactivation Mechanism of CuS Nanoparticles in CO 2 Electrocatalytic Reduction Reaction. CHEMSUSCHEM 2023; 16:e202300879. [PMID: 37622740 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.202300879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2023] [Revised: 08/23/2023] [Accepted: 08/24/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
Abstract
CO2 electroreduction into liquid fuels is of broad interest and benefits reducing the energy crisis and environment burdens. CuS has been reported to be a desirable candidate for CO2 electroreduction into formate; however, its formate selectivity and stability are still far from the demands of practical application. Herein, we report CuS nanoparticles exhibiting good Faradaic efficiency of formate (about 98 %) in CO2 electroreduction and its deactivation mechanism during the reaction. The deactivation of CuS was found to be associated with the reconstruction and S loss of CuS, which deteriorates the Faradaic efficiency of formate. Combined with ionic and gas analyses, the S atom in CuS was lost in the form of H2 S, SO2 , and SO4 2- , followed by the reconstruction of CuS into copper oxides. Such a catalyst reconstruction facilitates electroreductions of CO2 and H2 O, respectively, into CO and H2 , etc., resulting in the degradation of catalytical performance of CO2 electroreduction into formate. This work reveals the important role of S loss and reconstruction of metal sulfide catalysts during the electroreduction reaction, which may benefit the further development of CuS-based electro-catalyst for CO2 electroreduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Wang
- Institution Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1295 Ding-xi Road, Shanghai, 200050, P.R. China
| | - Xiaoyao Li
- Institution Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1295 Ding-xi Road, Shanghai, 200050, P.R. China
| | - Xia Ma
- Institution Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1295 Ding-xi Road, Shanghai, 200050, P.R. China
| | - Jie Wang
- Institution Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1295 Ding-xi Road, Shanghai, 200050, P.R. China
| | - Xixiong Jin
- Institution Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1295 Ding-xi Road, Shanghai, 200050, P.R. China
| | - Lingxia Zhang
- Institution Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1295 Ding-xi Road, Shanghai, 200050, P.R. China
- Center of Materials Science and Optoelectronics Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 19 A Yuquan Road, Beijing, 100049, P.R. China
- School of Chemistry and Materials Science, Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1 Sub-lane Xiangshan, Hangzhou, 310024, P.R. China
| | - Jianlin Shi
- Institution Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1295 Ding-xi Road, Shanghai, 200050, P.R. China
- Center of Materials Science and Optoelectronics Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 19 A Yuquan Road, Beijing, 100049, P.R. China
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Cutshaw G, Uthaman S, Hassan N, Kothadiya S, Wen X, Bardhan R. The Emerging Role of Raman Spectroscopy as an Omics Approach for Metabolic Profiling and Biomarker Detection toward Precision Medicine. Chem Rev 2023; 123:8297-8346. [PMID: 37318957 PMCID: PMC10626597 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.2c00897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Omics technologies have rapidly evolved with the unprecedented potential to shape precision medicine. Novel omics approaches are imperative toallow rapid and accurate data collection and integration with clinical information and enable a new era of healthcare. In this comprehensive review, we highlight the utility of Raman spectroscopy (RS) as an emerging omics technology for clinically relevant applications using clinically significant samples and models. We discuss the use of RS both as a label-free approach for probing the intrinsic metabolites of biological materials, and as a labeled approach where signal from Raman reporters conjugated to nanoparticles (NPs) serve as an indirect measure for tracking protein biomarkers in vivo and for high throughout proteomics. We summarize the use of machine learning algorithms for processing RS data to allow accurate detection and evaluation of treatment response specifically focusing on cancer, cardiac, gastrointestinal, and neurodegenerative diseases. We also highlight the integration of RS with established omics approaches for holistic diagnostic information. Further, we elaborate on metal-free NPs that leverage the biological Raman-silent region overcoming the challenges of traditional metal NPs. We conclude the review with an outlook on future directions that will ultimately allow the adaptation of RS as a clinical approach and revolutionize precision medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Cutshaw
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50012, USA
- Nanovaccine Institute, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50012, USA
| | - Saji Uthaman
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50012, USA
- Nanovaccine Institute, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50012, USA
| | - Nora Hassan
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50012, USA
- Nanovaccine Institute, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50012, USA
| | - Siddhant Kothadiya
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50012, USA
- Nanovaccine Institute, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50012, USA
| | - Xiaona Wen
- Biologics Analytical Research and Development, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, NJ, 07065, USA
| | - Rizia Bardhan
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50012, USA
- Nanovaccine Institute, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50012, USA
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Li Q, Huo H, Wu Y, Chen L, Su L, Zhang X, Song J, Yang H. Design and Synthesis of SERS Materials for In Vivo Molecular Imaging and Biosensing. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2023; 10:e2202051. [PMID: 36683237 PMCID: PMC10015885 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202202051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2022] [Revised: 12/14/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) is a feasible and ultra-sensitive method for biomedical imaging and disease diagnosis. SERS is widely applied to in vivo imaging due to the development of functional nanoparticles encoded by Raman active molecules (SERS nanoprobes) and improvements in instruments. Herein, the recent developments in SERS active materials and their in vivo imaging and biosensing applications are overviewed. Various SERS substrates that have been successfully used for in vivo imaging are described. Then, the applications of SERS imaging in cancer detection and in vivo intraoperative guidance are summarized. The role of highly sensitive SERS biosensors in guiding the detection and prevention of diseases is discussed in detail. Moreover, its role in the identification and resection of microtumors and as a diagnostic and therapeutic platform is also reviewed. Finally, the progress and challenges associated with SERS active materials, equipment, and clinical translation are described. The present evidence suggests that SERS could be applied in clinical practice in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingqing Li
- MOE Key Laboratory for Analytical Science of Food Safety and BiologyCollege of ChemistryFuzhou UniversityFuzhou350108P. R. China
| | - Hongqi Huo
- Department of Nuclear MedicineHan Dan Central HospitalHandanHebei056001P. R. China
| | - Ying Wu
- MOE Key Laboratory for Analytical Science of Food Safety and BiologyCollege of ChemistryFuzhou UniversityFuzhou350108P. R. China
| | - Lanlan Chen
- MOE Key Laboratory for Analytical Science of Food Safety and BiologyCollege of ChemistryFuzhou UniversityFuzhou350108P. R. China
| | - Lichao Su
- MOE Key Laboratory for Analytical Science of Food Safety and BiologyCollege of ChemistryFuzhou UniversityFuzhou350108P. R. China
| | - Xuan Zhang
- MOE Key Laboratory for Analytical Science of Food Safety and BiologyCollege of ChemistryFuzhou UniversityFuzhou350108P. R. China
| | - Jibin Song
- MOE Key Laboratory for Analytical Science of Food Safety and BiologyCollege of ChemistryFuzhou UniversityFuzhou350108P. R. China
| | - Huanghao Yang
- MOE Key Laboratory for Analytical Science of Food Safety and BiologyCollege of ChemistryFuzhou UniversityFuzhou350108P. R. China
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Wang K, Wang M, Ma T, Li W, Zhang H. Review on the Selection of Aptamers and Application in Paper-Based Sensors. BIOSENSORS 2022; 13:39. [PMID: 36671874 PMCID: PMC9856030 DOI: 10.3390/bios13010039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2022] [Revised: 12/16/2022] [Accepted: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
An aptamer is a synthetic oligonucleotide, referring to a single-stranded deoxyribonucleic acid or ribonucleic acid ligand produced by synthesis from outside the body using systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX) technology. Owing to their special screening process and adjustable tertiary structures, aptamers can bind to multiple targets (small molecules, proteins, and even whole cells) with high specificity and affinity. Moreover, due to their simple preparation and stable modification, they have been widely used to construct biosensors for target detection. The paper-based sensor is a product with a low price, short detection time, simple operation, and other superior characteristics, and is widely used as a rapid detection method. This review mainly focuses on the screening methods of aptamers, paper-based devices, and applicable sensing strategies. Furthermore, the design of the aptamer-based lateral flow assay (LFA), which underlies the most promising devices for commercialization, is emphasized. In addition, the development prospects and potential applications of paper-based biosensors using aptamers as recognition molecules are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaifei Wang
- Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety of Shandong Normal University, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250358, China
| | - Minglu Wang
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Resistance Biology, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, China
| | - Teng Ma
- Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety of Shandong Normal University, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250358, China
| | - Wenyu Li
- Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety of Shandong Normal University, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250358, China
| | - Hongyan Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety of Shandong Normal University, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250358, China
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Resistance Biology, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, China
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Sultangaziyev A, Ilyas A, Dyussupova A, Bukasov R. Trends in Application of SERS Substrates beyond Ag and Au, and Their Role in Bioanalysis. BIOSENSORS 2022; 12:bios12110967. [PMID: 36354477 PMCID: PMC9688019 DOI: 10.3390/bios12110967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2022] [Revised: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 10/30/2022] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
This article compares the applications of traditional gold and silver-based SERS substrates and less conventional (Pd/Pt, Cu, Al, Si-based) SERS substrates, focusing on sensing, biosensing, and clinical analysis. In recent decades plethora of new biosensing and clinical SERS applications have fueled the search for more cost-effective, scalable, and stable substrates since traditional gold and silver-based substrates are quite expensive, prone to corrosion, contamination and non-specific binding, particularly by S-containing compounds. Following that, we briefly described our experimental experience with Si and Al-based SERS substrates and systematically analyzed the literature on SERS on substrate materials such as Pd/Pt, Cu, Al, and Si. We tabulated and discussed figures of merit such as enhancement factor (EF) and limit of detection (LOD) from analytical applications of these substrates. The results of the comparison showed that Pd/Pt substrates are not practical due to their high cost; Cu-based substrates are less stable and produce lower signal enhancement. Si and Al-based substrates showed promising results, particularly in combination with gold and silver nanostructures since they could produce comparable EFs and LODs as conventional substrates. In addition, their stability and relatively low cost make them viable alternatives for gold and silver-based substrates. Finally, this review highlighted and compared the clinical performance of non-traditional SERS substrates and traditional gold and silver SERS substrates. We discovered that if we take the average sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy of clinical SERS assays reported in the literature, those parameters, particularly accuracy (93-94%), are similar for SERS bioassays on AgNP@Al, Si-based, Au-based, and Ag-based substrates. We hope that this review will encourage research into SERS biosensing on aluminum, silicon, and some other substrates. These Al and Si based substrates may respond efficiently to the major challenges to the SERS practical application. For instance, they may be not only less expensive, e.g., Al foil, but also in some cases more selective and sometimes more reproducible, when compared to gold-only or silver-only based SERS substrates. Overall, it may result in a greater diversity of applicable SERS substrates, allowing for better optimization and selection of the SERS substrate for a specific sensing/biosensing or clinical application.
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7
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Li D, Aubertin K, Onidas D, Nizard P, Félidj N, Gazeau F, Mangeney C, Luo Y. Recent advances in non-plasmonic surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy nanostructures for biomedical applications. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. NANOMEDICINE AND NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY 2022; 14:e1795. [PMID: 35362261 DOI: 10.1002/wnan.1795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2021] [Revised: 02/18/2022] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) is an emerging powerful vibrational technique offering unprecedented opportunities in biomedical science for the sensitive detection of biomarkers and the imaging and tracking of biological samples. Conventional SERS detection is based on the use of plasmonic substrates (e.g., Au and Ag nanostructures), which exhibit very high enhancement factors (EF = 1010 -1011 ) but suffers from serious limitations, including light-induced local heating effect due to ohmic loss and expensive price. These drawbacks may limit detection accuracy and large-scaled practical applications. In this review, we focus on alternative approaches based on plasmon-free SERS detection on low-cost nanostructures, such as carbons, oxides, chalcogenides, polymers, silicons, and so forth. The mechanism of non-plasmonic SERS detection has been attributed to interfacial charge transfer between the substrate and the adsorbed molecules, with no photothermal side-effects but usually less EF compared with plasmonic nanostructures. The strategies to improve Raman signal detection, through the tailoring of substrate composition, structure, and surface chemistry, is reviewed and discussed. The biomedical applications, for example, SERS cell characterization, biosensing, and bioimaging are also presented, highlighting the importance of substrate surface functionalization to achieve sensitive, accurate analysis, and excellent biocompatibility. This article is categorized under: Diagnostic Tools > Diagnostic Nanodevices Diagnostic Tools > Biosensing Diagnostic Tools > In Vivo Nanodiagnostics and Imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Da Li
- LCBPT, CNRS UMR 8601, Université Paris Cité, 45, rue des Saints-Pères, Paris, France
| | - Kelly Aubertin
- MSC, CNRS UMR 7057, Université Paris Cité, 45, rue des Saints-Pères, Paris, France
| | - Delphine Onidas
- LCBPT, CNRS UMR 8601, Université Paris Cité, 45, rue des Saints-Pères, Paris, France
| | - Philippe Nizard
- LCBPT, CNRS UMR 8601, Université Paris Cité, 45, rue des Saints-Pères, Paris, France
| | - Nordin Félidj
- ITODYS, CNRS UMR 7086, Université Paris Cité, 15, rue Jean Antoine de Baïf, Paris, France
| | - Florence Gazeau
- MSC, CNRS UMR 7057, Université Paris Cité, 45, rue des Saints-Pères, Paris, France
| | - Claire Mangeney
- LCBPT, CNRS UMR 8601, Université Paris Cité, 45, rue des Saints-Pères, Paris, France
| | - Yun Luo
- LCBPT, CNRS UMR 8601, Université Paris Cité, 45, rue des Saints-Pères, Paris, France
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Photogenerated reactive oxygen species and hyperthermia by Cu 3SnS 4 nanoflakes for advanced photocatalytic and photothermal antibacterial therapy. J Nanobiotechnology 2022; 20:195. [PMID: 35443708 PMCID: PMC9022271 DOI: 10.1186/s12951-022-01403-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2022] [Accepted: 03/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The rapid spread of infectious bacteria has brought great challenges to public health. It is imperative to explore effective and environment-friendly antibacterial modality to defeat antibiotic-resistant bacteria with high biosafety and broad-spectrum antibacterial property. Results Herein, biocompatible Cu3SnS4 nanoflakes (NFs) were prepared by a facile and low-cost fabrication procedure. These Cu3SnS4 NFs could be activated by visible light, leading to visible light-mediated photocatalytic generation of a myriad of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Besides, the plasmonic Cu3SnS4 NFs exhibit strong near infrared (NIR) absorption and a high photothermal conversion efficiency of 55.7%. The ROS mediated cellular oxidative damage and the NIR mediated photothermal disruption of bacterial membranes collaboratively contributed to the advanced antibacterial therapy, which has been validated by the efficient eradication of both Gram-negative Escherichia coli and Gram-positive methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains in vitro and in vivo. Meanwhile, the exogenous copper ions metabolism from the Cu3SnS4 NFs facilitated the endothelial cell angiogenesis and collagen deposition, thus expediting the wound healing. Importantly, the inherent localized surface plasmon resonance effect of Cu3SnS4 NFs empowered them as an active substrate for surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) imaging and SERS-labeled bacteria detection. Conclusions The low cost and biocompatibility together with the solar-driven broad-spectrum photocatalytic/photothermal antibacterial property of Cu3SnS4 NFs make them a candidate for sensitive bacteria detection and effective antibacterial treatment. Graphical Abstract ![]()
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12951-022-01403-y.
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Chen L, Kong Z, Tao H, Hu H, Gao J, Li G. Crystal structure dependent cation exchange reactions in Cu 2-xS nanoparticles. NANOSCALE 2022; 14:3907-3916. [PMID: 35224594 DOI: 10.1039/d1nr08077f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Because of high mobility of Cu+ in crystal lattice, Cu2-xS nanoparticles (NPs) utilized as cation exchange (CE) templates to produce complicated nanomaterials has been extensively investigated. Nevertheless, the structural similarity of commonly used Cu2-xS somewhat limits the exploration of crystal structure dependent CE reactions, since it may dramatically affect the reaction dynamics and pathways. Herein, we select djurleite Cu1.94S and covellite CuS nanodisks (NDs) as starting templates and show that the crystal structure has a strong effect on their CE reactions. In the case of djurleite Cu1.94S NDs, the Cu+ was immediately substituted by Cd2+ and solid wurtzite CdS NDs were produced. At a lower reaction temperature, these NDs were partially substituted, giving rise to the formation of Janus-type Cu1.94S/CdS NDs, and this process is kinetically and thermodynamically favorable. For covellite CuS NDs, they were transformed into hollow CdS NDs under a more aggressive reaction condition due to the unique disulfide covalent bonds. These disulfide bonds distributed along [0 0 1] direction were gradually ruptured/reduced and CuS@CdS core-shell NDs could be obtained. Our findings suggest that not only the CE reaction kinetics and thermodynamics, but also the intermediates and final products are intimately correlated to the crystal structure of the host material.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lihui Chen
- School of Petrochemical Engineering & Environment, Zhejiang Ocean University, No. 1, Haida South Road, Lincheng Changzhi Island, Zhoushan 316022, China.
| | - Zhenzhen Kong
- College of Chemical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, 18, Chaowang Road, Hangzhou 310014, China.
| | - Hengcong Tao
- School of Petrochemical Engineering & Environment, Zhejiang Ocean University, No. 1, Haida South Road, Lincheng Changzhi Island, Zhoushan 316022, China.
| | - Haifeng Hu
- College of Chemical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, 18, Chaowang Road, Hangzhou 310014, China.
| | - Jing Gao
- College of Chemical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, 18, Chaowang Road, Hangzhou 310014, China.
| | - Guohua Li
- College of Chemical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, 18, Chaowang Road, Hangzhou 310014, China.
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Zhang Y, Cui Y, Li M, Cui K, Li R, Xie W, Liu L, Xiao Z. DNA-assembled visible nanodandelions with explosive hydrogen-bond breakage achieving uniform intra-tumor distribution (UITD)-guided photothermal therapy. Biomaterials 2022; 282:121381. [PMID: 35123320 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2022.121381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Revised: 01/05/2022] [Accepted: 01/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Photothermal therapy (PTT) has received increasing attention for treating tumors. However, a long-standing challenge in PTT is non-uniform distribution of photothermal agents (PAs) in tumor tissues, resulting in limited therapeutic efficiency. Herein, inspired by dandelions blowing away by the wind, we have designed a DNA-assembled visible GRS-DNA-CuS nanodandelion, which can achieve uniform intra-tumor distribution (UITD) of PAs, thus enhancing the photothermal therapeutic efficiency. GRS-DNA-CuS is featured by the formation of hydrogen bond between the core of single-strand DNA-modified Raman nanoprobes (GRS) and the shell of complementary single-strand DNA-modified CuS PAs. Under Raman imaging-guided 1st NIR irradiation, hydrogen bond in GRS-DNA-CuS is explosively broken, resulting in large-sized GRS-DNA-CuS (∼135 nm) be completely dissociated into GRS and ultra-small CuS PAs (∼12 nm) within 1 min. Such an explosive dissociation instantly enhances the local concentration of ultra-small CuS PAs and slightly rises intra-tumor temperature, thus increasing the diffusion coefficient of PAs and promoting their UITD. This UITD of CuS PAs enhances the photothermal anti-tumor effects. Three out of five tumors are completely eliminated under photoacoustic imaging-guided 2nd NIR irradiation. Overall, this study provides one UITD-guided PTT strategy for highly effective tumor treatment by exerting explosive breakage property of hydrogen bond, broadening the application scope of DNA-assembly technique in oncology field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongming Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Institute of Molecular Medicine, Key Laboratory of Cell Differentiation and Apoptosis of Chinese Ministry of Education, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200025, China
| | - Yanna Cui
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Institute of Molecular Medicine, Key Laboratory of Cell Differentiation and Apoptosis of Chinese Ministry of Education, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200025, China
| | - Mingwang Li
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Institute of Molecular Medicine, Key Laboratory of Cell Differentiation and Apoptosis of Chinese Ministry of Education, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200025, China
| | - Kai Cui
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Institute of Molecular Medicine, Key Laboratory of Cell Differentiation and Apoptosis of Chinese Ministry of Education, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200025, China
| | - Ruike Li
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Institute of Molecular Medicine, Key Laboratory of Cell Differentiation and Apoptosis of Chinese Ministry of Education, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200025, China
| | - Wenhui Xie
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Shanghai Chest Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200030, China
| | - Liu Liu
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Shanghai Chest Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200030, China
| | - Zeyu Xiao
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Institute of Molecular Medicine, Key Laboratory of Cell Differentiation and Apoptosis of Chinese Ministry of Education, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200025, China; Shanghai Key Laboratory for Nucleic Acid Chemistry and Nanomedicine, Ren Ji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200127, China.
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11
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Mei R, Wang Y, Zhao X, Kang Q, Shen D, Chen L. Near-Infrared Light-Responsive SERS Tags Enable Positioning and Monitoring of the Drug Release of Photothermal Nanomedicines In Vivo. Anal Chem 2021; 93:16590-16597. [PMID: 34850626 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.1c03949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the in vivo behavior of photothermal nanomedicines (PTNMs) is important for drug development and evaluation. However, it is still very challenging. Herein, two key parameters, i.e., the depth of PTNMs under biological tissue and the drug release ratio of PTNMs in vivo, can be revealed by a near-infrared (NIR) light-responsive surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) strategy. The fabricated PTNMs were composed of waxberry-like gold nanoparticles, model drug curcumin, and an elaborately selected NIR light-responsive Raman reporter (3,3'-diethylthiatricarbocyanine iodide, DTTC). The response mechanism of DTTC to NIR light was investigated as photodegradation. NIR light irradiation heated the gold nanoparticles, triggered the release of a model drug, and simultaneously decreased the SERS intensity of the PTNMs. In vitro experiment results revealed that the SERS intensity decrease could well reflect the depth of PTNMs with a correlation coefficient of more than 0.99. On this basis, after in situ SERS detection, the depth of PTNMs in a tumor could be revealed with satisfactory accuracy. Moreover, the decrease in the SERS intensity of PTNMs showed a highly similar trend to the increase in the drug release, suggesting that it could be used for real-time monitoring of drug release of PTNMs. This study not only opens a new avenue for the release study of many inactive fluorescent and Raman drugs of PTNMs but also provides an effective way for reporting the depth, which greatly promotes the application of PTNMs in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rongchao Mei
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Key Laboratory of Molecular and Nano Probes, Ministry of Education, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, China.,CAS Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai 264003, China.,School of Pharmacy, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Drug Delivery System and Biotech Drugs in Universities of Shandong, Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology and Drug Evaluation (Yantai University), Ministry of Education, Yantai University, Yantai 264005, China
| | - Yunqing Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai 264003, China.,School of Pharmacy, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Drug Delivery System and Biotech Drugs in Universities of Shandong, Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology and Drug Evaluation (Yantai University), Ministry of Education, Yantai University, Yantai 264005, China
| | - Xizhen Zhao
- CAS Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai 264003, China
| | - Qi Kang
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Key Laboratory of Molecular and Nano Probes, Ministry of Education, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, China
| | - Dazhong Shen
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Key Laboratory of Molecular and Nano Probes, Ministry of Education, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, China
| | - Lingxin Chen
- CAS Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai 264003, China.,School of Pharmacy, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai 264003, China
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Das A, Arunagiri V, Tsai HC, Prasannan A, Lai JY, Da-Hong P, Moirangthem RS. Investigation of dual plasmonic core-shell Ag@CuS nanoparticles for potential surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy-guided photothermal therapy. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2021; 16:909-923. [PMID: 33928793 DOI: 10.2217/nnm-2020-0385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Aim: To prepare efficient metal-semiconductor nanoparticles as noninvasive, real-time imaging probes for photothermal therapy (PTT) applications. Materials & methods: A bottom-up approach was used to fabricate core-shell Ag@CuS nanoparticles (NPs). PTT and Raman mapping were done using HeLa cells. Theoretical simulation of electric field enhancement and heat dissipation density of Ag@CuS NPs was performed. Results: PTT-induced hyperthermia was achieved under 940 nm near-infrared light irradiation. Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) signals of dye molecules were observed when conjugated with Ag@CuS NPs. Conclusion: Ag@CuS NPs are found to be efficient for SERS imaging and localized heating under laser irradiation, making a promising candidate for SERS-guided PTT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anindita Das
- Department of Physics, Nanophotonics Lab, Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines), Dhanbad, 826004, Jharkhand, India
| | - Vinothini Arunagiri
- Graduate Institute of Applied Science & Technology, National Taiwan University of Science & Technology, Taipei, 106, Taiwan
| | - Hsieh-Chih Tsai
- Graduate Institute of Applied Science & Technology, National Taiwan University of Science & Technology, Taipei, 106, Taiwan.,Advanced Membrane Materials Center, National Taiwan University of Science & Technology, Taipei, Taiwan, 106, ROC.,R&D Center for Membrane Technology, Chung Yuan Christian University, Chungli, Tao-Yuan, 320, Taiwan
| | - Adhimoorthy Prasannan
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science & Technology, Taipei, 106, Taiwan
| | - Juin-Yih Lai
- Graduate Institute of Applied Science & Technology, National Taiwan University of Science & Technology, Taipei, 106, Taiwan.,Advanced Membrane Materials Center, National Taiwan University of Science & Technology, Taipei, Taiwan, 106, ROC.,R&D Center for Membrane Technology, Chung Yuan Christian University, Chungli, Tao-Yuan, 320, Taiwan
| | - Po Da-Hong
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science & Technology, Taipei, 106, Taiwan
| | - Rakesh S Moirangthem
- Department of Physics, Nanophotonics Lab, Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines), Dhanbad, 826004, Jharkhand, India
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Liu W, Xiang H, Tan M, Chen Q, Jiang Q, Yang L, Cao Y, Wang Z, Ran H, Chen Y. Nanomedicine Enables Drug-Potency Activation with Tumor Sensitivity and Hyperthermia Synergy in the Second Near-Infrared Biowindow. ACS NANO 2021; 15:6457-6470. [PMID: 33750100 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.0c08848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Disulfiram (DSF), a U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved drug for the treatment of chronic alcoholism, is also used as an antitumor drug in combination with Cu2+ ions. However, studies have shown that the endogenous Cu2+ dose in tumor tissues is still insufficient to form relatively high levels of a bis(N,N-diethyldithiocarbamate) copper(II) complex (denoted as Cu(DTC)2) to selectively eradicate cancer cells. Here, DSF-loaded hollow copper sulfide nanoparticles (DSF@PEG-HCuSNPs) were designed to achieve tumor microenvironment (TME)-activated in situ formation of cytotoxic Cu(DTC)2 for NIR-II-induced, photonic hyperthermia-enhanced, and DSF-initiated cancer chemotherapy. The acidic TME triggered the gradual degradation of DSF@PEG-HCuSNPs, promoting the rapid release of DSF and Cu2+ ions, causing the in situ formation of cytotoxic Cu(DTC)2, to achieve efficient DSF-based chemotherapy. Additionally, DSF@PEG-HCuSNPs exhibited a notably high photothermal conversion efficiency of 23.8% at the second near-infrared (NIR-II) biowindow, thus significantly inducing photonic hyperthermia to eliminate cancer cells. Both in vitro and in vivo studies confirmed the effective photonic hyperthermia-induced chemotherapeutic efficacy of DSF by integrating the in situ formation of toxic Cu(DTC)2 complexes and evident temperature elevation upon NIR-II laser irradiation. Thus, this study represents a distinctive paradigm of in situ Cu2+ chelation-initiated "nontoxicity-to-toxicity" transformation for photonic hyperthermia-augmented DSF-based cancer chemotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiwei Liu
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ultrasound Molecular Imaging, Institute of Ultrasound Imaging, Ultrasound Department of the Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, People's Republic of China
| | - Huijing Xiang
- Materdicine Lab, School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, People's Republic of China
- State Key Lab of High Performance Ceramics and Superfine Microstructure, Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200050, People's Republic of China
| | - Mixiao Tan
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ultrasound Molecular Imaging, Institute of Ultrasound Imaging, Ultrasound Department of the Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, People's Republic of China
| | - Qiaoqi Chen
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ultrasound Molecular Imaging, Institute of Ultrasound Imaging, Ultrasound Department of the Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, People's Republic of China
| | - Qinqin Jiang
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ultrasound Molecular Imaging, Institute of Ultrasound Imaging, Ultrasound Department of the Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, People's Republic of China
| | - Lu Yang
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ultrasound Molecular Imaging, Institute of Ultrasound Imaging, Ultrasound Department of the Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, People's Republic of China
| | - Yang Cao
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ultrasound Molecular Imaging, Institute of Ultrasound Imaging, Ultrasound Department of the Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhigang Wang
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ultrasound Molecular Imaging, Institute of Ultrasound Imaging, Ultrasound Department of the Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, People's Republic of China
| | - Haitao Ran
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ultrasound Molecular Imaging, Institute of Ultrasound Imaging, Ultrasound Department of the Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, People's Republic of China
| | - Yu Chen
- Materdicine Lab, School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, People's Republic of China
- State Key Lab of High Performance Ceramics and Superfine Microstructure, Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200050, People's Republic of China
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Redox/pH/NIR-responsive degradable silica nanospheres with fluorescence for drug release and photothermal therapy. Biochem Eng J 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bej.2021.107955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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Clearable Nanoparticles for Cancer Photothermal Therapy. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2021. [PMID: 33543458 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-58174-9_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
Abstract
Nanoparticles are important mediators for cancer photothermal therapy (PTT) where they can efficiently convert photon energy into heat and ablate the surrounding cancer cells with superior spatial and temporal precision. Recent decades have witnessed a booming development of numerous formulations of PTT nanoparticles that exhibit outstanding anti-tumor efficacy in preclinical studies. However, their clinical translation has been mined by safety concerns, especially their long-term impact on human body. Biodegradable nanoparticles that can be excreted after PTT, therefore, are gaining popularity due to their biocompatibility and improved safety profiles. This chapter provides an update on the progress in clearable PTT nanoparticles for cancer treatment. We discuss their design, synthesis strategy, and physicochemical properties relevant to photothermal performance. We also review their biodistribution patterns and in vivo anti-tumor efficacy, along with their degradation mechanism and clearance kinetics. Lastly, we present a brief overview of the imaging techniques to noninvasively monitor the degradation of PTT nanoparticles.
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Ling C, Wang X, Shen Y. Advances in Hollow Inorganic Nanomedicines for Photothermal-Based Therapies. Int J Nanomedicine 2021; 16:493-513. [PMID: 33519198 PMCID: PMC7837554 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s285115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2020] [Accepted: 01/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Nanotechnology has prompted the development of hollow inorganic nanomedicine. These medicines are now widely investigated as photothermal-based therapies for various diseases due to their high loading capacity, tuneable wavelength, relatively small size and low density. We begin this review with a brief introduction, followed by a summary of the development of imaging-guided photothermal therapy (PTT) for cancer treatment during the last three years (from 2017 to 2020). We then introduce the antibacterial effects of these medicines on some bacterial infections, in which the pathogenic bacteria can be killed by mild photothermal effects, ions and antibiotic release. Other diseases can also be treated using hollow inorganic photothermal agents. Specifically, we discuss the use of PTT for treating Alzheimer's disease, obesity and endometriosis. Finally, we share our perspectives on the current challenges and future prospects of using hollow inorganic materials in clinical PTT for various diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen Ling
- School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211100, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaobo Wang
- School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211100, People's Republic of China
| | - Yan Shen
- Department of Pharmaceutics, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211100, People's Republic of China
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Ma J, Gao MX, Zuo H, Li YF, Gao PF, Huang CZ. Distance-Dependence Study of Plasmon Resonance Energy Transfer with DNA Spacers. Anal Chem 2020; 92:14278-14283. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.0c03991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jun Ma
- Key Laboratory of Luminescence Analysis and Molecular Sensing (Southwest University), Ministry of Education, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
| | - Ming Xuan Gao
- Key Laboratory of Luminescent and Real-Time Analytical System (Southwest University), Chongqing Science and Technology Bureau, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chongqing 400715, China
| | - Hua Zuo
- Key Laboratory of Luminescence Analysis and Molecular Sensing (Southwest University), Ministry of Education, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
| | - Yuan Fang Li
- Key Laboratory of Luminescent and Real-Time Analytical System (Southwest University), Chongqing Science and Technology Bureau, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chongqing 400715, China
| | - Peng Fei Gao
- Key Laboratory of Luminescence Analysis and Molecular Sensing (Southwest University), Ministry of Education, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
| | - Cheng Zhi Huang
- Key Laboratory of Luminescence Analysis and Molecular Sensing (Southwest University), Ministry of Education, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
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Abstract
This is a review of relevant Raman spectroscopy (RS) techniques and their use in structural biology, biophysics, cells, and tissues imaging towards development of various medical diagnostic tools, drug design, and other medical applications. Classical and contemporary structural studies of different water-soluble and membrane proteins, DNA, RNA, and their interactions and behavior in different systems were analyzed in terms of applicability of RS techniques and their complementarity to other corresponding methods. We show that RS is a powerful method that links the fundamental structural biology and its medical applications in cancer, cardiovascular, neurodegenerative, atherosclerotic, and other diseases. In particular, the key roles of RS in modern technologies of structure-based drug design are the detection and imaging of membrane protein microcrystals with the help of coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS), which would help to further the development of protein structural crystallography and would result in a number of novel high-resolution structures of membrane proteins—drug targets; and, structural studies of photoactive membrane proteins (rhodopsins, photoreceptors, etc.) for the development of new optogenetic tools. Physical background and biomedical applications of spontaneous, stimulated, resonant, and surface- and tip-enhanced RS are also discussed. All of these techniques have been extensively developed during recent several decades. A number of interesting applications of CARS, resonant, and surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy methods are also discussed.
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