Mutation of Tyr138 disrupts the structural coupling between the opposing domains in vertebrate calmodulin

NaV1.2 EFL domain allosterically enhances Ca2+ binding to sites I and II of WT and pathogenic calmodulin mutants bound to the channel CTD

Neuronal voltage-gated sodium channel NaV1.2 C-terminal domain (CTD) binds calmodulin (CaM) constitutively at its IQ motif. A solution structure (6BUT) and other NMR evidence showed that the CaM N domain (CaMN) is structurally independent of the C-domain (CaMC) whether CaM is bound to the NaV1.2IQp (1,901-1,927) or NaV1.2CTD (1,777-1,937) with or without calcium. However, in the CaM + NaV1.2CTD complex, the Ca2+ affinity of CaMN was more favorable than in free CaM, while Ca2+ affinity for CaMC was weaker than in the CaM + NaV1.2IQp complex. The CTD EF-like (EFL) domain allosterically widened the energetic gap between CaM domains. Cardiomyopathy-associated CaM mutants (N53I(N54I), D95V(D96V), A102V(A103V), E104A(E105A), D129G(D130G), and F141L(F142L)) all bound the NaV1.2 IQ motif favorably under resting (apo) conditions and bound calcium normally at CaMN sites. However, only N53I and A102V bound calcium at CaMC sites at [Ca2+] < 100 μM. Thus, they are expected to respond like wild-type CaM to Ca2+ spikes in excitable cells.

Characterization of phospho-(tyrosine)-mimetic calmodulin mutants

Calmodulin (CaM) phosphorylated at different serine/threonine and tyrosine residues is known to exert differential regulatory effects on a variety of CaM-binding enzymes as compared to non-phosphorylated CaM. In this report we describe the preparation and characterization of a series of phospho-(Y)-mimetic CaM mutants in which either one or the two tyrosine residues present in CaM (Y99 and Y138) were substituted to aspartic acid or glutamic acid. It was expected that the negative charge of the respective carboxyl group of these amino acids mimics the negative charge of phosphate and reproduce the effects that distinct phospho-(Y)-CaM species may have on target proteins. We describe some physicochemical properties of these CaM mutants as compared to wild type CaM, after their expression in Escherichia coli and purification to homogeneity, including: i) changes in their electrophoretic mobility in the absence and presence of Ca2+; ii) ultraviolet (UV) light absorption spectra, far- and near-UV circular dichroism data; iii) thermal stability in the absence and presence of Ca2+; and iv) Tb3+-emitted fluorescence upon tyrosine excitation. We also describe some biochemical properties of these CaM mutants, such as their differential phosphorylation by the tyrosine kinase c-Src, and their action as compared to wild type CaM, on the activity of two CaM-dependent enzymes: cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase 1 (PDE1) and endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) assayed in vitro.

Opposing orientations of the anti-psychotic drug trifluoperazine selected by alternate conformations of M144 in calmodulin

The anti-psychotic drug trifluoperazine (TFP) is an antagonist observed to bind to calcium-saturated calmodulin ((Ca(2+) )4 -CaM) at ratios of 1:1 (1CTR), 2:1 (1A29), and 4:1 (1LIN). Each structure contains one TFP bound in the hydrophobic cleft of the C-domain of CaM. However, the orientation of the trifluoromethyl (CF3 ) moiety differs among them: it is buried in the C-domain cleft of 1A29 and 1LIN, but protrudes from 1CTR. We report a 2.0 Å resolution crystallographic structure (4RJD) of TFP bound to the (Ca(2+) )-saturated C-domain of CaM (CaMC ). The asymmetric unit contains two molecules of (Ca(2+) )2 -CaMC . Chain backbones were nearly identical, but the orientation of TFP in the cleft of Chain A matched 1A29/1LIN, while TFP bound to Chain B matched 1CTR. This was accommodated by a flip of the M144 sidechain and small changes in sidechains of M109 and M145. Docking simulations suggested that the rotamer conformation of M144 determined the orientation of TFP within the cleft of (Ca(2+) )2 -CaMC . Chains A and B show that the open cleft of (Ca(2+) )2 -CaMC is promiscuous in accepting TFP in reversed directions under the same crystallization conditions. Observing multiple orientations of an antagonist bound to a single protein highlights the challenge of designing highly specific pharmaceuticals, and may have importance for QSAR of other CF3 -containing drugs such as fluoxetine (anti-depressant) or efavirenz (reverse transcriptase inhibitor). This study emphasizes that a single structure of a complex represents an energetically accessible state, but does not necessarily show the full range of energetically equivalent states.

Mapping central α-helix linker mediated conformational transition pathway of calmodulin via simple computational approach

The effects of intrinsic structural flexibility of calmodulin protein on the mechanism of its allosteric conformational transition are investigated in this article. Using a novel in silico approach, the conformational transition pathways of intact calmodulin as well as the isolated N- and C- terminal domains are identified and energetically characterized. It is observed that the central α-helix linker amplifies the structural flexibility of intact Ca(2+)-free calmodulin, which might facilitate the transition of the two domains. As a result, the global conformational transition of Ca(2+)-free calmodulin is initiated by the barrierless transition of two domains and proceeds through the barrier associated unwinding and bending of the central α-helix linker. The binding of Ca(2+) cations to calmodulin further increases the structural flexibility of the C-terminal domain and results in a downhill transition pathway of which all regions transit in a concerted manner. On the other hand, the separation of the N- and C-terminal domains from calmodulin protein loses the mediating function of central α-helix linker, leading to more difficult conformational transitions of both domains. The present study provides novel insights into the correlation of the integrity of protein, the structural flexibility, and the mechanism of conformational transition of proteinlike calmodulin.

Distinguishing unfolding and functional conformational transitions of calmodulin using ultraviolet resonance Raman spectroscopy

Calmodulin (CaM) is a ubiquitous moderator protein for calcium signaling in all eukaryotic cells. This small calcium-binding protein exhibits a broad range of structural transitions, including domain opening and folding-unfolding, that allow it to recognize a wide variety of binding partners in vivo. While the static structures of CaM associated with its various binding activities are fairly well-known, it has been challenging to examine the dynamics of transition between these structures in real-time, due to a lack of suitable spectroscopic probes of CaM structure. In this article, we examine the potential of ultraviolet resonance Raman (UVRR) spectroscopy for clarifying the nature of structural transitions in CaM. We find that the UVRR spectral change (with 229 nm excitation) due to thermal unfolding of CaM is qualitatively different from that associated with opening of the C-terminal domain in response to Ca(2+) binding. This spectral difference is entirely due to differences in tertiary contacts at the interdomain tyrosine residue Tyr138, toward which other spectroscopic methods are not sensitive. We conclude that UVRR is ideally suited to identifying the different types of structural transitions in CaM and other proteins with conformation-sensitive tyrosine residues, opening a path to time-resolved studies of CaM dynamics using Raman spectroscopy.

Retention of conformational entropy upon calmodulin binding to target peptides is driven by transient salt bridges

Calmodulin (CaM) is a highly flexible calcium-binding protein that mediates signal transduction through an ability to differentially bind to highly variable binding sequences in target proteins. To identify how binding affects CaM motions, and its relationship to conformational entropy and target peptide sequence, we have employed fully atomistic, explicit solvent molecular dynamics simulations of unbound CaM and CaM bound to five different target peptides. The calculated CaM conformational binding entropies correlate with experimentally derived conformational entropies with a correlation coefficient R(2) of 0.95. Selected side-chain interactions with target peptides restrain interhelical loop motions, acting to tune the conformational entropy of the bound complex via widely distributed CaM motions. In the complex with the most conformational entropy retention (CaM in complex with the neuronal nitric oxide synthase binding sequence), Lys-148 at the C-terminus of CaM forms transient salt bridges alternating between Glu side chains in the N-domain, the central linker, and the binding target. Additional analyses of CaM structures, fluctuations, and CaM-target interactions illuminate the interplay between electrostatic, side chain, and backbone properties in the ability of CaM to recognize and discriminate against targets by tuning its conformational entropy, and suggest a need to consider conformational dynamics in optimizing binding affinities.

Thermodynamics and conformational change governing domain-domain interactions of calmodulin

Calmodulin (CaM) is a small (148 amino acid), ubiquitously expressed eukaryotic protein essential for Ca(2+) regulation and signaling. This highly acidic polypeptide (pI<4) has two homologous domains (N and C), each consisting of two EF-hand Ca(2+)-binding sites. Despite significant homology, the domains have intrinsic differences in their Ca(2+)-binding properties and separable roles in regulating physiological targets such as kinases and ion channels. In mammalian full-length CaM, sites III and IV in the C-domain bind Ca(2+) cooperatively with ~10-fold higher affinity than sites I and II in the N-domain. However, the difference is only twofold when CaM is severed at residue 75, indicating that anticooperative interactions occur in full-length CaM. The Ca(2+)-binding properties of sites I and II are regulated by several factors including the interplay of interdomain linker residues far from the binding sites. Our prior thermodynamic studies showed that these residues inhibit thermal denaturation and decrease calcium affinity. Based on high-resolution structures and NMR spectra, there appear to be interactions between charged residues in the sequence 75-80 and those near the amino terminus of CaM. To explore electrostatic contributions to interdomain interactions in CaM, KCl was used to perturb the Ca(2+)-binding affinity, thermal stability, and hydrodynamic size of a nested set of recombinant mammalian CaM (rCaM) fragments terminating at residues 75, 80, 85, or 90. Potassium chloride is known to decrease Ca(2+)-binding affinity of full-length CaM. It may act directly by competition with acidic side chains that chelate Ca(2+) in the binding sites, and indirectly elsewhere in the molecule by changing tertiary constraints and conformation. In all proteins studied, KCl decreased Ca(2+)-affinity, decreased Stokes radius, and increased thermal stability, but not monotonically. Crystallographic structures of Ca(2+)-saturated rCaM(1-75) (3B32.pdb) and rCaM(1-90) (3IFK.pdb) were determined, offering cautionary notes about the effect of packing interactions on flexible linkers. This chapter describes an array of methods for characterizing system-specific thermodynamic properties that in concert govern structure and function.

Allostery: an illustrated definition for the 'second secret of life'

Although allosteric regulation is the 'second secret of life', the molecular mechanisms that give rise to allostery currently elude understanding. In my opinion, experimental progress is hampered by a commonly used but misleading definition of allostery as protein structural changes that are elicited by the binding of a single ligand. Allostery is more strictly defined in functional terms as a comparison of how one ligand binds in the absence, versus the presence, of a second ligand. Therefore, as each of the two binding events involves two protein complexes, a study of allostery must consider four complexes and not just two. Such a comparison can distinguish allosteric from non-allosteric protein changes, the importance of which is frequently overlooked. When a study of all four complexes is not feasible, an alternative, albeit limited, strategy can identify subsets of allosteric-specific changes.

Functional consequences of exchanging domains between LacI and PurR are mediated by the intervening linker sequence

Homologue function can be differentiated by changing residues that affect binding sites or long-range interactions. LacI and PurR are two proteins that represent the LacI/GalR family (>500 members) of bacterial transcription regulators. All members have distinct DNA-binding and regulatory domains linked by approximately 18 amino acids. Each homologue has specificity for different DNA and regulatory effector ligands; LacI and PurR also exhibit differences in allosteric communication between DNA and effector binding sites. A comparative study of LacI and PurR suggested that alterations in the interface between the regulatory domain and linker are important for differentiating their functions. Four residues (equivalent to LacI positions 48, 55, 58, and 61) appear particularly important for creating a unique interface and were predicted to be necessary for allosteric regulation. However, nearby residues in the linker interact with DNA ligand. Thus, differences observed in interactions between linker and regulatory domain may be the cause of altered function or an effect of the two proteins binding different DNA ligands. To separate these possibilities, we created a chimeric protein with the LacI DNA-binding domain/linker and the PurR regulatory domain (LLhP). If the interface requires homologue-specific interactions in order to propagate the signal from effector binding, then LLhP repression should not be allosterically regulated by effector binding. Experiments show that LLhP is capable of repression from lacO1 and, contrary to expectation, allosteric response is intact. Further, restoring the potential for PurR-like interactions via substitutions in the LLhP linker tends to diminish repression. These effects are especially pronounced for residues 58 and 61. Clearly, binding affinity of LLhP for the lacO1 DNA site is sensitive to long-range changes in the linker. This result also raises the possibility that mutations at positions 58 and 61 co-evolved with changes in the DNA-binding site. In addition, repression measured in the absence and presence of effector ligand shows that allosteric response increases for several LLhP variants with substitutions at positions 48 and 55. Thus, while side chain variation at these sites does not generally dictate the presence or absence of allostery, the nature of the amino acid can modulate the response to effector.

Calmodulin binds and stabilizes the regulatory enzyme, CTP: phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase

CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase (CCTalpha) is a proteolytically sensitive enzyme essential for production of phosphatidylcholine, the major phospholipid of animal cell membranes. The molecular signals that govern CCTalpha protein stability are unknown. An NH(2)-terminal PEST sequence within CCTalpha did not serve as a degradation signal for the proteinase, calpain. Calmodulin (CaM) stabilized CCTalpha from calpain proteolysis. Adenoviral gene transfer of CaM in cells protected CCTalpha, whereas CaM small interfering RNA accentuated CCTalpha degradation by calpains. CaM bound CCTalpha as revealed by fluorescence resonance energy transfer and two-hybrid analysis. Mapping and site-directed mutagenesis of CCTalpha uncovered a motif (LQERVDKVK) harboring a vital recognition site, Gln(243), whereby CaM directly binds to the enzyme. Mutagenesis of CCTalpha Gln(243) not only resulted in loss of CaM binding but also led to complete calpain resistance in vitro and in vivo. Thus, calpains and CaM both access CCTalpha using a structurally similar molecular signature that profoundly affects CCTalpha levels. These data suggest that CaM, by antagonizing calpain, serves as a novel binding partner for CCTalpha that stabilizes the enzyme under proinflammatory stress.

Pump-probe molecular dynamics as a tool for studying protein motion and long range coupling

A new method for analyzing the dynamics of proteins is developed and tested. The method, pump-probe molecular dynamics, excites selected atoms or residues with a set of oscillating forces, and the transmission of the impulse to other parts of the protein is probed using Fourier transform of the atomic motions. From this analysis, a coupling profile can be determined which quantifies the degree of interaction between pump and probe residues. Various physical properties of the method such as reciprocity and speed of transmission are examined to establish the soundness of the method. The coupling strength can be used to address questions such as the degree of interaction between different residues at the level of dynamics, and identify propagation of influence of one part of the protein on another via "pathways" through the protein. The method is illustrated by analysis of coupling between different secondary structure elements in the allosteric protein calmodulin, and by analysis of pathways of residue-residue interaction in the PDZ domain protein previously elucidated by genomics and mutational studies.

Effect of cationic flaxseed protein hydrolysate fractions on the in vitro structure and activity of calmodulin-dependent endothelial nitric oxide synthase

The objective of this study was to determine the in vitro effects of cationic flaxseed protein hydrolysate fractions on calmodulin (CaM) structure as well as the activity of CaM-dependent endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS). Flaxseed protein isolate was hydrolyzed with alcalase, and two peptide fractions were isolated by cation-exchange chromatography. Fraction I, eluted first from the column, and fraction II contained 42% and 51% contents of basic amino acids, respectively. Fractions I and II reduced the activity of CaM-dependent eNOS through a mostly mixed-type inhibition mode. Fraction II was at least ten times more effective as an eNOS inhibitor when compared to fraction I, as evident from the IC(50) (concentration of protein hydrolysate that reduced eNOS activity by 50%) values. Fluorescence spectroscopy showed that the tyrosine residues in CaM were increasingly exposed upon addition of fraction I, while the opposite was the case when fraction II was added. Circular dichroism studies showed that fractions I and II reduced the alpha-helix content but increased the rigidity of the active calcium/CaM complex. We concluded that ability of the protein hydrolysate fractions to change the secondary and tertiary structures of CaM may explain their ability to reduce activity of CaM-dependent eNOS.

Coexistence of two protein folding states in the crystal structure of ribosomal protein L20

The recent finding of intrinsically unstructured proteins defies the classical structure-function paradigm. However, owing to their flexibility, intrinsically unstructured proteins generally escape detailed structural investigations. Consequently little is known about the extent of conformational disorder and its role in biological functions. Here, we present the X-ray structure of the unbound ribosomal protein L20, the long basic amino-terminal extension of which has been previously interpreted as fully disordered in the absence of RNA. This study provides the first detailed picture of two protein folding states trapped together in a crystal and indicates that unfolding occurs in discrete regions of the whole protein, corresponding mainly to RNA-binding residues. The electrostatic destabilization of the long alpha-helix and a structural communication between the two L20 domains are reminiscent of those observed in calmodulin. The detailed comparison of the two conformations observed in the crystal provides new insights into the role of unfolded extensions in ribosomal assembly.

Tertiary structural rearrangements upon oxidation of Methionine145 in calmodulin promotes targeted proteasomal degradation

The selectivity underlying the recognition of oxidized calmodulin (CaM) by the 20S proteasome in complex with Hsp90 was identified using mass spectrometry. We find that degradation of oxidized CaM (CaMox) occurs in a multistep process, which involves an initial cleavage that releases a large N-terminal fragment (A1-F92) as well as multiple smaller carboxyl-terminus peptides ranging from 17 to 26 amino acids in length. These latter small peptides are enriched in methionine sulfoxides (MetO), suggesting a preferential degradation around MetO within the carboxyl-terminal domain. To confirm the specificity of CaMox degradation and to identify the structural signals underlying the preferential recognition and degradation by the proteasome/Hsp90, we have investigated how the oxidation of individual methionines affect the degradation of CaM using mutants in which all but selected methionines in CaM were substituted with leucines. Substitution of all methionines with leucines except Met144 and Met145 has no detectable effect on the structure of CaM, permitting a determination of how site-specific substitutions and the oxidation of Met144 and Met145 affects the recognition and degradation of CaM by the proteasome/Hsp90. Comparable rates of degradation are observed upon the selective oxidation of Met144 and Met145 in CaM-L7 relative to that observed upon oxidation of all nine methionines in wild-type CaM. Substitution of leucines for either Met144 or Met145 promotes a limited recognition and degradation by the proteasome that correlates with decreases in the helical content of CaM. The specific oxidation of Met144 has little effect on rates of proteolytic degradation by the proteasome/Hsp90 or the structure of CaM. In contrast, the specific oxidation of Met145 results in both large increases in the rate of degradation by the proteasome/Hsp90 and significant circular dichroic spectral shape changes that are indicative of changes in tertiary rather than secondary structure. Thus, tertiary structural changes resulting from the site-specific oxidation of a single methionine (i.e., Met145) promote the degradation of CaM by the proteasome/Hsp90, suggesting a mechanism to regulate cellular metabolism through the targeted modulation of CaM abundance in response to oxidative stress.

Redox modulation of cellular metabolism through targeted degradation of signaling proteins by the proteasome

Under conditions of oxidative stress, the 20S proteasome plays a critical role in maintaining cellular homeostasis through the selective degradation of oxidized and damaged proteins. This adaptive stress response is distinct from ubiquitin-dependent pathways in that oxidized proteins are recognized and degraded in an ATP-independent mechanism, which can involve the molecular chaperone Hsp90. Like the regulatory complexes 19S and 11S REG, Hsp90 tightly associates with the 20S proteasome to mediate the recognition of aberrant proteins for degradation. In the case of the calcium signaling protein calmodulin, proteasomal degradation results from the oxidation of a single surface exposed methionine (i.e., Met145); oxidation of the other eight methionines has a minimal effect on the recognition and degradation of calmodulin by the proteasome. Since cellular concentrations of calmodulin are limiting, the targeted degradation of this critical signaling protein under conditions of oxidative stress will result in the downregulation of cellular metabolism, serving as a feedback regulation to diminish the generation of reactive oxygen species. The targeted degradation of critical signaling proteins, such as calmodulin, can function as sensors of oxidative stress to downregulate global rates of metabolism and enhance cellular survival.

Domain-specific fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) sensors of metallothionein/thionein

Each of the two domains of mammalian metallothioneins contains a zinc-thiolate cluster. Employing site-directed mutagenesis and chemical modification, fluorescent probes were introduced into human metallothionein (isoform 2) with minimal perturbations of the structures of these clusters. The resulting FRET (fluorescence resonance energy transfer) sensors are specific for each domain. The design and construction of a sensor for the alpha-domain cluster is based on a FRET pair where a C-terminally added tryptophan serves as the donor for a fluorescence acceptor attached to a free cysteine in the linker region between the two domains. Molecular modeling studies and steady-state fluorescence polarization anisotropy measurements suggest unrestricted motion of the tryptophan donor, but limited motion of the AEDANS ([[(amino)ethyl]amino]naphthalene-1-sulfonic acid) acceptor, putting constraints on the use of the alpha-domain sensor with this FRET pair as a spectroscopic ruler. The fluorescent metallothioneins allow distance measurements during binding and removal of metals in the individual domains. The overall dimensions of the apoprotein, thionein, for which no structural information is available, do not seem to be significantly different from those of the holoprotein. The single- and double-labeled fluorescent metallothioneins overcome a longstanding impediment in studies of the function of this protein, namely its lack of intrinsic probe characteristics.

Redox modulation of cellular signaling and metabolism through reversible oxidation of methionine sensors in calcium regulatory proteins

Adaptive responses associated with environmental stressors are critical to cell survival. Under conditions when cellular redox and antioxidant defenses are overwhelmed, the selective oxidation of critical methionines within selected protein sensors functions to down-regulate energy metabolism and the further generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Mechanistically, these functional changes within protein sensors take advantage of the helix-breaking character of methionine sulfoxide. The sensitivity of several calcium regulatory proteins to oxidative modification provides cellular sensors that link oxidative stress to cellular response and recovery. Calmodulin (CaM) is one such critical calcium regulatory protein, which is functionally sensitive to methionine oxidation. Helix destabilization resulting from the oxidation of either Met(144) or Met(145) results in the nonproductive association between CaM and target proteins. The ability of oxidized CaM to stabilize its target proteins in an inhibited state with an affinity similar to that of native (unoxidized) CaM permits this central regulatory protein to function as a cellular rheostat that down-regulates energy metabolism in response to oxidative stress. Likewise, oxidation of a methionine within a critical switch region of the regulatory protein phospholamban is expected to destabilize the phosphorylation-dependent helix formation necessary for the release of enzyme inhibition, resulting in a down-regulation of the Ca-ATPase in response to beta-adrenergic signaling in the heart. We suggest that under acute conditions, such as inflammation or ischemia, these types of mechanisms ensure minimal nonspecific cellular damage, allowing for rapid restoration of cellular function through repair of oxidized methionines by methionine sulfoxide reductases and degradation pathways after restoration of normal cellular redox conditions.

A molecular dynamics study of Ca(2+)-calmodulin: evidence of interdomain coupling and structural collapse on the nanosecond timescale

A 20-ns molecular dynamics simulation of Ca(2+)-calmodulin (CaM) in explicit solvent is described. Within 5 ns, the extended crystal structure adopts a compact shape similar in dimension to complexes of CaM and target peptides but with a substantially different orientation between the N- and C-terminal domains. Significant interactions are observed between the terminal domains in this compact state, which are mediated through the same regions of CaM that bind to target peptides derived from protein kinases and most other target proteins. The process of compaction is driven by the loss of helical structure in two separate regions between residues 75-79 and 82-86, the latter being driven by unfavorable electrostatic interactions between acidic residues. In the first 5 ns of the simulation, a substantial number of contacts are observed between the first helix of the N-terminal domain and residues 74-77 of the central linker. These contacts are correlated with the closing of the second EF-hand, indicating a mechanism by which they can lower calcium affinity in the N-terminal domain.

Information transfer in the penta-EF-hand protein sorcin does not operate via the canonical structural/functional pairing. A study with site-specific mutants

Sorcin is a typical penta-EF-hand protein that participates in Ca2+-regulated processes by translocating reversibly from cytosol to membranes, where it interacts with different target proteins in different tissues. Binding of two Ca2+/monomer triggers translocation, although EF1, EF2, and EF3 are potentially able to bind calcium at micromolar concentrations. To identify the functional pair, the conserved bidentate -Z glutamate in these EF-hands was mutated to yield E53Q-, E94A-, and E124A-sorcin, respectively. Limited structural perturbations occur only in E124A-sorcin due to involvement of Glu-124 in a network of interactions that comprise the long D helix connecting EF3 to EF2. The overall affinity for Ca2+ and for two sorcin targets, annexin VII and the ryanodine receptor, follows the order wild-type > E53Q- > E94A- > E124A-sorcin, indicating that disruption of EF3 has the largest functional impact and that disruption of EF2 and EF1 has progressively smaller effects. Based on this experimental evidence, EF3 and EF2, which are not paired in the canonical manner, are the functional EF-hands. Sorcin is proposed to be activated upon Ca2+ binding to EF3 and transmission of the conformational change at Glu-124 via the D helix to EF2 and from there to EF1 via the canonical structural/functional pairing. This mechanism may be applicable to all penta-EF-hand proteins.

Basic interdomain boundary residues in calmodulin decrease calcium affinity of sites I and II by stabilizing helix-helix interactions

Calmodulin is an EF-hand calcium-binding protein (148 a.a.) essential in intracellular signal transduction. Its homologous N- and C-terminal domains are separated by a linker that appears disordered in NMR studies. In a study of an N-domain fragment of Paramecium CaM (PCaM1-75), the addition of linker residues 76 to 80 (MKEQD) raised the Tm by 9 degrees C and lowered calcium binding by 0.54 kcal/mol (Sorensen et al., [Biochemistry 2002;41:15-20]), showing that these tether residues affect energetics as well as being a barrier to diffusion. To determine the individual contributions of residues 74 through 80 (RKMKEQD) to stability and calcium affinity, we compared a nested series of 7 fragments (PCaM1-74 to PCaM1-80). For the first 4, PCaM1-74 through PCaM1-77, single amino acid additions at the C-terminus corresponded to stepwise increases in thermostability and decreases in calcium affinity with a net change of 13.5 degrees C in Tm and 0.55 kcal/mol in free energy. The thermodynamic properties of fragments PCaM1-77 through PCaM1-80 were nearly identical. We concluded that the 3 basic residues in the sequence from 74 to 77 (RKMK) are critical to the increased stability and decreased calcium affinity of the longer N-domain fragments. Comparisons of NMR (HSQC) spectra of 15N-PCaM1-74 and 15N-PCaM1-80 and analysis of high-resolution structural models suggest these residues are latched to amino acids in helix A of CaM. The addition of residues E78, Q79, and D80 had a minimal effect on sites I and II, but they may contribute to the mechanism of energetic communication between the domains.

Calcium-dependent stabilization of the central sequence between Met(76) and Ser(81) in vertebrate calmodulin

Spin-label electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) provides optimal resolution of dynamic and conformational heterogeneity on the nanosecond time-scale and was used to assess the structure of the sequence between Met(76) and Ser(81) in vertebrate calmodulin (CaM). Previous fluorescence resonance energy transfer and anisotropy measurements indicate that the opposing domains of CaM are structurally coupled and the interconnecting central sequence adopts conformationally distinct structures in the apo-form and following calcium activation. In contrast, NMR data suggest that the opposing domains of CaM undergo independent rotational dynamics and that the sequence between Met(76) and Ser(81) in the central sequence functions as a flexible linker that connects two structurally independent domains. However, these latter measurements also resolve weak internuclear interactions that suggest the formation of transient helical structures that are stable on the nanosecond time-scale within the sequence between Met(76) and Asp(80) in apo-CaM (H. Kuboniwa, N. Tjandra, S. Grzekiek, H. Ren, C. B. Klee, and A. Bax, 1995, Nat. Struct. Biol. 2:768-776). This reported conformational heterogeneity was resolved using site-directed mutagenesis and spin-label EPR, which detects two component spectra for 1-oxyl-2,2,5,5-tetramethylpyrroline-3-methyl)-methanethiosulfonate spin labels (MTSSL) bound to CaM mutants T79C and S81C that include a motionally restricted component. In comparison to MTSSL bound within stable helical regions, the fractional contribution of the immobilized component at these positions is enhanced upon the addition of small amounts of the helicogenic solvent trifluoroethanol (TFE). These results suggest that the immobilized component reflects the formation of stable secondary structures. Similar spectral changes are observed upon calcium activation, suggesting a calcium-dependent stabilization of the secondary structure. No corresponding changes are observed in either the solvent accessibility to molecular oxygen or the maximal hyperfine splitting. In contrast, more complex spectral changes in the line-shape and maximal hyperfine splitting are observed for spin labels bound to sites that undergo tertiary contact interactions. These results suggest that spin labels at solvent-exposed positions within the central sequence are primarily sensitive to backbone fluctuations and that either TFE or calcium binding stabilizes the secondary structure of the sequence between Met(76) and Ser(81) and modulates the structural coupling between the opposing domains of CaM.