Protective Liquid Crystal Nanoparticles for Targeted Delivery of PslG: A Biofilm Dispersing Enzyme

Lipidic drug delivery systems are responsive to the human microbiome

In vitro and in vivo tests for therapeutic agents are typically conducted in sterile environments, but many target areas for drug delivery are home to thousands of microbial species. Here, we examine the behaviour of lipidic nanomaterials after exposure to representative strains of four bacterial species found in the gastrointestinal tract and skin. Small angle X-ray scattering measurements show that the nanostructure of monoolein cubic and inverse hexagonal phases are transformed, respectively, into inverse hexagonal and inverse micellar cubic phases upon exposure to a strain of live Staphylococcus aureus often present on skin and mucosa. Further investigation demonstrates that enzymatic hydrolysis and cell membrane lipid transfer are both likely responsible for this effect. The structural responses to S. aureus are rapid and significantly reduce the rate of drug release from monoolein-based nanomaterials. These findings are the first to demonstrate how a key species in the live human microbiome can trigger changes in the structure and drug release properties of lipidic nanomaterials. The effect appears to be strain specific, varies from patient to patient and body region to body region, and is anticipated to affect the bioapplication of monoglyceride-based formulations.

Exploring the antibiofilm potential of chitosan nanoparticles by functional modification with chloroquine and deoxyribonuclease

Planktonic bacteria tend to form sessile community architectures to shield resident bacteria from various environmental stresses. The formed biofilm leads to the failure of conventional antimicrobial therapy. Extracellular macromolecules, including extracellular DNA (eDNA), proteins, lipids, and polysaccharides, crosslink into gel-like structures through electrostatic forces in the mature biofilm matrix. The stereo-structural integrity and chemical inertia of the extracellular polymeric matrix result in comprehensive antimicrobial resistance to antibacterial polysaccharides. Herein, an ionic gelation method was employed to functionalize cationic chitosan nanoparticles (CSNPs) with chloroquine and deoxyribonuclease. The modification involved shifting eDNA chirality through a DNA-intercalating agent, chloroquine, and hydrolyzing an eDNA scaffold with deoxyribonuclease. The antibiofilm activity was assessed against a standard Staphylococcus aureus strain and clinical subtype isolates. Functional modifications targeting eDNA improved the chitosan anti-biofilm efficiency (residual biomass decreased from 74.2 to 90.3 % to 16.7-24.6 %) by disrupting the biofilm matrix. The functional CSNPs worked as a sensitizer prodrug, contributing to a bactericidal process of chitosan itself (cell wall damage increased from 11.38-18.16 % to 55.2-61.4 %) by dispersing the biofilm-enclosed bacteria. In vivo, the bacterial burden of infected mouse joints was reduced by 4.1 lg CFU/mL. Our results indicate the potential of this chitosan-based anti-infection strategy in biofilm-related infections.

Nanoparticle-Based Strategies for Managing Biofilm Infections in Wounds: A Comprehensive Review

Chronic wounds containing opportunistic bacterial pathogens are a growing problem, as they are the primary cause of morbidity and mortality in developing and developed nations. Bacteria can adhere to almost every surface, forming architecturally complex communities called biofilms that are tolerant to an individual's immune response and traditional treatments. Wound dressings are a primary source and potential treatment avenue for biofilm infections, and research has recently focused on using nanoparticles with antimicrobial activity for infection control. This Review categorizes nanoparticle-based approaches into four main types, each leveraging unique mechanisms against biofilms. Metallic nanoparticles, such as silver and copper, show promising data due to their ability to disrupt bacterial cell membranes and induce oxidative stress, although their effectiveness can vary based on particle size and composition. Phototherapy-based nanoparticles, utilizing either photodynamic or photothermal therapy, offer targeted microbial destruction by generating reactive oxygen species or localized heat, respectively. However, their efficacy depends on the presence of light and oxygen, potentially limiting their use in deeper or more shielded biofilms. Nanoparticles designed to disrupt extracellular polymeric substances directly target the biofilm structure, enhancing the penetration and efficacy of antimicrobial agents. Lastly, nanoparticles that induce biofilm dispersion represent a novel strategy, aiming to weaken the biofilm's defense and restore susceptibility to antimicrobials. While each method has its advantages, the selection of an appropriate nanoparticle-based treatment depends on the specific requirements of the wound environment and the type of biofilm involved. The integration of these nanoparticles into wound dressings not only promises enhanced treatment outcomes but also offers a reduction in the overall use of antibiotics, aligning with the urgent need for innovative solutions in the fight against antibiotic-tolerant infections. The overarching objective of employing these diverse nanoparticle strategies is to replace antibiotics or substantially reduce their required dosages, providing promising avenues for biofilm infection management.

Antibiotic resistance and tolerance: What can drug delivery do against this global threat?

Antimicrobial resistance and tolerance (AMR&T) are urgent global health concerns, with alarmingly increasing numbers of antimicrobial drugs failing and a corresponding rise in related deaths. Several reasons for this situation can be cited, such as the misuse of traditional antibiotics, the massive use of sanitizing measures, and the overuse of antibiotics in agriculture, fisheries, and cattle. AMR&T management requires a multifaceted approach involving various strategies at different levels, such as increasing the patient's awareness of the situation and measures to reduce new resistances, reduction of current misuse or abuse, and improvement of selectivity of treatments. Also, the identification of new antibiotics, including small molecules and more complex approaches, is a key factor. Among these, novel DNA- or RNA-based approaches, the use of phages, or CRISPR technologies are some potent strategies under development. In this perspective article, emerging and experienced leaders in drug delivery discuss the most important biological barriers for drugs to reach infectious bacteria (bacterial bioavailability). They explore how overcoming these barriers is crucial for producing the desired effects and discuss the ways in which drug delivery systems can facilitate this process.

Overcoming Therapeutic Challenges of Antibiotic Delivery with Cubosome Lipid Nanocarriers

Low discovery rates for new antibiotics, commercial disincentives to invest, and inappropriate use of existing drugs have created a perfect storm of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). This "silent pandemic" of AMR looms as an immense, global threat to human health. In tandem, many potential novel drug candidates are not progressed due to elevated hydrophobicity, which may result in poor intracellular internalization and undesirable serum protein binding. With a reducing arsenal of effective antibiotics, enabling technology platforms that improve the outcome of treatments, such as repurposing existing bioactive agents, is a prospective option. Nanocarrier (NC) mediated drug delivery is one avenue for amplifying the therapeutic outcome. Here, the performance of several antibiotic classes encapsulated within the lipid-based cubosomes is examined. The findings demonstrate that encapsulation affords significant improvements in drug concentration:inhibition outcomes and assists in other therapeutic challenges associated with internalization, enzyme degradation, and protein binding. We emphasize that a currently sidelined compound, novobiocin, became active and revealed a significant increase in inhibition against the pathogenic Gram-negative strain, Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Encapsulation affords co-delivery of multiple bioactives as a strategy for mitigating failure of monotherapies and tackling resistance. The rationale in optimized drug selection and nanocarrier choice is examined by transport modeling which agrees with experimental inhibition results. The results demonstrate that lipid nanocarrier encapsulation may alleviate a range of challenges faced by antibiotic therapies and increase the range of antibiotics available to treat bacterial infections.

Preliminary identification and semi-quantitative characterization of a multi-faceted high-stability alginate lyase from marine microbe Seonamhaeicola algicola with anti-biofilm effect on Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Alginate lyases with unique characteristics for degrading alginate into size-defined oligosaccharide fractions, were considered as the potential agents for disrupting Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms. In our study, a novel endolytic PL-7 alginate lyase, named AlyG2, was cloned and expressed through Escherichia coli. This enzyme exhibited excellent properties: it maintained more than 85% activity at low temperatures of 4 °C and high temperatures of 70 °C. After 1 h of incubation at 4 °C, it still retained over 95% activity, demonstrating the ability to withstand low temperature. The acid-base and salt tolerance properties shown it preserves more than 50% activity in the pH range of 5.0 to 11.0 and in a high salt environment at 3000 mM NacCl, indicating its high stability in several aspects. More importantly, AlyG2 in our research was revealed to be effective at removing mature biofilms and inhibiting biofilm formation produced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and the inhibition and disruption rates were 47.25 ± 4.52% and 26.5 ± 6.72%, respectively. Additionally, the enzyme AlyG2 promoted biofilm disruption in combination with antibiotics, particularly manifesting the synergistic effect with erythromycin (FIC=0.5). In all, these results offered that AlyG2 with unique characteristics may be an effective technique for the clearance or disruption of biofilm produced by P. aeruginosa.

Lipid-based nanomedicines for the treatment of bacterial respiratory infections: current state and new perspectives

The global threat posed by antimicrobial resistance demands urgent action and the development of effective drugs. Lower respiratory tract infections remain the deadliest communicable disease worldwide, often challenging to treat due to the presence of bacteria that form recalcitrant biofilms. There is consensus that novel anti-infectives with reduced resistance compared with conventional antibiotics are needed, leading to extensive research on innovative antibacterial agents. This review explores the recent progress in lipid-based nanomedicines developed to counteract bacterial respiratory infections, especially those involving biofilm growth; focuses on improved drug bioavailability and targeting and highlights novel strategies to enhance treatment efficacy while emphasizing the importance of continued research in this dynamic field.

Nanotechnology-Based Drug Delivery Systems to Control Bacterial-Biofilm-Associated Lung Infections

Airway mucus dysfunction and impaired immunological defenses are hallmarks of several lung diseases, including asthma, cystic fibrosis, and chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases, and are mostly causative factors in bacterial-biofilm-associated respiratory tract infections. Bacteria residing within the biofilm architecture pose a complex challenge in clinical settings due to their increased tolerance to currently available antibiotics and host immune responses, resulting in chronic infections with high recalcitrance and high rates of morbidity and mortality. To address these unmet clinical needs, potential anti-biofilm therapeutic strategies are being developed to effectively control bacterial biofilm. This review focuses on recent advances in the development and application of nanoparticulate drug delivery systems for the treatment of biofilm-associated respiratory tract infections, especially addressing the respiratory barriers of concern for biofilm accessibility and the various types of nanoparticles used to combat biofilms. Understanding the obstacles facing pulmonary drug delivery to bacterial biofilms and nanoparticle-based approaches to combatting biofilm may encourage researchers to explore promising treatment modalities for bacterial-biofilm-associated chronic lung infections.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm exopolysaccharides: assembly, function, and degradation

The biofilm matrix is a fortress; sheltering bacteria in a protective and nourishing barrier that allows for growth and adaptation to various surroundings. A variety of different components are found within the matrix including water, lipids, proteins, extracellular DNA, RNA, membrane vesicles, phages, and exopolysaccharides. As part of its biofilm matrix, Pseudomonas aeruginosa is genetically capable of producing three chemically distinct exopolysaccharides - alginate, Pel, and Psl - each of which has a distinct role in biofilm formation and immune evasion during infection. The polymers are produced by highly conserved mechanisms of secretion, involving many proteins that span both the inner and outer bacterial membranes. Experimentally determined structures, predictive modelling of proteins whose structures are yet to be solved, and structural homology comparisons give us insight into the molecular mechanisms of these secretion systems, from polymer synthesis to modification and export. Here, we review recent advances that enhance our understanding of P. aeruginosa multiprotein exopolysaccharide biosynthetic complexes, and how the glycoside hydrolases/lyases within these systems have been commandeered for antimicrobial applications.

Drug delivery strategies for antibiofilm therapy

Although new antibiofilm agents have been developed to prevent and eliminate pathogenic biofilms, their widespread clinical use is hindered by poor biocompatibility and bioavailability, unspecific interactions and insufficient local concentrations. The development of innovative drug delivery strategies can facilitate penetration of antimicrobials through biofilms, promote drug dispersal and synergistic bactericidal effects, and provide novel paradigms for clinical application. In this Review, we discuss the potential benefits of such emerging techniques for improving the clinical efficacy of antibiofilm agents, as well as highlighting the existing limitations and future prospects for these therapies in the clinic.

How Three Self-Secreted Biofilm Exopolysaccharides of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Psl, Pel, and Alginate, Can Each Be Exploited for Antibiotic Adjuvant Effects in Cystic Fibrosis Lung Infection

In cystic fibrosis (CF), pulmonary infection with Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a cause of increased morbidity and mortality, especially in patients for whom infection becomes chronic and there is reliance on long-term suppressive therapies. Current antimicrobials, though varied mechanistically and by mode of delivery, are inadequate not only due to their failure to eradicate infection but also because they do not halt the progression of lung function decline over time. One of the reasons for this failure is thought to be the biofilm mode of growth of P. aeruginosa, wherein self-secreted exopolysaccharides (EPSs) provide physical protection against antibiotics and an array of niches with resulting metabolic and phenotypic heterogeneity. The three biofilm-associated EPSs secreted by P. aeruginosa (alginate, Psl, and Pel) are each under investigation and are being exploited in ways that potentiate antibiotics. In this review, we describe the development and structure of P. aeruginosa biofilms before examining each EPS as a potential therapeutic target for combating pulmonary infection with P. aeruginosa in CF, with a particular focus on the current evidence for these emerging therapies and barriers to bringing these therapies into clinic.

Liquid crystalline lipid nanoparticles improve the antibacterial activity of tobramycin and vancomycin against intracellular Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus

The intracellular survival of bacteria is a significant challenge in the fight against antimicrobial resistance. Currently available antibiotics suffer from limited penetration across host cell membranes, resulting in suboptimal treatment against the internalised bacteria. Liquid crystalline nanoparticles (LCNP) are gaining significant research interest in promoting the cellular uptake of therapeutics due to their fusogenic properties; however, they have not been reported for targeting intracellular bacteria. Herein, the cellular internalisation of LCNPs in RAW 264.7 macrophages and A549 epithelial cells was investigated and optimized through the incorporation of a cationic lipid, dimethyldioctadecylammonium bromide (DDAB). LCNPs displayed a honeycomb-like structure, while the inclusion of DDAB resulted into an onion-like organisation with larger internal pores. Cationic LCNPs enhanced the cellular uptake in both cells, reaching up to ∼90% uptake in cells. Further, LCNPs were encapsulated with tobramycin or vancomycin to improve their activity against intracellular gram-negative, Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) and gram-positive, Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) bacteria. The enhanced cellular uptake of cationic LCNP resulted in significant reduction of intracellular bacterial load (up to 90% reduction), compared to antibiotic dosed in its free form; with reduced performance observed for epithelial cells infected with S. aureus. Specifically engineered LCNP can re-sensitise antibiotics against both intracellular Gram positive and negative bacteria in diverse cell lines.

Protein adsorption determines pulmonary cell uptake of lipid-based nanoparticles

The inhalable administration of lipid nanoparticles is an effective strategy for localised delivery of therapeutics against various lung diseases. Of this, improved intracellular delivery of pharmaceuticals for infectious disease and cancer management is of high significance. However, the influence of lipid nanoparticle composition and structure on uptake in pulmonary cell lines, especially in the presence of biologically relevant media is poorly understood. Here, the uptake of lamellar (liposomes) versus non-lamellar (cubosomes) lipid nanoparticles in macrophages and lung epithelial cells was quantified and the influence of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), containing native pulmonary protein and surfactant molecules is determined. Cubosome uptake in both macrophages and epithelial cells was strongly mediated by a high percentage of molecular function regulatory and binding proteins present within the protein corona. In contrast, the protein corona did not influence the uptake of liposomes in epithelial cells. In macrophages, the proteins mediated a rapid internalisation, followed by exocytosis of liposomes after 6 h incubation. These findings on the influence of biological fluid in regulating lipid nanoparticle uptake mechanisms may guide future development of optimal intracellular delivery systems for therapeutics via the pulmonary route.

Lipidic lyotropic liquid crystals: Insights on biomedical applications

Liquid crystals (LCs) possess unique physicochemical properties, translatable into a wide range of applications. To date, lipidic lyotropic LCs (LLCs) have been extensively explored in drug delivery and imaging owing to the capability to encapsulate and release payloads with different characteristics. The current landscape of lipidic LLCs in biomedical applications is provided in this review. Initially, the main properties, types, methods of fabrication and applications of LCs are showcased. Then, a comprehensive discussion of the main biomedical applications of lipidic LLCs accordingly to the application (drug and biomacromolecule delivery, tissue engineering and molecular imaging) and route of administration is examined. Further discussion of the main limitations and perspectives of lipidic LLCs in biomedical applications are also provided. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Liquid crystals (LCs) are those systems between a solid and liquid state that possess unique morphological and physicochemical properties, translatable into a wide range of biomedical applications. A short description of the properties of LCs, their types and manufacturing procedures is given to serve as a background to the topic. Then, the latest and most innovative research in the field of biomedicine is examined, specifically the areas of drug and biomacromolecule delivery, tissue engineering and molecular imaging. Finally, prospects of LCs in biomedicine are discussed to show future trends and perspectives that might be utilized. This article is an ampliation, improvement and actualization of our previous short forum article "Bringing lipidic lyotropic liquid crystal technology into biomedicine" published in TIPS.

Insights into the Influence of Signal Peptide on the Enzymatic Properties of Alginate Lyase AlyI1 with Removal Effect on Pseudomonas aeruginosa Biofilm

Most reports on signal peptides focus on their ability to affect the normal folding of proteins, thereby affecting their secreted expression, while few studies on its effects on enzymatic properties were published. Therefore, biochemical characterization and comparison of alginate lyase rALYI1/rALYI1-1 (rALYI1: without signal peptides; rALYI1-1:with signal peptides) were conducted in our study, and the results showed that the signal peptide affected the biochemical properties, especially in temperature and pH. rALYI1 (32.15 kDa) belonging to polysaccharide lyase family 7 was cloned from sea-cucumber-gut bacterium Tamlana sp. I1. The optimum temperature of both rALYI1 and rALYI1-1 was 40 °C, but the former had a wider optimum temperature range and better thermal stability. The optimum pH of rALYI1 and rALYI1-1 were 7.6 and 8.6, respectively. The former was more stable and acid resistant. Noticeably, rALYI1 was a salt-activated enzyme and displayed remarkable salt tolerance. Alginate, an essential polysaccharide in algae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms, is composed of α-L-guluronate and β-D-mannuronate. It is also found in our study that rALYI1 is also effective in removing mature biofilms compared with controls. In conclusion, the signal peptide affects several biochemical properties of the enzyme, and alginate lyase rALYI1 may be an effective method for inhibiting biofilm formation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Regulation of Biofilm Exopolysaccharide Biosynthesis and Degradation in Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Microbial communities enmeshed in a matrix of macromolecules, termed as biofilms, are the natural setting of bacteria. Exopolysaccharide is a critical matrix component of biofilms. Here, we focus on biofilm matrix exopolysaccharides in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. This opportunistic pathogen can adapt to a wide range of environments and can form biofilms or aggregates in a variety of surfaces or environments, such as the lungs of people with cystic fibrosis, catheters, wounds, and contact lenses. The ability to synthesize multiple exopolysaccharides is one of the advantages that facilitate bacterial survival in different environments. P. aeruginosa can produce several exopolysaccharides, including alginate, Psl, Pel, and lipopolysaccharide. In this review, we highlight the roles of each exopolysaccharide in P. aeruginosa biofilm development and how bacteria coordinate the biosynthesis of multiple exopolysaccharides and bacterial motility. In addition, we present advances in antibiofilm strategies targeting matrix exopolysaccharides, with a focus on glycoside hydrolases.

Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Microbiology, Volume 76 is September 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

Liquid crystal nanoparticle platform for increased efficacy of cationic antimicrobials against biofilm infections

Bacterial biofilm infections tolerate high concentrations of antibiotics and are insidiously challenging to treat. Liquid crystal nanoparticles (LCNPs) advance the efficacy of tobramycin in biofilm-related infections by increasing the penetration of antibiotics across the biofilm matrix. Herewith, we develop the LCNPs as a platform technology, demonstrating that the LCNPs can increase the efficacy of two antibiotic classes (i.e. aminoglycosides and colistin) in P. aeruginosa biofilm infections. In C. elegans, the LCNPs potentiated the antimicrobial effect and significantly improved the survival of the nematodes. In mice with a full-thickness excisional wound, LCNPs were non-toxic and did not impair wound repair. Compared to the unformulated antibiotic treatment, tobramycin-LCNPs reduced the chronic bacterial load by 100-fold in the wound. This was also emulated in an ex vivo P. aeruginosa porcine wound infection model. The LCNPs represent a versatile platform technology that improves the efficacy of cationic antibiotics against biofilm infections utilizing multiple administration routes.

Recent Advances in Antimicrobial Nano-Drug Delivery Systems

Infectious diseases are among the major health issues of the 21st century. The substantial use of antibiotics over the years has contributed to the dissemination of multidrug resistant bacteria. According to a recent report by the World Health Organization, antibacterial (ATB) drug resistance has been one of the biggest challenges, as well as the development of effective long-term ATBs. Since pathogens quickly adapt and evolve through several strategies, regular ATBs usually may result in temporary or noneffective treatments. Therefore, the demand for new therapies methods, such as nano-drug delivery systems (NDDS), has aroused huge interest due to its potentialities to improve the drug bioavailability and targeting efficiency, including liposomes, nanoemulsions, solid lipid nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, metal nanoparticles, and others. Given the relevance of this subject, this review aims to summarize the progress of recent research in antibacterial therapeutic drugs supported by nanobiotechnological tools.

Liquid Crystal Nanoparticles Enhance Tobramycin Efficacy in a Murine Model of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Biofilm Wound Infection

Chronic Pseudomonas aeruginosa wound infections are highly prevalent and often untreatable due to biofilm formation, resulting in high antimicrobial tolerance. Standard antibiotic therapy for P. aeruginosa infections involves tobramycin, yet it is highly ineffective as monotherapy as tobramycin cannot penetrate the biofilm to elicit its antimicrobial effect. Lipid liquid crystal nanoparticles (LCNPs) have previously been shown to increase the antimicrobial efficacy and penetration of tobramycin against P. aeruginosa biofilms in vitro and ex vivo. Here, for the first time, we have developed a chronic P. aeruginosa biofilm infection in full-thickness wounds in mice to examine the potential of LCNPs to improve the effect of tobramycin, preclinically. After three doses, administered once a day, tobramycin-LCNPs significantly reduced the P. aeruginosa bacterial load in murine wounds 1000-fold more than unformulated tobramycin, which in turn showed no significant difference to the saline control treatment. Consistent with the improved P. aeruginosa eradication, the tobramycin-LCNPs promoted wound healing. In comparison to previous in vitro and ex vivo data, we show a strong in vitro-in vivo correlation between P. aeruginosa biofilm infection models. The enhanced activity of tobramycin-LCNPs in vivo in the preclinical murine model demonstrates the strong potential of LCNPs as a next-generation formulation approach to improve the efficacy of tobramycin against P. aeruginosa biofilm wound infections.

Advances in Nanostructures for Antimicrobial Therapy

Microbial infections caused by a variety of drug-resistant microorganisms are more common, but there are fewer and fewer approved new antimicrobial chemotherapeutics for systemic administration capable of acting against these resistant infectious pathogens. Formulation innovations of existing drugs are gaining prominence, while the application of nanotechnologies is a useful alternative for improving/increasing the effect of existing antimicrobial drugs. Nanomaterials represent one of the possible strategies to address this unfortunate situation. This review aims to summarize the most current results of nanoformulations of antibiotics and antibacterial active nanomaterials. Nanoformulations of antimicrobial peptides, synergistic combinations of antimicrobial-active agents with nitric oxide donors or combinations of small organic molecules or polymers with metals, metal oxides or metalloids are discussed as well. The mechanisms of actions of selected nanoformulations, including systems with magnetic, photothermal or photodynamic effects, are briefly described.

Enhancing the therapeutic use of biofilm-dispersing enzymes with smart drug delivery systems

Biofilm-dispersing enzymes degrade the extracellular polymeric matrix surrounding bacterial biofilms, disperse the microbial community and increase their susceptibility to antibiotics and immune cells. Challenges for the clinical translation of biofilm-dispersing enzymes involve their susceptibility to denaturation, degradation, and clearance upon administration in vivo. Drug delivery systems aim to overcome these limitations through encapsulation, stabilization and protection from the exterior environment, thereby maintaining the enzymatic activity. Smart drug delivery systems offer target specificity, releasing payloads at the site of infection while minimizing unnecessary systemic exposure. This review highlights critical advances of biofilm-dispersing enzymes as a novel therapeutic approach for biofilm-associated infections. We explore how smart, bio-responsive delivery systems overcome the limiting factors of biofilm-dispersing enzymes and summarize the key systems designed. This review will guide future developments, focusing on utilizing selective and specific therapies in a targeted fashion to meet the unmet therapeutic needs of biofilm infections.