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Nicolas-Francès V, Rossi J, Rosnoblet C, Pichereaux C, Hichami S, Astier J, Klinguer A, Wendehenne D, Besson-Bard A. S-Nitrosation of Arabidopsis thaliana Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase 1 Prevents Its Irreversible Oxidation by Hydrogen Peroxide. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:807249. [PMID: 35222471 PMCID: PMC8867174 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.807249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2021] [Accepted: 01/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Tyrosine-specific protein tyrosine phosphatases (Tyr-specific PTPases) are key signaling enzymes catalyzing the removal of the phosphate group from phosphorylated tyrosine residues on target proteins. This post-translational modification notably allows the regulation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades during defense reactions. Arabidopsis thaliana protein tyrosine phosphatase 1 (AtPTP1), the only Tyr-specific PTPase present in this plant, acts as a repressor of H2O2 production and regulates the activity of MPK3/MPK6 MAPKs by direct dephosphorylation. Here, we report that recombinant histidine (His)-AtPTP1 protein activity is directly inhibited by H2O2 and nitric oxide (NO) exogenous treatments. The effects of NO are exerted by S-nitrosation, i.e., the formation of a covalent bond between NO and a reduced cysteine residue. This post-translational modification targets the catalytic cysteine C265 and could protect the AtPTP1 protein from its irreversible oxidation by H2O2. This mechanism of protection could be a conserved mechanism in plant PTPases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valérie Nicolas-Francès
- Agroécologie, CNRS, INRAE, Institut Agro, Université de Bourgogne, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France
| | - Jordan Rossi
- Agroécologie, CNRS, INRAE, Institut Agro, Université de Bourgogne, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France
| | - Claire Rosnoblet
- Agroécologie, CNRS, INRAE, Institut Agro, Université de Bourgogne, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France
| | - Carole Pichereaux
- Fédération de Recherche (FR3450), Agrobiosciences, Interactions et Biodiversité (FRAIB), CNRS, Toulouse, France
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale (IPBS), Université de Toulouse UPS, CNRS, Toulouse, France
| | - Siham Hichami
- Agroécologie, CNRS, INRAE, Institut Agro, Université de Bourgogne, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France
| | - Jeremy Astier
- Agroécologie, CNRS, INRAE, Institut Agro, Université de Bourgogne, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France
| | - Agnès Klinguer
- Agroécologie, CNRS, INRAE, Institut Agro, Université de Bourgogne, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France
| | - David Wendehenne
- Agroécologie, CNRS, INRAE, Institut Agro, Université de Bourgogne, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France
| | - Angélique Besson-Bard
- Agroécologie, CNRS, INRAE, Institut Agro, Université de Bourgogne, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France
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Li Y, Wang L, Sun G, Li X, Chen Z, Feng J, Yang Y. Digital gene expression analysis of the response to Ralstonia solanacearum between resistant and susceptible tobacco varieties. Sci Rep 2021; 11:3887. [PMID: 33594109 PMCID: PMC7886896 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-82576-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2020] [Accepted: 01/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Tobacco bacterial wilt (TBW) caused by Ralstonia solanacearum is the most serious soil-borne disease of tobacco. However, molecular mechanism information of R. solanacearum resistance is limited to tobacco, hindering better breeding of resistant tobacco. In this study, the expression profiles of the rootstalks of Yunyan87 (susceptible cultivar) and Fandi3 (resistant cultivar) at different stages after R. solanacearum infection were compared to explore molecular mechanisms of tobacco resistance against the bacterium. Findings from gene-expression profiling indicated that the number of upregulated differentially expressed genes (DEGs) at 3 and 7 days post-inoculation (dpi) increased significantly in the resistant cultivar. WRKY6 and WRKY11 family genes in WRKY transcription factors, ERF5 and ERF15 family genes in ERFs transcription factors, and genes encoding PR5 were significantly upregulated in the resistant cultivar response to the infection. For the first time, WRKY11 and ERF15 were found to be possibly involved in disease-resistance. The Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes analysis demonstrated glutathione metabolism and phenylpropane pathways as primary resistance pathways to R. solanacearum infection. In the resistant cultivar, DEGs encoding CYP450, TCM, CCoAOMT, 4CL, PAL, CCR, CSE, and CADH, involved in the synthesis of plant antitoxins such as flavonoids, stilbenoids, and lignins, enriched in the phenylpropane pathway were upregulated at 3 and 7 dpi. Furthermore, a pot experiment was performed to verify the role of flavonoids in controlling TBW. This study will strongly contribute to a better understanding of molecular interactions between tobacco plants and R. solanacearum.
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Affiliation(s)
- YanYan Li
- Tobacco Research Institute of Hubei Province, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Lin Wang
- China Tobacco Hubei Industrial Co., Ltd., Wuhan, 430040, China
| | - GuangWei Sun
- Tobacco Research Institute of Hubei Province, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - XiHong Li
- Tobacco Research Institute of Hubei Province, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - ZhenGuo Chen
- Tobacco Research Institute of Hubei Province, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Ji Feng
- Tobacco Research Institute of Hubei Province, Wuhan, 430030, China.
| | - Yong Yang
- School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan, 430062, China.
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Waszczak C, Akter S, Jacques S, Huang J, Messens J, Van Breusegem F. Oxidative post-translational modifications of cysteine residues in plant signal transduction. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2015; 66:2923-34. [PMID: 25750423 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erv084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
In plants, fluctuation of the redox balance by altered levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) can affect many aspects of cellular physiology. ROS homeostasis is governed by a diversified set of antioxidant systems. Perturbation of this homeostasis leads to transient or permanent changes in the redox status and is exploited by plants in different stress signalling mechanisms. Understanding how plants sense ROS and transduce these stimuli into downstream biological responses is still a major challenge. ROS can provoke reversible and irreversible modifications to proteins that act in diverse signalling pathways. These oxidative post-translational modifications (Ox-PTMs) lead to oxidative damage and/or trigger structural alterations in these target proteins. Characterization of the effect of individual Ox-PTMs on individual proteins is the key to a better understanding of how cells interpret the oxidative signals that arise from developmental cues and stress conditions. This review focuses on ROS-mediated Ox-PTMs on cysteine (Cys) residues. The Cys side chain, with its high nucleophilic capacity, appears to be the principle target of ROS. Ox-PTMs on Cys residues participate in various signalling cascades initiated by plant stress hormones. We review the mechanistic aspects and functional consequences of Cys Ox-PTMs on specific target proteins in view of stress signalling events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cezary Waszczak
- Department of Plant Systems Biology, VIB, 9052 Ghent, Belgium Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, 9052 Ghent, Belgium Structural Biology Research Center, VIB, 1050 Brussels, Belgium Brussels Center for Redox Biology, 1050 Brussels, Belgium Structural Biology Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 1050 Brussels, Belgium * Present address: Division of Plant Biology, Department of Biosciences, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Salma Akter
- Department of Plant Systems Biology, VIB, 9052 Ghent, Belgium Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, 9052 Ghent, Belgium Structural Biology Research Center, VIB, 1050 Brussels, Belgium Brussels Center for Redox Biology, 1050 Brussels, Belgium Structural Biology Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 1050 Brussels, Belgium Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Dhaka, 1000 Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Silke Jacques
- Department of Plant Systems Biology, VIB, 9052 Ghent, Belgium Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, 9052 Ghent, Belgium Department of Biochemistry, Ghent University, 9000 Gent, Belgium Department of Medical Protein Research, VIB, 9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - Jingjing Huang
- Structural Biology Research Center, VIB, 1050 Brussels, Belgium Brussels Center for Redox Biology, 1050 Brussels, Belgium Structural Biology Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Joris Messens
- Structural Biology Research Center, VIB, 1050 Brussels, Belgium Brussels Center for Redox Biology, 1050 Brussels, Belgium Structural Biology Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Frank Van Breusegem
- Department of Plant Systems Biology, VIB, 9052 Ghent, Belgium Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
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Glutaredoxin AtGRXC2 catalyses inhibitory glutathionylation of Arabidopsis BRI1-associated receptor-like kinase 1 (BAK1) in vitro. Biochem J 2015; 467:399-413. [DOI: 10.1042/bj20141403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Reversible protein phosphorylation, catalysed by protein kinases, is the most widely studied post-translational modification (PTM), whereas the analysis of other modifications such as S-thiolation is in its relative infancy. In a yeast-two-hybrid (Y2H) screen, we identified a number of novel putative brassinosteroid insensitive 1 (BR1)-associated receptor-like kinase 1 (BAK1) interacting proteins including several proteins related to redox regulation. Glutaredoxin (GRX) C2 (AtGRXC2) was among candidate proteins identified in the Y2H screen and its interaction with recombinant Flag–BAK1 cytoplasmic domain was confirmed using an in vitro pull-down approach. We show that BAK1 peptide kinase activity is sensitive to the oxidizing agents H2O2 and diamide in vitro, suggesting that cysteine oxidation might contribute to control of BAK1 activity. Furthermore, BAK1 was glutathionylated and this reaction could occur via a thiolate-dependent reaction with GSSG or a H2O2-dependent reaction with GSH and inhibited kinase activity. Surprisingly, both reactions were catalysed by AtGRXC2 at lower concentrations of GSSG or GSH than reacted non-enzymatically. Using MALDI–TOF MS, we identified Cys353, Cys374 and Cys408 as potential sites of glutathionylation on the BAK1 cytoplasmic domain and directed mutagenesis suggests that Cys353 and Cys408 are major sites of GRXC2-mediated glutathionylation. Collectively, these results highlight the potential for redox control of BAK1 and demonstrate the ability of AtGRXC2 to catalyse protein glutathionylation, a function not previously described for any plant GRX. The present work presents a foundation for future studies of glutathionylation of plant receptor-like protein kinases (RLKs) as well as for the analysis of activities of plant GRXs.
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Beneloujaephajri E, Costa A, L’Haridon F, Métraux JP, Binda M. Production of reactive oxygen species and wound-induced resistance in Arabidopsis thaliana against Botrytis cinerea are preceded and depend on a burst of calcium. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2013; 13:160. [PMID: 24134148 PMCID: PMC4016300 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2229-13-160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2013] [Accepted: 10/13/2013] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Wounded leaves of Arabidopsis thaliana produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) within minutes after wounding and become resistant to the pathogenic fungus Botrytis cinerea at a local level. This fast response of the plants to the wound is called wound-induced resistance (WIR). However the molecular mechanisms of this response and the signal cascade between the wound and ROS production are still largely unknown. Calcium is a conserved signal and it is involved in many abiotic stress responses in plants, furthermore, calcium pathways act very fast. RESULTS The results of this study show that leaves treated with calcium channels inhibitors (verapamil) or calcium chelators (oxalate and EGTA) are impaired in ROS production. Moreover, leaves treated with verapamil, EGTA or oxalate were more susceptible to B. cinerea after wounding. The intracellular measurements of calcium changes indicated quick but transient calcium dynamics taking place few seconds after wounding in cells neighbouring the wound site. This change in the cytosolic calcium was followed in the same region by a more stable ROS burst. CONCLUSIONS These data further extend our knowledge on the connection between wounding, calcium influx and ROS production. Moreover they provide for the first time the evidence that, following wounding, calcium changes precede a burst in ROS in the same location.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emna Beneloujaephajri
- Department of biology, University of Fribourg, Ch. du Musée 10, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Alex Costa
- Department of Biosciences, University of Milan, via G. Celoria 26, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Floriane L’Haridon
- Department of biology, University of Fribourg, Ch. du Musée 10, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Jean-Pierre Métraux
- Department of biology, University of Fribourg, Ch. du Musée 10, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Matteo Binda
- Department of biology, University of Fribourg, Ch. du Musée 10, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
- Current address: Medion Grifols Diagnostics AG, Bonnstrasse 9, 3186 Düdingen, Switzerland
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Vescovi M, Zaffagnini M, Festa M, Trost P, Lo Schiavo F, Costa A. Nuclear accumulation of cytosolic glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase in cadmium-stressed Arabidopsis roots. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2013; 162:333-46. [PMID: 23569110 PMCID: PMC3641213 DOI: 10.1104/pp.113.215194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2013] [Accepted: 04/04/2013] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
NAD-dependent glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) is a ubiquitous enzyme involved in the glycolytic pathway. It has been widely demonstrated that mammalian GAPDH, in addition to its role in glycolysis, fulfills alternative functions mainly linked to its susceptibility to oxidative posttranslational modifications. Here, we investigated the responses of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) cytosolic GAPDH isoenzymes GAPC1 and GAPC2 to cadmium-induced stress in seedlings roots. GAPC1 was more responsive to cadmium than GAPC2 at the transcriptional level. In vivo, cadmium treatments induced different concomitant effects, including (1) nitric oxide accumulation, (2) cytosolic oxidation (e.g. oxidation of the redox-sensitive Green fluorescent protein2 probe), (3) activation of the GAPC1 promoter, (4) GAPC1 protein accumulation in enzymatically inactive form, and (5) strong relocalization of GAPC1 to the nucleus. All these effects were detected in the same zone of the root tip. In vitro, GAPC1 was inactivated by either nitric oxide donors or hydrogen peroxide, but no inhibition was directly provided by cadmium. Interestingly, nuclear relocalization of GAPC1 under cadmium-induced oxidative stress was stimulated, rather than inhibited, by mutating into serine the catalytic cysteine of GAPC1 (C155S), excluding an essential role of GAPC1 nitrosylation in the mechanism of nuclear relocalization, as found in mammalian cells. Although the function of GAPC1 in the nucleus is unknown, our results suggest that glycolytic GAPC1, through its high sensitivity to the cellular redox state, may play a role in oxidative stress signaling or protection in plants.
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Zaffagnini M, Bedhomme M, Marchand CH, Morisse S, Trost P, Lemaire SD. Redox regulation in photosynthetic organisms: focus on glutathionylation. Antioxid Redox Signal 2012; 16:567-86. [PMID: 22053845 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2011.4255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE In photosynthetic organisms, besides the well-established disulfide/dithiol exchange reactions specifically controlled by thioredoxins (TRXs), protein S-glutathionylation is emerging as an alternative redox modification occurring under stress conditions. This modification, consisting of the formation of a mixed disulfide between glutathione and a protein cysteine residue, can not only protect specific cysteines from irreversible oxidation but also modulate protein activities and appears to be specifically controlled by small disulfide oxidoreductases of the TRX superfamily named glutaredoxins (GRXs). RECENT STUDIES In recent times, several studies allowed significant progress in this area, mostly due to the identification of several plant proteins undergoing S-glutathionylation and to the characterization of the molecular mechanisms and the proteins involved in the control of this modification. CRITICAL ISSUES This article provides a global overview of protein glutathionylation in photosynthetic organisms with particular emphasis on the mechanisms of protein glutathionylation and deglutathionylation and a focus on the role of GRXs. Then, we describe the methods employed for identification of glutathionylated proteins in photosynthetic organisms and review the targets and the possible physiological functions of protein glutathionylation. FUTURE DIRECTIONS In order to establish the importance of protein S-glutathionylation in photosynthetic organisms, future studies should be aimed at delineating more accurately the molecular mechanisms of glutathionylation and deglutathionylation reactions, at identifying proteins undergoing S-glutathionylation in vivo under diverse conditions, and at investigating the importance of redoxins, GRX, and TRX, in the control of this redox modification in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirko Zaffagnini
- Laboratoire de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire des Eucaryotes, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Institut de Biologie Physico-Chimique, Paris, France
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Zaffagnini M, Bedhomme M, Groni H, Marchand CH, Puppo C, Gontero B, Cassier-Chauvat C, Decottignies P, Lemaire SD. Glutathionylation in the photosynthetic model organism Chlamydomonas reinhardtii: a proteomic survey. Mol Cell Proteomics 2011; 11:M111.014142. [PMID: 22122882 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.m111.014142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Protein glutathionylation is a redox post-translational modification occurring under oxidative stress conditions and playing a major role in cell regulation and signaling. This modification has been mainly studied in nonphotosynthetic organisms, whereas much less is known in photosynthetic organisms despite their important exposure to oxidative stress caused by changes in environmental conditions. We report a large scale proteomic analysis using biotinylated glutathione and streptavidin affinity chromatography that allowed identification of 225 glutathionylated proteins in the eukaryotic unicellular green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Moreover, 56 sites of glutathionylation were also identified after peptide affinity purification and tandem mass spectrometry. The targets identified belong to a wide range of biological processes and pathways, among which the Calvin-Benson cycle appears to be a major target. The glutathionylation of four enzymes of this cycle, phosphoribulokinase, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, ribose-5-phosphate isomerase, and phosphoglycerate kinase was confirmed by Western blot and activity measurements. The results suggest that glutathionylation could constitute a major mechanism of regulation of the Calvin-Benson cycle under oxidative stress conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirko Zaffagnini
- Laboratoire de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire des Eucaryotes, FRE3354 Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Institut de Biologie Physico-Chimique, 75005 Paris, France
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Skipsey M, Knight KM, Brazier-Hicks M, Dixon DP, Steel PG, Edwards R. Xenobiotic responsiveness of Arabidopsis thaliana to a chemical series derived from a herbicide safener. J Biol Chem 2011; 286:32268-76. [PMID: 21778235 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111.252726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Plants respond to synthetic chemicals by eliciting a xenobiotic response (XR) that enhances the expression of detoxifying enzymes such as glutathione transferases (GSTs). In agrochemistry, the ability of safeners to induce an XR is used to increase herbicide detoxification in cereal crops. Based on the responsiveness of the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana to the rice safener fenclorim (4,6-dichloro-2-phenylpyrimidine), a series of related derivatives was prepared and tested for the ability to induce GSTs in cell suspension cultures. The XR in Arabidopsis could be divided into rapid and slow types depending on subtle variations in the reactivity (electrophilicity) and chemical structure of the derivatives. In a comparative microarray study, Arabidopsis cultures were treated with closely related compounds that elicited rapid (fenclorim) and slow (4-chloro-6-methyl-2-phenylpyrimidine) XRs. Both chemicals induced major changes in gene expression, including a coordinated suppression in cell wall biosynthesis and an up-regulation in detoxification pathways, whereas only fenclorim selectively induced sulfur and phenolic metabolism. These transcriptome studies suggested several linkages between the XR and oxidative and oxylipin signaling. Confirming links with abiotic stress signaling, suppression of glutathione content enhanced GST induction by fenclorim, whereas fatty acid desaturase mutants, which were unable to synthesize oxylipins, showed an attenuated XR. Examining the significance of these studies to agrochemistry, only those fenclorim derivatives that elicited a rapid XR proved effective in increasing herbicide tolerance (safening) in rice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Skipsey
- School of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Durham University, Durham DH1 3LE, United Kingdom
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Tanner JJ, Parsons ZD, Cummings AH, Zhou H, Gates KS. Redox regulation of protein tyrosine phosphatases: structural and chemical aspects. Antioxid Redox Signal 2011; 15:77-97. [PMID: 20919935 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2010.3611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) are important targets of the H(2)O(2) that is produced during mammalian signal transduction. H(2)O(2)-mediated inactivation of PTPs also may be important in various pathophysiological conditions involving oxidative stress. Here we review the chemical and structural biology of redox-regulated PTPs. Reactions of H(2)O(2) with PTPs convert the catalytic cysteine thiol to a sulfenic acid. In PTPs, the initially generated sulfenic acid residues have the potential to undergo secondary reactions with a neighboring amide nitrogen or cysteine thiol residue to yield a sulfenyl amide or disulfide, respectively. The chemical mechanisms by which formation of sulfenyl amide and disulfide linkages can protect the catalytic cysteine residue against irreversible overoxidation to sulfinic and sulfonic oxidation states are described. Due to the propensity for back-door and distal cysteine residues to engage with the active-site cysteine after oxidative inactivation, differences in the structures of the oxidatively inactivated PTPs may stem, to a large degree, from differences in the number and location of cysteine residues surrounding the active site of the enzymes. PTPs with key cysteine residues in structurally similar locations may be expected to share similar mechanisms of oxidative inactivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- John J Tanner
- Department of Chemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, 65211, USA.
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Liu RM, Gaston Pravia KA. Oxidative stress and glutathione in TGF-beta-mediated fibrogenesis. Free Radic Biol Med 2010; 48:1-15. [PMID: 19800967 PMCID: PMC2818240 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2009.09.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 324] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2009] [Revised: 09/24/2009] [Accepted: 09/26/2009] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta) is the most potent and ubiquitous profibrogenic cytokine, and its expression is increased in almost all the fibrotic diseases and in experimental fibrosis models. TGF-beta increases reactive oxygen species production and decreases the concentration of glutathione (GSH), the most abundant intracellular free thiol and an important antioxidant, which mediates many of the fibrogenic effects of TGF-beta in various types of cells. A decreased GSH concentration is also observed in human fibrotic diseases and in experimental fibrosis models. Although the biological significance of GSH depletion in the development of fibrosis remains obscure, GSH and N-acetylcysteine, a precursor of GSH, have been used in clinics for the treatment of fibrotic diseases. This review summarizes recent findings in the field to address the potential mechanism whereby oxidative stress mediates fibrogenesis induced by TGF-beta and the potential therapeutic value of antioxidant treatment in fibrotic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- R-M Liu
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, Center for Free Radical Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA.
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Bedhomme M, Zaffagnini M, Marchand CH, Gao XH, Moslonka-Lefebvre M, Michelet L, Decottignies P, Lemaire SD. Regulation by glutathionylation of isocitrate lyase from Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. J Biol Chem 2009; 284:36282-36291. [PMID: 19847013 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m109.064428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Post-translational modification of protein cysteine residues is emerging as an important regulatory and signaling mechanism. We have identified numerous putative targets of redox regulation in the unicellular green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. One enzyme, isocitrate lyase (ICL), was identified both as a putative thioredoxin target and as an S-thiolated protein in vivo. ICL is a key enzyme of the glyoxylate cycle that allows growth on acetate as a sole source of carbon. The aim of the present study was to clarify the molecular mechanism of the redox regulation of Chlamydomonas ICL using a combination of biochemical and biophysical methods. The results clearly show that purified C. reinhardtii ICL can be inactivated by glutathionylation and reactivated by glutaredoxin, whereas thioredoxin does not appear to regulate ICL activity, and no inter- or intramolecular disulfide bond could be formed under any of the conditions tested. Glutathionylation of the protein was investigated by mass spectrometry analysis, Western blotting, and site-directed mutagenesis. The enzyme was found to be protected from irreversible oxidative inactivation by glutathionylation of its catalytic Cys(178), whereas a second residue, Cys(247), becomes artifactually glutathionylated after prolonged incubation with GSSG. The possible functional significance of this post-translational modification of ICL in Chlamydomonas and other organisms is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariette Bedhomme
- Institut de Biotechnologie des Plantes, UMR 8618, CNRS/Université Paris-Sud, Bâtiment 630, 91405 Orsay, Cedex, France
| | - Mirko Zaffagnini
- Institut de Biotechnologie des Plantes, UMR 8618, CNRS/Université Paris-Sud, Bâtiment 630, 91405 Orsay, Cedex, France
| | - Christophe H Marchand
- Institut de Biochimie et Biophysique Moléculaire et Cellulaire, UMR 8619, CNRS/Université Paris-Sud, Bâtiment 430, 91405 Orsay, Cedex, France
| | - Xing-Huang Gao
- Institut de Biotechnologie des Plantes, UMR 8618, CNRS/Université Paris-Sud, Bâtiment 630, 91405 Orsay, Cedex, France
| | - Mathieu Moslonka-Lefebvre
- Institut de Biotechnologie des Plantes, UMR 8618, CNRS/Université Paris-Sud, Bâtiment 630, 91405 Orsay, Cedex, France
| | - Laure Michelet
- Institut de Biotechnologie des Plantes, UMR 8618, CNRS/Université Paris-Sud, Bâtiment 630, 91405 Orsay, Cedex, France
| | - Paulette Decottignies
- Institut de Biochimie et Biophysique Moléculaire et Cellulaire, UMR 8619, CNRS/Université Paris-Sud, Bâtiment 430, 91405 Orsay, Cedex, France
| | - Stéphane D Lemaire
- Institut de Biotechnologie des Plantes, UMR 8618, CNRS/Université Paris-Sud, Bâtiment 630, 91405 Orsay, Cedex, France.
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Mendoza VL, Vachet RW. Probing protein structure by amino acid-specific covalent labeling and mass spectrometry. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2009; 28:785-815. [PMID: 19016300 PMCID: PMC2768138 DOI: 10.1002/mas.20203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 270] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
For many years, amino acid-specific covalent labeling has been a valuable tool to study protein structure and protein interactions, especially for systems that are difficult to study by other means. These covalent labeling methods typically map protein structure and interactions by measuring the differential reactivity of amino acid side chains. The reactivity of amino acids in proteins generally depends on the accessibility of the side chain to the reagent, the inherent reactivity of the label and the reactivity of the amino acid side chain. Peptide mass mapping with ESI- or MALDI-MS and peptide sequencing with tandem MS are typically employed to identify modification sites to provide site-specific structural information. In this review, we describe the reagents that are most commonly used in these residue-specific modification reactions, details about the proper use of these covalent labeling reagents, and information about the specific biochemical problems that have been addressed with covalent labeling strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Leah Mendoza
- Department of Chemistry, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA.
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14
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Tarrago L, Laugier E, Zaffagnini M, Marchand C, Le Maréchal P, Rouhier N, Lemaire SD, Rey P. Regeneration mechanisms of Arabidopsis thaliana methionine sulfoxide reductases B by glutaredoxins and thioredoxins. J Biol Chem 2009; 284:18963-71. [PMID: 19457862 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m109.015487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Methionine oxidation leads to the formation of S- and R-diastereomers of methionine sulfoxide (MetSO), which are reduced back to methionine by methionine sulfoxide reductases (MSRs) A and B, respectively. MSRBs are classified in two groups depending on the conservation of one or two redox-active Cys; 2-Cys MSRBs possess a catalytic Cys-reducing MetSO and a resolving Cys, allowing regeneration by thioredoxins. The second type, 1-Cys MSRBs, possess only the catalytic Cys. The biochemical mechanisms involved in activity regeneration of 1-Cys MSRBs remain largely elusive. In the present work we used recombinant plastidial Arabidopsis thaliana MSRB1 and MSRB2 as models for 1-Cys and 2-Cys MSRBs, respectively, to delineate the Trx- and glutaredoxin-dependent reduction mechanisms. Activity assays carried out using a series of cysteine mutants and various reductants combined with measurements of free thiols under distinct oxidation conditions and mass spectrometry experiments show that the 2-Cys MSRB2 is reduced by Trx through a dithiol-disulfide exchange involving both redox-active Cys of the two partners. Regarding 1-Cys MSRB1, oxidation of the enzyme after substrate reduction leads to the formation of a stable sulfenic acid on the catalytic Cys, which is subsequently glutathionylated. The deglutathionylation of MSRB1 is achieved by both mono- and dithiol glutaredoxins and involves only their N-terminal conserved catalytic Cys. This study proposes a detailed mechanism of the regeneration of 1-Cys MSRB activity by glutaredoxins, which likely constitute physiological reductants for this type of MSR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lionel Tarrago
- Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique (Cadarache, France), Direction des Sciences du Vivant, Institut de Biologie Environnementale et Biotechnologie, Laboratoire d'Ecophysiologie Moléculaire des Plantes, 13108 Saint-Paul-lez-Durance Cedex, France
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15
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Oracz K, El-Maarouf-Bouteau H, Kranner I, Bogatek R, Corbineau F, Bailly C. The mechanisms involved in seed dormancy alleviation by hydrogen cyanide unravel the role of reactive oxygen species as key factors of cellular signaling during germination. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2009; 150:494-505. [PMID: 19329562 PMCID: PMC2675718 DOI: 10.1104/pp.109.138107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2009] [Accepted: 03/26/2009] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
The physiological dormancy of sunflower (Helianthus annuus) embryos can be overcome during dry storage (after-ripening) or by applying exogenous ethylene or hydrogen cyanide (HCN) during imbibition. The aim of this work was to provide a comprehensive model, based on oxidative signaling by reactive oxygen species (ROS), for explaining the cellular mode of action of HCN in dormancy alleviation. Beneficial HCN effect on germination of dormant embryos is associated with a marked increase in hydrogen peroxide and superoxide anion generation in the embryonic axes. It is mimicked by the ROS-generating compounds methylviologen and menadione but suppressed by ROS scavengers. This increase results from an inhibition of catalase and superoxide dismutase activities and also involves activation of NADPH oxidase. However, it is not related to lipid reserve degradation or gluconeogenesis and not associated with marked changes in the cellular redox status controlled by the glutathione/glutathione disulfide couple. The expression of genes related to ROS production (NADPHox, POX, AO1, and AO2) and signaling (MAPK6, Ser/ThrPK, CaM, and PTP) is differentially affected by dormancy alleviation either during after-ripening or by HCN treatment, and the effect of cyanide on gene expression is likely to be mediated by ROS. It is also demonstrated that HCN and ROS both activate similarly ERF1, a component of the ethylene signaling pathway. We propose that ROS play a key role in the control of sunflower seed germination and are second messengers of cyanide in seed dormancy release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krystyna Oracz
- UPMC Univ Paris 06, Unité de Recherche 5, Germination et Dormance des Semences, Site d'Ivry, F-75005 Paris, France
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16
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Gao XH, Bedhomme M, Veyel D, Zaffagnini M, Lemaire SD. Methods for analysis of protein glutathionylation and their application to photosynthetic organisms. MOLECULAR PLANT 2009; 2:218-35. [PMID: 19825609 DOI: 10.1093/mp/ssn072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Protein S-glutathionylation, the reversible formation of a mixed-disulfide between glutathione and protein thiols, is involved in protection of protein cysteines from irreversible oxidation, but also in protein redox regulation. Recent studies have implicated S-glutathionylation as a cellular response to oxidative/nitrosative stress, likely playing an important role in signaling. Considering the potential importance of glutathionylation, a number of methods have been developed for identifying proteins undergoing glutathionylation. These methods, ranging from analysis of purified proteins in vitro to large-scale proteomic analyses in vivo, allowed identification of nearly 200 targets in mammals. By contrast, the number of known glutathionylated proteins is more limited in photosynthetic organisms, although they are severely exposed to oxidative stress. The aim of this review is to detail the methods available for identification and analysis of glutathionylated proteins in vivo and in vitro. The advantages and drawbacks of each technique will be discussed as well as their application to photosynthetic organisms. Furthermore, an overview of known glutathionylated proteins in photosynthetic organisms is provided and the physiological importance of this post-translational modification is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xing-Huang Gao
- Institut de Biotechnologie des Plantes, UMR 8618, CNRS/Université Paris-Sud 11, Bâtiment 630, Orsay 91405, Cedex, France
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17
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Hutson SM, Poole LB, Coles S, Conway ME. Redox regulation and trapping sulfenic acid in the peroxide-sensitive human mitochondrial branched chain aminotransferase. Methods Mol Biol 2009; 476:139-52. [PMID: 19157014 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-59745-129-1_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/17/2023]
Abstract
The human branched chain aminotransferase enzymes are key regulators of glutamate metabolism in the brain and are among a growing number of redox-sensitive proteins. Studies that use thiol-specific reagents and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry demonstrate that the mitochondrial BCAT enzyme has a redox-active CXXC center, which on oxidation forms a disulfide bond (RSSR), via a cysteine sulfenic acid intermediate. Mechanistic details of this redox regulation were revealed by the use of mass spectrometry and dimedone modification. We discovered that the thiol group at position C315 of the CXXC motif acts a redox sensor, whereas the thiol group at position C318 permits reversible regulation by forming an intrasubunit disulphide bond. Because of their roles in redox regulation and catalysis, there is a growing interest in cysteine sulphenic acids. Therefore, development of chemical tags/methods to trap these transient intermediates is of immense importance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan M Hutson
- Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
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18
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Protein S-glutathionylation: a regulatory device from bacteria to humans. Trends Biochem Sci 2009; 34:85-96. [PMID: 19135374 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibs.2008.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 474] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2007] [Revised: 11/19/2008] [Accepted: 11/20/2008] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
S-Glutathionylation is the specific post-translational modification of protein cysteine residues by the addition of the tripeptide glutathione, the most abundant and important low-molecular-mass thiol within most cell types. Protein S-glutathionylation is promoted by oxidative or nitrosative stress but also occurs in unstressed cells. It can serve to regulate a variety of cellular processes by modulating protein function and to prevent irreversible oxidation of protein thiols. Recent findings support an essential role for S-glutathionylation in the control of cell-signalling pathways associated with viral infections and with tumour necrosis factor-(-induced apoptosis. Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase has recently been implicated in the regulation of endothelin-1 synthesis by a novel, S-glutathionylation-based mechanism involving messenger RNA stability. Moreover, recent studies have identified S-glutathionylation as a redox signalling mechanism in plants.
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19
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Lillig CH, Berndt C, Holmgren A. Glutaredoxin systems. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2008; 1780:1304-17. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2008.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 416] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2008] [Revised: 06/11/2008] [Accepted: 06/11/2008] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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20
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Michelet L, Zaffagnini M, Vanacker H, Le Maréchal P, Marchand C, Schroda M, Lemaire SD, Decottignies P. In Vivo Targets of S-Thiolation in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. J Biol Chem 2008; 283:21571-8. [DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m802331200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
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21
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Zaffagnini M, Michelet L, Massot V, Trost P, Lemaire SD. Biochemical characterization of glutaredoxins from Chlamydomonas reinhardtii reveals the unique properties of a chloroplastic CGFS-type glutaredoxin. J Biol Chem 2008; 283:8868-76. [PMID: 18216016 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m709567200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Glutaredoxins (GRXs) are small ubiquitous disulfide oxidoreductases known to use GSH as electron donor. In photosynthetic organisms, little is known about the biochemical properties of GRXs despite the existence of approximately 30 different isoforms in higher plants. We report here the biochemical characterization of Chlamydomonas GRX1 and GRX3, the major cytosolic and chloroplastic isoforms, respectively. Glutaredoxins are classified on the basis of the amino acid sequence of the active site. GRX1 is a typical CPYC-type GRX, which is reduced by GSH and exhibits disulfide reductase, dehydroascorbate reductase, and deglutathionylation activities. In contrast, GRX3 exhibits unique properties. This chloroplastic CGFS-type GRX is not reduced by GSH and has an atypically low redox potential (-323 +/- 4 mV at pH 7.9). Remarkably, GRX3 can be reduced in the light by photoreduced ferredoxin and ferredoxin-thioredoxin reductase. Both GRXs proved to be very efficient catalysts of A(4)-glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase deglutathionylation, whereas cytosolic and chloroplastic thioredoxins were inefficient. Glutathionylated A(4)-glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase is the first physiological substrate identified for a CGFS-type GRX.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirko Zaffagnini
- Institut de Biotechnologie des Plantes, UMR 8618, CNRS/University of Paris-Sud 11, Bâtiment 630, Orsay 91405, Cedex, France
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22
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Rouhier N, Lemaire SD, Jacquot JP. The role of glutathione in photosynthetic organisms: emerging functions for glutaredoxins and glutathionylation. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PLANT BIOLOGY 2008; 59:143-66. [PMID: 18444899 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.arplant.59.032607.092811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 238] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Glutathione, a tripeptide with the sequence gamma-Glu-Cys-Gly, exists either in a reduced form with a free thiol group or in an oxidized form with a disulfide between two identical molecules. We describe here briefly the pathways involved in the synthesis, reduction, polymerization, and degradation of glutathione, as well as its distribution throughout the plant and its redox buffering capacities. The function of glutathione in xenobiotic and heavy metal detoxification, plant development, and plant-pathogen interactions is also briefly discussed. Several lines of evidence indicate that glutathione and glutaredoxins (GRXs) are implicated in the response to oxidative stress through the regeneration of enzymes involved in peroxide and methionine sulfoxide reduction. Finally, emerging functions for plant GRXs and glutathione concern the regulation of protein activity via glutathionylation and the capacity of some GRXs to bind iron sulfur centers and for some of them to transfer FeS clusters into apoproteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Rouhier
- Unité Mixte de Recherches, 1136 INRA-UHP Interaction Arbres-Microorganismes, IFR 110 GEEF, Nancy University, Faculté des Sciences, 54506 Vandoeuvre Cedex, France.
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23
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Genestra M. Oxyl radicals, redox-sensitive signalling cascades and antioxidants. Cell Signal 2007; 19:1807-19. [PMID: 17570640 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2007.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 349] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2007] [Accepted: 04/23/2007] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Oxidative stress is an increase in the reduction potential or a large decrease in the reducing capacity of the cellular redox couples. A particularly destructive aspect of oxidative stress is the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which include free radicals and peroxides. Some of the less reactive of these species can be converted by oxidoreduction reactions with transition metals into more aggressive radical species that can cause extensive cellular damage. In animals, ROS may influence cell proliferation, cell death (either apoptosis or necrosis) and the expression of genes, and may be involved in the activation of several signalling pathways, activating cell signalling cascades, such as those involving mitogen-activated protein kinases. Most of these oxygen-derived species are produced at a low level by normal aerobic metabolism and the damage they cause to cells is constantly repaired. The cellular redox environment is preserved by enzymes and antioxidants that maintain the reduced state through a constant input of metabolic energy. This review summarizes current studies that have been regarding the production of ROS and the general redox-sensitive targets of cell signalling cascades.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcelo Genestra
- Department of Immunology, Oswaldo Cruz Institute/FIOCRUZ, Avenida Brasil, 4365-Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro, CEP 21045-900, RJ-Brazil.
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24
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Lemaire SD, Michelet L, Zaffagnini M, Massot V, Issakidis-Bourguet E. Thioredoxins in chloroplasts. Curr Genet 2007; 51:343-65. [PMID: 17431629 DOI: 10.1007/s00294-007-0128-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2007] [Revised: 03/05/2007] [Accepted: 03/09/2007] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Thioredoxins (TRXs) are small disulfide oxidoreductases of ca. 12 kDa found in all free living organisms. In plants, two chloroplastic TRXs, named TRX f and TRX m, were originally identified as light dependent regulators of several carbon metabolism enzymes including Calvin cycle enzymes. The availability of genome sequences revealed an unsuspected multiplicity of TRXs in photosynthetic eukaryotes, including new chloroplastic TRX types. Moreover, proteomic approaches and focused studies allowed identification of 90 potential chloroplastic TRX targets. Lately, recent studies suggest the existence of a complex interplay between TRXs and other redox regulators such as glutaredoxins (GRXs) or glutathione. The latter is involved in a post-translational modification, named glutathionylation that could be controlled by GRXs. Glutathionylation appears to specifically affect the activity of TRX f and other chloroplastic enzymes and could thereby constitute a previously undescribed regulatory mechanism of photosynthetic metabolism under oxidative stress. After summarizing the initial studies on TRX f and TRX m, this review will focus on the most recent developments with special emphasis on the contributions of genomics and proteomics to the field of TRXs. Finally, new emerging interactions with other redox signaling pathways and perspectives for future studies will also be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stéphane D Lemaire
- Institut de Biotechnologie des Plantes, Unité Mixte de Recherche 8618, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Univ Paris-Sud, 91405 Orsay Cedex, France.
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25
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Maiti S, Zhang J, Chen G. Redox regulation of human estrogen sulfotransferase (hSULT1E1). Biochem Pharmacol 2006; 73:1474-81. [PMID: 17266938 PMCID: PMC1950446 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2006.12.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2006] [Revised: 12/19/2006] [Accepted: 12/20/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Sulfotransferases (SULTs) are enzymes that catalyze the sulfation of hydroxyl-containing compounds. Sulfation regulates hormone activities and detoxifies xenobiotics. Human estrogen sulfotransferase (hSULT1E1) catalyzes the sulfation of estrogens and regulates estrogen bioactivities. Oxidative regulation provides a biological mechanism for regulating enzyme activities in vivo. The oxidative regulation of human SULTs has not been reported. In this study, we used amino acid modification, manipulation of intracellular redox state, and site-directed mutagenesis to study the redox regulation of human SULTs and specifically the mechanism of hSULT1E1 inhibitory regulation by oxidized glutathione (GSSG). Of the four major human SULTs, hSULT1A1, hSULT1A3, and hSULT2A1 do not undergo redox regulation; hSULT1E1, on the other hand, can be redox regulated. GSSG inactivated hSULT1E1 activity in an efficient, time- and concentration-dependant manner. The co-enzyme adenosine 3'-phosphate 5'-phosphosulfate protected hSULT1E1 from GSSG-associated inactivation. A reduced glutathione (GSH) inducer (N-acetyl cysteine) significantly increased while a GSH depletor (buthionine sulfoxamine) significantly decreased hSULT1E1 activity, but both failed to affect the amount of hSULT1E1 protein in human hepatocyte carcinoma Hep G2 cells. Crystal structure suggested that no Cys residues exist near the active sites of hSULT1A1, hSULT1A3, and hSULT2A1, but Cys residues do exist within the active site of hSULT1E1. Site-directed mutagenesis demonstrated that Cys83 is critical for the redox regulation of hSULT1E1. This first report on the redox regulation of human SULTs suggests that the redox regulation of hSULT1E1 may interrupt the regulation and function of estrogens under various physiological and pathological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Smarajit Maiti
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA
| | - Jimei Zhang
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Tianjin Polytechnic University, China
| | - Guangping Chen
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA
- Address correspondence to: Guangping Chen, 264 McElroy Hall, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, 74078. Phone: (405) 744-2349. Fax: (405) 744-8263. E-mail:
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26
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Zaffagnini M, Michelet L, Marchand C, Sparla F, Decottignies P, Le Maréchal P, Miginiac-Maslow M, Noctor G, Trost P, Lemaire SD. The thioredoxin-independent isoform of chloroplastic glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase is selectively regulated by glutathionylation. FEBS J 2006; 274:212-26. [PMID: 17140414 DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2006.05577.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
In animal cells, many proteins have been shown to undergo glutathionylation under conditions of oxidative stress. By contrast, very little is known about this post-translational modification in plants. In the present work, we showed, using mass spectrometry, that the recombinant chloroplast A(4)-glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (A(4)-GAPDH) from Arabidopsis thaliana is glutathionylated with either oxidized glutathione or reduced glutathione and H(2)O(2). The formation of a mixed disulfide between glutathione and A(4)-GAPDH resulted in the inhibition of enzyme activity. A(4)-GAPDH was also inhibited by oxidants such as H(2)O(2). However, the effect of glutathionylation was reversed by reductants, whereas oxidation resulted in irreversible enzyme inactivation. On the other hand, the major isoform of photosynthetic GAPDH of higher plants (i.e. the A(n)B(n)-GAPDH isozyme in either A(2)B(2) or A(8)B(8) conformation) was sensitive to oxidants but did not seem to undergo glutathionylation significantly. GAPDH catalysis is based on Cys149 forming a covalent intermediate with the substrate 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate. In the presence of 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate, A(4)-GAPDH was fully protected from either oxidation or glutathionylation. Site-directed mutagenesis of Cys153, the only cysteine located in close proximity to the GAPDH active-site Cys149, did not affect enzyme inhibition by glutathionylation or oxidation. Catalytic Cys149 is thus suggested to be the target of both glutathionylation and thiol oxidation. Glutathionylation could be an important mechanism of regulation and protection of chloroplast A(4)-GAPDH from irreversible oxidation under stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirko Zaffagnini
- Laboratory of Molecular Plant Physiology, University of Bologna, Italy
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27
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Michelet L, Zaffagnini M, Massot V, Keryer E, Vanacker H, Miginiac-Maslow M, Issakidis-Bourguet E, Lemaire SD. Thioredoxins, glutaredoxins, and glutathionylation: new crosstalks to explore. PHOTOSYNTHESIS RESEARCH 2006; 89:225-45. [PMID: 17089213 DOI: 10.1007/s11120-006-9096-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2006] [Accepted: 08/17/2006] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Oxidants are widely considered as toxic molecules that cells have to scavenge and detoxify efficiently and continuously. However, emerging evidence suggests that these oxidants can play an important role in redox signaling, mainly through a set of reversible post-translational modifications of thiol residues on proteins. The most studied redox system in photosynthetic organisms is the thioredoxin (TRX) system, involved in the regulation of a growing number of target proteins via thiol/disulfide exchanges. In addition, recent studies suggest that glutaredoxins (GRX) could also play an important role in redox signaling especially by regulating protein glutathionylation, a post-translational modification whose importance begins to be recognized in mammals while much less is known in photosynthetic organisms. This review focuses on oxidants and redox signaling with particular emphasis on recent developments in the study of functions, regulation mechanisms and targets of TRX, GRX and glutathionylation. This review will also present the complex emerging interplay between these three components of redox-signaling networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laure Michelet
- Institut de Biotechnologie des Plantes, Unité Mixte de Recherche 8618, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique/Université Paris-Sud, Bâtiment 630, Orsay Cedex, 91405, France
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28
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Cummins I, McAuley K, Fordham-Skelton A, Schwoerer R, Steel PG, Davis BG, Edwards R. Unique Regulation of the Active site of the Serine Esterase S-Formylglutathione Hydrolase. J Mol Biol 2006; 359:422-32. [PMID: 16626737 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2006.03.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2006] [Revised: 03/17/2006] [Accepted: 03/22/2006] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
S-Formylglutathione hydrolases (SFGHs) are highly conserved thioesterases present in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, and form part of the formaldehyde detoxification pathway, as well as functioning as xenobiotic-hydrolysing carboxyesterases. As defined by their sensitivity to covalent modification, SFGHs behave as cysteine hydrolases, being inactivated by thiol alkylating agents, while being insensitive to inhibition by organophosphates such as paraoxon. As such, the enzyme has been classified as an esterase D in animals, plants and microbes. While SFGHs do contain a conserved cysteine residue that has been implicated in catalysis, sequence analysis also reveals the classic catalytic triad of a serine hydrolase. Using a combination of selective protein modification and X-ray crystallography, AtSFGH from Arabidopsis thaliana has been shown to be a serine hydrolase rather than a cysteine hydrolase. Uniquely, the conserved reactive cysteine (Cys59) previously implicated in catalysis lies in close proximity to the serine hydrolase triad, serving a gate-keeping function in comprehensively regulating access to the active site. Thus, any covalent modification of Cys59 inhibited all hydrolase activities of the enzyme. When isolated from Escherichia coli, a major proportion of recombinant AtSFGH was recovered with the Cys59 forming a mixed disulfide with glutathione. Reversible disulfide formation with glutathione could be demonstrated to regulate hydrolase activity in vitro. The importance of Cys59 in regulating AtSFGH in planta was demonstrated in transient expression assays in Arabidopsis protoplasts. As determined by fluorescence microscopy, the Cys59Ser mutant enzyme was shown to rapidly hydrolyse 4-methylumbelliferyl acetate in paraoxon-treated cells, while the native enzyme was found to be inactive. Our results clarify the classification of AtSFGHs as hydrolases and suggest that the regulatory and conserved cysteine provides an unusual redox-sensitive regulation to an enzyme functioning in both primary and xenobiotic metabolism in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian Cummins
- Centre for Bioactive Chemistry and School of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, University of Durham, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK
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29
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Noctor G. Metabolic signalling in defence and stress: the central roles of soluble redox couples. PLANT, CELL & ENVIRONMENT 2006; 29:409-25. [PMID: 17080595 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3040.2005.01476.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 241] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Plant growth and development are driven by electron transfer reactions. Modifications of redox components are both monitored and induced by cells, and are integral to responses to environmental change. Key redox compounds in the soluble phase of the cell are NAD, NADP, glutathione and ascorbate--all of which interact strongly with reactive oxygen. This review takes an integrated view of the NAD(P)-glutathione-ascorbate network. These compounds are considered not as one-dimensional 'reductants' or 'antioxidants' but as redox couples that can act together to condition cellular redox tone or that can act independently to transmit specific information that tunes signalling pathways. Emphasis is placed on recent developments highlighting the complexity of redox-dependent defence reactions, and the importance of interactions between the reduction state of soluble redox couples and their concentration in mediating dynamic signalling in response to stress. Signalling roles are assessed within the context of interactions with reactive oxygen, phytohormones and calcium, and the biochemical reactions through which redox couples could be sensed are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graham Noctor
- Institut de Biotechnologie des Plantes, UMR CNRS 8618, Université de Paris XI, 91405 Orsay cedex, France.
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