Exploiting the synergy between coordination chemistry and molecular imprinting in the quest for new catalysts

Designing Sites in Heterogeneous Catalysis: Are We Reaching Selectivities Competitive With Those of Homogeneous Catalysts?

A critical review of different prominent nanotechnologies adapted to catalysis is provided, with focus on how they contribute to the improvement of selectivity in heterogeneous catalysis. Ways to modify catalytic sites range from the use of the reversible or irreversible adsorption of molecular modifiers to the immobilization or tethering of homogeneous catalysts and the development of well-defined catalytic sites on solid surfaces. The latter covers methods for the dispersion of single-atom sites within solid supports as well as the use of complex nanostructures, and it includes the post-modification of materials via processes such as silylation and atomic layer deposition. All these methodologies exhibit both advantages and limitations, but all offer new avenues for the design of catalysts for specific applications. Because of the high cost of most nanotechnologies and the fact that the resulting materials may exhibit limited thermal or chemical stability, they may be best aimed at improving the selective synthesis of high value-added chemicals, to be incorporated in organic synthesis schemes, but other applications are being explored as well to address problems in energy production, for instance, and to design greener chemical processes. The details of each of these approaches are discussed, and representative examples are provided. We conclude with some general remarks on the future of this field.

Environmental Modulation of Chiral Prolinamide Catalysts for Stereodivergent Conjugate Addition

Synthetic chiral catalysts generally rely on proximal functional groups or ligands for chiral induction. Enzymes often employ environmental chirality to achieve stereoselectivity. Environmentally controlled catalysis has benefits such as size and shape selectivity but is underexplored by chemists. We here report molecularly imprinted nanoparticles (MINPs) that utilized their environmental chirality to either augment or reverse the intrinsic selectivity of a chiral prolinamide cofactor. The latter ability allowed the catalyst to produce products otherwise disfavored in the conjugate addition of aldehyde to nitroalkene. The catalysis occurred in water at room temperature and afforded γ-nitroaldehydes with excellent yields (up to 94%) and ee (>90% in most cases). Up to 25:1 syn/anti and 1:6 syn/anti ratios were achieved through a combination of catalyst-derived and environmentally enabled selectivity. The high enantioselectivity of the MINP also made it possible for racemic catalysts to perform asymmetric catalysis, with up to 80% ee for the conjugate addition.

Chiral Gating for Size- and Shape-Selective Asymmetric Catalysis

A poor or mediocre stereoselectivity is a key roadblock for a chiral catalyst to find practical adoptions. We report a facile method to create a tunable chiral space near a chiral catalyst to augment its selectivity. The space was created rationally through templated polymerization within cross-linked micelles, using readily available amino acid derivatives. It provided gated entrance of reactants to the catalyst, enabling a mediocre prolinamide to catalyze aldol condensation in water with excellent yields and ee, in a size- and shape-selective manner.

Highly efficient and selective removal of trace lead from aqueous solutions by hollow mesoporous silica loaded with molecularly imprinted polymers

A novel type of adsorbent for the selective recognition and adsorption of trace Pb²⁺ from aqueous solutions has been successfully constructed simply by grafting molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) onto hollow mesoporous silica (HMS). Attractively, the HMS loaded with MIPs (H-MIPs) exhibits a fast adsorption kinetics, marked adsorption capacity of 40.52mg/g and extremely high selectivity toward Pb²⁺ over Cu²⁺, Zn²⁺, Co²⁺, Mn²⁺ and Ni²⁺, and the selectivity coefficients have been determined to be as high as 50. Moreover, such high adsorptive capability and selectivity were retained for at least 6 runs, indicating the stability and reusability of H-MIPs. Lead ion contaminants in real water samples were successfully concentrated and approximately 100% recovered using H-MIPs. Theoretical analysis shows that the adsorption process of H-MIPs follows the pseudo-second-order kinetic and Langmuir isotherm models. These demonstrate that H-MIPs are greatly potential for the rapid and highly efficient removal of trace Pb²⁺ ions in complicated matrices.

Preparation and catalytic performance of a molecularly imprinted Pd complex catalyst for Suzuki cross-coupling reactions

A molecularly imprinted Pd complex catalyst was successfully designed and prepared on a SiO₂ surface for shape-selective Suzuki cross-coupling reaction.

Controlling ligand binding for tunable and switchable catalysis: cation-modulated hemilability in pincer-crown ether ligands

The development of cation-responsive “pincer-crown ether” complexes featuring tunable hemilability is reviewed in the context of switchable and tunable catalysis.

Asymmetric synthesis using chiral-encoded metal

The synthesis of chiral compounds is of crucial importance in many areas of society and science, including medicine, biology, chemistry, biotechnology and agriculture. Thus, there is a fundamental interest in developing new approaches for the selective production of enantiomers. Here we report the use of mesoporous metal structures with encoded geometric chiral information for inducing asymmetry in the electrochemical synthesis of mandelic acid as a model molecule. The chiral-encoded mesoporous metal, obtained by the electrochemical reduction of platinum salts in the presence of a liquid crystal phase and the chiral template molecule, perfectly retains the chiral information after removal of the template. Starting from a prochiral compound we demonstrate enantiomeric excess of the (R)-enantiomer when using (R)-imprinted electrodes and vice versa for the (S)-imprinted ones. Moreover, changing the amount of chiral cavities in the material allows tuning the enantioselectivity.

Synthesis of multi-ion imprinted polymers based on dithizone chelation for simultaneous removal of Hg2+, Cd2+, Ni2+ and Cu2+ from aqueous solutions

A multi-ion imprinted polymer strategy based on dithizone chelation for simultaneous removal of multiple ions in aqueous solution.

An Autocatalytic System of Photooxidation-Driven Substitution Reactions on a Fe(II)4L6 Cage Framework

The functions of life are accomplished by systems exhibiting nonlinear kinetics: autocatalysis, in particular, is integral to the signal amplification that allows for biological information processing. Novel synthetic autocatalytic systems provide a foundation for the design of artificial chemical networks capable of carrying out complex functions. Here we report a set of Fe(II)4L6 cages containing BODIPY chromophores having tuneable photosensitizing properties. Electron-rich anilines were observed to displace electron-deficient anilines at the dynamic-covalent imine bonds of these cages. When iodoaniline residues were incorporated, heavy-atom effects led to enhanced (1)O2 production. The incorporation of (methylthio)aniline residues into a cage allowed for the design of an autocatalytic system: oxidation of the methylthio groups into sulfoxides make them electron-deficient and allows their displacement by iodoanilines, generating a better photocatalyst and accelerating the reaction.

Molecular imprinting science and technology: a survey of the literature for the years 2004-2011

Herein, we present a survey of the literature covering the development of molecular imprinting science and technology over the years 2004-2011. In total, 3779 references to the original papers, reviews, edited volumes and monographs from this period are included, along with recently identified uncited materials from prior to 2004, which were omitted in the first instalment of this series covering the years 1930-2003. In the presentation of the assembled references, a section presenting reviews and monographs covering the area is followed by sections describing fundamental aspects of molecular imprinting including the development of novel polymer formats. Thereafter, literature describing efforts to apply these polymeric materials to a range of application areas is presented. Current trends and areas of rapid development are discussed.

Ruthenium polypyridine complexes combined with oligonucleotides for bioanalysis: a review

Ruthenium complexes are among the most interesting coordination complexes and they have attracted great attention over the past decades due to their appealing biological, catalytic, electronic and optical properties. Ruthenium complexes have found a unique niche in bioanalysis, as demonstrated by the substantial progress made in the field. In this review, the applications of ruthenium complexes coordinated with polypyridine ligands (and analogues) in bioanalysis are discussed. Three main detection methods based on electrochemistry, electrochemiluminescence, and photoluminscence are covered. The important targets, including DNA and other biologically important targets, are detected by specific biorecognition with the corresponding oligonucleotides as the biorecognition elements (i.e., DNA is probed by its complementary strand and other targets are detected by functional nucleic acids, respectively). Selected examples are provided and thoroughly discussed to highlight the substantial progress made so far. Finally, a brief summary with perspectives is included.

Novel Pb2+ ion imprinted polymers based on ionic interaction via synergy of dual functional monomers for selective solid-phase extraction of Pb2+ in water samples

A novel kind of Pb(2+) ion imprinted polymers (IIPs) was prepared based on ionic interactions via the synergy of dual functional monomers of methacrylic acid and vinyl pyridine for selective solid-phase extraction (SPE) of Pb(2+) in water samples. Suspension polymerization was employed for the formation of template Pb(2+)/monomer complex by self-assembly in the presence of ethylene glycol dimethacrylate cross-linker. The resulted Pb(2+) IIPs showed fast kinetics, high binding capacity, and the adsorption processes obeyed intraparticle diffusion kinetics and Langmuir isotherm models. The IIPs displayed excellent selectivity toward Pb(2+) over other metal ions such as Cu(2+), Cd(2+), Zn(2+), and Mn(2+) with selective coefficients above 30, as well as high anti-interference ability for Pb(2+) confronting with common coexisting various ions. Through 10 adsorption-desorption cycles, the reusable IIPs exhibited a good recoverability with the standard error within 5%. These features suggested the IIPs were ideal candidates for extraction and removal of Pb(2+) ions. Consequently, the IIPs were utilized as SPE sorbents and related parameters were optimized. An excellent linearity was presented in the range of 0.2-50 μg L(-1) (R(2) = 0.9998), as well as the limits of detection and quantification were achieved of 0.06 and 0.19 μg L(-1), respectively. A good repeatability was obtained with the relative standard deviation of 2.8%. Furthermore, real water samples were successfully analyzed and satisfactory recoveries varying from 95.5 to 104.6% were attained. The IIPs-SPE demonstrated potential application perspectives for rapid and high-effective cleanup and enrichment of trace Pb(2+) ions in complicated matrices.

Hg2+ion-imprinted polymers sorbents based on dithizone–Hg2+chelation for mercury speciation analysis in environmental and biological samples

Novel Hg²⁺ion-imprinted polymers were synthesized using the chelate of dithizone and Hg²⁺as template for mercury speciation analysis.

Hybrid surfactant systems with inorganic constituents

Surfactants are molecules of enormous scientific and technological importance, which are widely used as detergents, emulsifiers, and for the preparation of diverse nanostructures. Their fascinating ability to form self-organized structures, such as micelles or liquid crystals, originate from their amphiphilic architecture-a polar head group linked to a hydrophobic chain. While almost all known surfactants are organic, a new family of surfactants is now emerging, which combines amphiphilic properties with the advanced functionality of transition-metal building blocks, for example, redox or catalytic activity and magnetism. These hybrid surfactants exhibit novel self-organization features because of the unique size and electronic properties of the metal-containing entities.

Nanostructured materials for applications in heterogeneous catalysis

In this review, a brief survey is offered on the main nanotechnology synthetic approaches available to heterogeneous catalysis, and a few examples are provided of their usefulness for such applications. We start by discussing the use of colloidal, reverse micelle, and dendrimer chemistry in the production of active metal and metal oxide nanoparticles with well-defined sizes, shapes, and compositions, as a way to control the surface atomic ensembles available for selective catalysis. Next we introduce the use of sol-gel and atomic layer deposition chemistry for the production and modification of high-surface-area supports and active phases. Reference is then made to the more complex active sites that can be created or carved on such supports by using organic structure-directing agents. We follow with an examination of the ability to achieve multiple functionality in catalysis via the design of dumbbells, core@shell, and other complex nanostructures. Finally, we consider the mixed molecular-nanostructure approach that can be used to develop more demanding catalytic sites, by derivatizing the surface of solids or tethering or immobilizing homogeneous catalysts or other chemical functionalities. We conclude with a personal and critical perspective on the importance of fully exploiting the synergies between nanotechnology and surface science to optimize the search for new catalysts and catalytic processes.

Molecularly imprinted Ru complex catalysts integrated on oxide surfaces

Selective catalysis is critical for the development of green chemical processes, and natural enzymes that possess specialized three-dimensional reaction pockets with catalytically active sites represent the most sophisticated systems for selective catalysis. A reaction space in an enzyme consists of an active metal center, functional groups for molecular recognition (such as amino acids), and a surrounding protein matrix to prepare the reaction pocket. The artificial design of such an integrated catalytic unit in a non-enzymatic system remains challenging. Molecular imprinting of a supported metal complex provides a promising approach for shape-selective catalysis. In this process, an imprinted cavity with a shape matched to a template molecule is created in a polymer matrix with a catalytically active metal site. In this Account, we review our studies on molecularly imprinted metal complex catalysts, focusing on Ru complexes, on oxide surfaces for shape-selective catalysis. Oxide surface-attached transition metal complex catalysts not only improve thermal stability and catalyst dispersion but also provide unique catalytic performance not observed in homogeneous precursors. We designed molecularly imprinted Ru complexes by using surface-attached Ru complexes with template ligands and inorganic/organic surface matrix overlayers to control the chemical environment around the active metal complex catalysts on oxide surfaces. We prepared the designed, molecularly imprinted Ru complexes on SiO(2) surfaces in a step-by-step manner and characterized them with solid-state (SS) NMR, diffuse-reflectance (DR) UV-vis, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Brunauer-Emmett-Teller isotherm (BET), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), and Ru K-edge extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS). The catalytic performances of these Ru complexes suggest that this process of molecular imprinting facilitates the artificial integration of catalytic functions at surfaces. Further advances such as the imprinting of a transition state structure or the addition of multiple binding sites could lead to systems that can achieve 100% selective catalysis.

Synthesis and characterization of dendritic platinum bisferrocenylacetylide complexes

A series of new dendritic platinum bisferrocenylacetylide complexes have been synthesized utilizing the coupling reaction of trans-Pt complexes with C–H bonds in alkynes as key steps. These new bimetallic dendrimers were fully characterized by multinuclear NMR (1H, 13C, and 31P) and mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS and CSI-TOF-MS). Electrochemical studies of these complexes were carried out and revealed that all of the redox moieties are stable, independent, and electrochemically active. In addition, all metallodendrimers show one-electron reaction responses, and the increased sizes of these complexes did not exhibit a dramatic influence on the diffusion coefficient.

Polymer imprinting with iron-oxo-hydroxo clusters: [Fe6O2(OH)2(O2CC(Cl)=CH2)12(H2O)2], [Fe6O2(OH)2(O2C-Ph-(CH)=CH2)12(H2O)2] and [{Fe(O2CC(Cl)=CH2)(OMe)2}10]

We report the syntheses of imprinted polymers using iron-oxo-hydroxo clusters as templates. Three new iron clusters, [Fe(6)O(2)(OH)(2)(O(2)CC(Cl)=CH(2))(12)(H(2)O)(2)] (1), [{Fe(O(2)CC(Cl)=CH(2))(OMe)(2)}(10)] (2) and [Fe(6)O(2)(OH)(2)(O(2)C-Ph-(CH)=CH(2))(12)(H(2)O)(2)] (3) have been prepared from commercially-available carboxylic acids. Cluster-imprinted-polymers (CIPs) of 1, 2 and 3 were prepared with ethylene glycol dimethacrylate monomer, and of 1 with methyl methacrylate monomer. The imprinted sites within the CIPs were examined using EXAFS and diffuse reflectance UV/vis spectroscopy, demonstrating that the clusters 1, 2 and 3 were incorporated intact within the polymers. Extraction of the clusters from the CIPs imprinted with 1 and 3 gave new polymers that showed evidence of an imprinting effect.

Facile self-assembly of neutral dendritic metallocycles via oxygen-to-platinum coordination

A new approach for the fabrication of neutral dendritic metallocycles is described. By combining rigid 120 degrees dicarboxylate donor linkers funtionalized with [G0]-[G3] Frechet-type dendrons and complementary rigid 60 degrees and 120 degrees di-Pt(II) acceptor subunits, neutral rhomboidal metallodendrimers and hexagonal metallodendrimers, respectively, were prepared under mild conditions in high yields. The assemblies have well-defined shapes and sizes and were characterized by multinuclear NMR ((1)H and (31)P), mass spectrometry (ESI (+)-TOF-MS and APPI(+)-TOF-MS), and elemental analysis. Isotopically resolved mass spectrometry data support the formation of the neutral [2 + 2] rhomboidal, and [3 + 3] hexagonal metallodendrimers, and NMR data are consistent with the formation of all ensembles. The structures of the [G0] and [G1] neutral rhomboidal metallodendrimers (3a and 3b) were unambiguously confirmed via single-crystal X-ray crystallography. The shape and size of [G3] neutral hexagonal metallodendrimer 5d was established with MMFF force-field simulations.

Synthesis of six-component metallodendrimers via [3 + 3] coordination-driven self-assembly

A new class of 120 degrees dendritic di-Pt(II) acceptor subunits has been designed and synthesized, from which six-component hexagonal metallodendrimers were easily formed with 120 degrees dendritic dipyridine donors via [3 + 3] coordination-driven self-assembly. The structures of all metallodendrimers are confirmed by multinuclear NMR, ESI-TOF-MS/ESI-FTMS, and elemental analysis. MMFF force-field simulations indicates that all metallodendrimers have a hexagonal ring with an internal radius of approximately 1.4 nm.

Single-step dispersion of functionalities on a silica surface

A new process for coating a mesoporous silica gel with a mixture of the grafting reagents para-aminophenyltrimethoxysilane and phenyltrimethoxysilane is thoroughly analyzed. The dilution of para-aminophenylsilane with phenylsilane at different ratios allows the density of the functional amino groups present on the silica surface to be controlled, while keeping constant the overall number of grafts. Furthermore, the choice of a rigid linker prevents undesirable interactions between the active function and the inorganic support that could alter the function reactivity. This simple and new method, which results in the improvement of the dispersion of a functionality in a one-pot synthesis, could be particularly interesting in the field of supported catalysis and molecular recognition. The dispersion of the functional groups of the synthesized hybrid solids is investigated using a pyrene derivative covalently linked to the free amino groups of the para-aminophenylsilanes by analyzing the excimer and monomer fluorescence properties of the probe.