Synthesis of a radioactive azido derivative of thapsigargin and photolabeling of the sarcoplasmic reticulum ATPase

Calcium signaling in closely related protozoan groups (Alveolata): non-parasitic ciliates (Paramecium, Tetrahymena) vs. parasitic Apicomplexa (Plasmodium, Toxoplasma)

The importance of Ca2+-signaling for many subcellular processes is well established in higher eukaryotes, whereas information about protozoa is restricted. Recent genome analyses have stimulated such work also with Alveolates, such as ciliates (Paramecium, Tetrahymena) and their pathogenic close relatives, the Apicomplexa (Plasmodium, Toxoplasma). Here we compare Ca2+ signaling in the two closely related groups. Acidic Ca2+ stores have been characterized in detail in Apicomplexa, but hardly in ciliates. Two-pore channels engaged in Ca2+-release from acidic stores in higher eukaryotes have not been stingently characterized in either group. Both groups are endowed with plasma membrane- and endoplasmic reticulum-type Ca2+-ATPases (PMCA, SERCA), respectively. Only recently was it possible to identify in Paramecium a number of homologs of ryanodine and inositol 1,3,4-trisphosphate receptors (RyR, IP3R) and to localize them to widely different organelles participating in vesicle trafficking. For Apicomplexa, physiological experiments suggest the presence of related channels although their identity remains elusive. In Paramecium, IP3Rs are constitutively active in the contractile vacuole complex; RyR-related channels in alveolar sacs are activated during exocytosis stimulation, whereas in the parasites the homologous structure (inner membrane complex) may no longer function as a Ca2+ store. Scrutinized comparison of the two closely related protozoan phyla may stimulate further work and elucidate adaptation to parasitic life. See also "Conclusions" section.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of molecular probes based on the 9-methylstreptimidone derivative DTCM-glutarimide

Molecular probes based on 3-[(dodecylthiocarbonyl)methyl]glutarimide (DTCM-glutarimide) were synthesized and assessed for inhibitory activity against LPS-induced NO production. Among the probes examined, several derivatives exhibited potential for use in determining the target proteins of DTCM-glutarimide.

Molecular determinants of sarco/endoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase inhibition by hydroquinone‐based compounds

The ion transport activity of the sarco/endoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase (SERCA) is specifically and potently inhibited by the small molecule 2,5-di-tert-butylhydroquinone (BHQ). In this study, we investigated the relative importance of the nature and position of BHQ's four substituents for enzyme inhibition by employing a combination of experimental and computational techniques. The inhibitory potencies of 21 commercially available or synthesized BHQ derivatives were determined in ATPase activity assays, and 11 compounds were found to be active. Maximum inhibitory potency was observed in compounds with two para hydroxyl groups, whereas BHQ analogues with only one hydroxyl group were still active, albeit with a reduced potency. The results also demonstrated that two alkyl groups were an absolute requirement for activity, with the most potent compounds having 2,5-substituents with four or five carbon atoms at each position. Using the program GOLD in conjunction with the ChemScore scoring function, the structures of the BHQ analogues were docked into the crystal structure of SERCA mimicking the enzyme's E(2) conformation. Analysis of the docking results indicated that inhibitor binding to SERCA was primarily mediated by a hydrogen bond between a hydroxyl group and Asp-59 and by hydrophobic interactions involving the bulky inhibitor alkyl groups. Attempts to dock BHQ into crystal structures corresponding to the E(1) conformation of the enzyme failed, because the conformational changes accompanying the E(2)/E(1) transition severely restricted the size of the binding site, suggesting that BHQ stabilizes the enzyme in its E(2) form. The potential role of Glu309 in enzyme inhibition is discussed in the context of the computational results. The docking scores correlated reasonably well with the measured inhibitory potencies and allowed the distinction between active and inactive compounds, which is a key requirement for future virtual screening of large compound databases for novel SERCA inhibitors.

Studies of Ca2+ ATPase (SERCA) inhibition

The Ca(2+) transport ATPase of intracellular membranes (SERCA) can be inhibited by a series of chemical compounds such as Thapsigargin (TG), 2,5-di(tert-butyl)hydroquinone (DBHQ) and 1,3-dibromo-2,4,6-tris (methyl-isothio-uronium) benzene (Br(2)-TITU). These compounds have specific binding sites in the ATPase protein, and different mechanisms of inhibition. On the other hand, SERCA gene silencing offers a convenient and specific method for suppression of SERCA activity in cells. The physiological and pharmacological implications of SERCA inhibition are discussed.

Analysis of the mechanism by which calcium negatively regulates the tyrosine phosphorylation cascade associated with sperm capacitation

The capacitation of mammalian spermatozoa involves the activation of a cAMP-mediated signal transduction pathway that drives tyrosine phosphorylation via mechanisms that are unique to this cell type. Controversy surrounds the impact of extracellular calcium on this process, with positive and negative effects being recorded in independent publications. We clearly demonstrate that the presence of calcium in the external medium decreases tyrosine phosphorylation in both human and mouse spermatozoa. Under these conditions, a rise in intracellular pH was recorded, however, this event was not responsible for the observed changes in phosphotyrosine expression. Rather, the impact of calcium on tyrosine phosphorylation in these cells was associated with an unexpected change in the intracellular availability of ATP. Thus, the ATP content of both human and mouse spermatozoa fell significantly when these cells were incubated in the presence of external calcium. Furthermore, the removal of glucose, or addition of 2-deoxyglucose, decreased ATP levels within human spermatozoon populations and induced a corresponding decline in phosphotyrosine expression. In contrast, the mitochondrial inhibitor rotenone had no effect on either ATP levels or tyrosine phosphorylation. Addition of the affinity-labeling probe 8-N3 ATP confirmed our prediction that spermatozoa have many calcium-dependent ATPases. Moreover, addition of the ATPase inhibitor thapsigargin, increased intracellular calcium levels, decreased ATP and suppressed tyrosine phosphorylation. Based on these findings, the present study indicates that extracellular calcium suppresses tyrosine phosphorylation by decreasing the availability of intracellular ATP, and not by activating tyrosine phosphatases or inhibiting tyrosine kinases as has been previously suggested.

Molecular determinants of thapsigargin binding by SERCA Ca2+-ATPase: A computational docking study

Thapsigargin (TG) is a potent and commonly used inhibitor of the ion transport activity of sarco/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPases (SERCA). Based on the recently published crystal structures of rabbit muscle SERCA1a in the Ca2+/E1 (E1) and TG/E2 (E2) conformations, we performed computational docking studies to characterize the molecular interactions that govern binding of TG and TG-analogs by the enzyme. Using the program GOLD (genetic optimization for ligand docking) in combination with the scoring function ChemScore, TG was docked into the binding site of the E1 and E2 conformations of SERCA1a. The docking results revealed a consensus ligand-binding mode consistent with the crystal structure and showed that hydrophobic interactions are the primary driving force of TG binding by SERCA. Moreover, it was shown that the conformational changes accompanying the E2 to E1 transition in the enzyme likely displace TG from its favored orientation in the binding site, thereby substantially reducing its binding affinity. This finding illustrates on the molecular level how TG may exert its inhibitory effect in binding tightly to the E2 form and preventing it from converting into its E1 form, a requirement for catalytic function. We also docked 9 TG analogs into the E2 conformation of the enzyme. Eight of the analogs adopted a binding mode very similar to that of TG, whereas one compound preferred a different orientation in the binding site. Analysis of the predicted binding affinities showed a good correlation with the experimentally observed inhibitory potencies of the analogs. Docking was also performed with several modeled mutants of SERCA1a, whose phenylalanine residue in position 256 (Phe256) had been modified. The experimentally observed declines in TG sensitivity in most of the Phe256 mutants was qualitatively accounted for and appears, at least in part, be due to a slightly altered TG-binding mode.

Specific Structural Requirements for the Inhibitory Effect of Thapsigargin on the Ca2+ ATPase SERCA

Mutational analysis of amino acid residues lining the thapsigargin (TG) binding cavity at the interface of the membrane surface and cytosolic headpiece was performed in the Ca(2+) ATPase (SERCA-1). Specific mutations such as F256V, I765A, and Y837A reduce not only the apparent affinity of the ATPase for TG but also the maximal inhibitory effect. The effect of mutations is dependent on the type and size of the substitute side chain, indicating that hydrophobic partitioning of TG and complementary molecular shapes are involved not only in binding but also in the inhibitory mechanism. A major factor determining the inhibitory effect of bound TG is its interference with conformational changes that are required for the progress of the ATPase cycle. Most prominent and specific is the TG interference with a wide displacement of the Phe-256 side chain that is associated with the E2 to E1.2Ca(2+) transition. The specificity of the TG inhibitory mechanism is emphasized by the finding that the F256V mutation does not interfere at all with the effect of 2,5-di-(t-butyl)-hydroquinone, which is another SERCA inhibitor bound by hydrophobic partitioning. The specificity of the inhibitory mechanism is also emphasized by the observation that within the concentration range producing total inhibition of wild-type SERCA-1, TG produces a 4-fold stimulation of the P-glycoprotein (multidrug transporter) ATPase.

Structural changes in the calcium pump accompanying the dissociation of calcium

In skeletal muscle, calcium ions are transported (pumped) against a concentration gradient from the cytoplasm into the sarcoplasmic reticulum, an intracellular organelle. This causes muscle cells to relax after cytosolic calcium increases during excitation. The Ca(2+) ATPase that carries out this pumping is a representative P-type ion-transporting ATPase. Here we describe the structure of this ion pump at 3.1 A resolution in a Ca(2+)-free (E2) state, and compare it with that determined previously for the Ca(2+)-bound (E1Ca(2+)) state. The structure of the enzyme stabilized by thapsigargin, a potent inhibitor, shows large conformation differences from that in E1Ca(2+). Three cytoplasmic domains gather to form a single headpiece, and six of the ten transmembrane helices exhibit large-scale rearrangements. These rearrangements ensure the release of calcium ions into the lumen of sarcoplasmic reticulum and, on the cytoplasmic side, create a pathway for entry of new calcium ions.

Remarkable stability of solubilized and delipidated sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase with tightly bound fluoride and magnesium against detergent-induced denaturation

Conditions were developed in the absence of Ca(2+) for purification, delipidation, and long term stabilization of octaethylene glycol monododecyl ether (C(12)E(8))-solubilized sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+)-ATPase with tightly bound Mg(2+) and F(-), an analog for the phosphoenzyme intermediate without bound Ca(2+). The Ca(2+)-ATPase activity to monitor denaturation was assessed after treatment with 20 mm Ca(2+) to release tightly bound Mg(2+)/F(-). The purification and delipidation was successfully achieved with Reactive Red-agarose affinity chromatography. The solubilized Mg(2+)/F(-)-bound Ca(2+)-ATPase was very rapidly denatured at pH 8, but was perfectly stabilized at pH 6 against denaturation for over 20 days at 4 degrees C even without exogenously added phospholipid and at a high C(12)E(8)/enzyme weight ratio (10:1). The activity was not restored unless the enzyme was treated with 20 mm Ca(2+), showing that tightly bound Mg(2+)/F(-) was not released during the long term incubation. The perfect stability was attained with or without 0.1 mm dithiothreitol, but inactivation occurred with a half-life of 10 days in the presence of 1 mm dithiothreitol, possibly due to reduction of a specific disulfide bond(s). The remarkable stability is likely conferred by intimate gathering of cytoplasmic domains of Ca(2+)-ATPase molecule induced by tight binding of Mg(2+)/F(-). The present study thus reveals an essential property of the Mg(2+)/F(-)/Ca(2+)-ATPase complex, which will likely provide clues to understanding structure of the Ca(2+)-released form of phosphoenzyme intermediate at an atomic level.

Thapsigargin and dimethyl sulfoxide activate medium P(i)<-->HOH oxygen exchange catalyzed by sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase

Thapsigargin is a potent inhibitor of sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+)-ATPase. It binds the Ca(2+)-free E2 conformation in the picomolar range, supposedly resulting in a largely catalytically inactive species. We now find that thapsigargin has little effect on medium P(i) <--> HOH oxygen exchange and that this activity is greatly stimulated (up to 30-fold) in the presence of 30% (v/v) Me(2)SO. Assuming a simple two-step mechanism, we have evaluated the effect of thapsigargin and Me(2)SO on the four rate constants governing the reaction of P(i) with Ca(2+)-ATPase. The principal effect of thapsigargin alone is to stimulate EP hydrolysis (k(-2)), whereas that of Me(2)SO is to greatly retard P(i) dissociation (k(-1)), accounting for its well known effect on increasing the apparent affinity for P(i). These effects persist when the agents are used in combination and substantially account for the activated oxygen exchange (v(exchange) = k(-2)[EP]). Kinetic simulations show that the overall rate constant for the formation of EP is very fast (approximately 300 s(-1)) when the exchange is maximal. Thapsigargin greatly stabilizes Ca(2+)-ATPase against denaturation in detergent in the absence of Ca(2+), as revealed by glutaraldehyde cross-linking, suggesting that the membrane helices lock together. It seems that the reactions at the phosphorylation site, associated with the activated exchange reaction, are occurring without much movement of the transport site helices, and we suggest that they may be associated solely with an occluded H+ state.

Unravelling the interaction of thapsigargin with the conformational states of Ca(2+)-ATPase from skeletal sarcoplasmic reticulum

Preincubation of thapsigargin with sarcoplasmic reticulum vesicles in the presence of high Ca(2+) or the addition of high Ca(2+) to microsomal vesicles preincubated with thapsigargin in the absence of Ca(2+) allowed full enzyme phosphorylation by ATP. However, the enzyme activity was not protected by high Ca(2+) even when the samples were subjected to gel filtration before ATP addition. Our data indicate that: (i) the enzyme in the Ca(2+)-bound conformation can be stabilized in the presence of thapsigargin; (ii) the conformational transition from the Ca(2+)-free to the Ca(2+)-bound state can be elicited by Ca(2+) when thapsigargin is present; (iii) thapsigargin binding occurs whether or not the enzyme is in the presence of Ca(2+), and so a ternary complex enzyme-Ca(2+)-thapsigargin may be formed; (iv) thapsigargin can be dissociated from the enzyme with a slow kinetics after dilution under drastic conditions; (v) the kinetics of Ca(2+) binding is clearly slowed down by thapsigargin; and (vi) thapsigargin does not affect the hydrolysis rate of phosphorylating substrates when measured in the absence of Ca(2+), indicating that thapsigargin specifically inhibits the Ca(2+)-dependent activity.

Locating the thapsigargin-binding site on Ca(2+)-ATPase by cryoelectron microscopy

Thapsigargin (TG) is a potent inhibitor of Ca(2+)-ATPase from sarcoplasmic and endoplasmic reticula. Previous enzymatic studies have concluded that Ca(2+)-ATPase is locked in a dead-end complex upon binding TG with an affinity of <1 nM and that this complex closely resembles the E(2) enzymatic state. We have studied the structural effects of TG binding by cryoelectron microscopy of tubular crystals, which have previously been shown to comprise Ca(2+)-ATPase molecules in the E(2) conformation. In particular, we have compared 3D reconstructions of Ca(2+)-ATPase in the absence and presence of either TG or its dansylated derivative. The overall molecular shape of Ca(2+)-ATPase in the reconstructions is very similar, demonstrating that the TG/Ca(2+)-ATPase complex does indeed physically resemble the E(2) conformation, in contrast to massive domain movements that appear to be induced by Ca(2+) binding. Difference maps reveal a consistent difference on the lumenal side of the membrane, which we conclude corresponds to the thapsigargin-binding site. Modeling the atomic structure for Ca(2+)-ATPase into our density maps reveals that this binding site is composed of the loops between transmembrane segments M3/M4 and M7/M8. Indirect effects are proposed to explain the effects of the S3 stalk segment on thapsigargin affinity as well as thapsigargin-induced changes in ATP affinity. Indeed, a second difference density was observed at the decavanadate-binding site within the three cytoplasmic domains, which we believe reflects an altered affinity as a result of the long-range conformational coupling that drives the reaction cycle of this family of ATP-dependent ion pumps.

Characterization of calcium, nucleotide, phosphate, and vanadate bound states by derivatization of sarcoplasmic reticulum ATPase with ThioGlo1

Sarcoplasmic reticulum vesicles were incubated with the maleimide-directed probe ThioGlo1, resulting in ATPase inactivation. Reacted ThioGlo1, revealed by its enhanced fluorescence, was found to be associated with the cytosolic but not with the membrane-bound region of the ATPase. The dependence of inactivation on ThioGlo1 concentration suggests derivatization of approximately four residues per ATPase, of which Cys(364), Cys(498), and Cys(636) were identified in prominently fluorescent peptide fragments. These cysteines reside within the phosphorylation and nucleotide-binding region of the ATPase. Accordingly, protection is observed in the presence of ATP, 2'(3')-O-(2,4,6-trinitrophenyl)adenosine 5'-diphosphate (TNP-AMP), or an fluoroisothiocyanate label of Lys(515). Furthermore, protection is observed in the presence of vanadate (or decavanadate), but not in the presence of phosphate. Labeling occurs equally well in the presence or in the absence of Ca(2+) and thapsigargin, excluding a role of the E1-to-E2 transition in the protective effect of vanadate. It is concluded that protection by vanadate is due to formation of a pentacoordinated orthovanadate complex at the phosphorylation site, corresponding to a stable transition state analog of the phosphorylation reaction, with intermediate characteristics of the EP1 and EP2 states. The lack of protection by phosphate is attributed to instability of its complex with the enzyme (EP2). These findings are discussed with respect to different structural images obtained from diffraction studies of ATPase in the presence or in the absence of Ca(2+) and/or decavanadate (Ogawa et al., 1998, Biophys. J. 75:41-52).

ACTA, a fluorescent analogue of thapsigargin, is a potent inhibitor and a conformational probe of skeletal muscle Ca2+-ATPase

Thapsigargin is a highly potent and selective inhibitor of sarco-endoplasmic reticulum (SERCA) family of Ca2+-ATPases and a useful tool in research concerning the function of intracellular Ca2+ stores. We describe here a novel fluorescent derivative (8-O-(4-aminocinnamoyl)-8-O-debutanoylthapsigargin, termed ACTA) of this compound, acting as a Ca2+-ATPase inhibitor with a potency approaching that of thapsigargin. Binding of ACTA to the skeletal muscle sarcoplasmic reticulum vesicles results in a strong fluorescence enhancement, approximately 66% of which depends on ACTA association with Ca2+-ATPase. This specific component of ACTA fluorescence is sensitive to the E1-E2 conformational equilibrium of the pump. The combined properties of high potency and binding-dependent fluorescence suggest ACTA to be a useful probe for a range of studies involving the SERCA class of ATPases.

Mutational analysis of trans-membrane helices M3, M4, M5 and M7 of the fast-twitch Ca2+-ATPase

Mutational analysis of trans-membrane helices M3, M4, M5 and M7 of the Ca2+-ATPase revealed a novel phenotypic variant, M4 [Y295A (the one-letter symbols are used for amino acid residues throughout)], displaying an increased affinity for Pi and decreased affinity for MgATP, while retaining the ability to translocate Ca2+ ions across the endoplasmic reticulum membrane. The properties of this mutant suggest that the E1-E2 equilibrium is shifted towards E2, and indicate a key role for this aromatic residue (Y295) at the end of trans-membrane helix M4. A mutant containing three amino acid residue substitutions at the end of the seventh trans-membrane helix, M7 (F834A, F835A, T837F), showed a complete loss of ATPase activity and a reduced ability to phosphorylate with Pi, although MgATP-initiated phosphorylation was unaffected. The observation that single mutations in this cluster of residues had no effect on Ca2+ transport suggests that correct anchoring of the helix at the lipid-water interface by these aromatic residues is important in the functioning of the ATPase. Mutation of polar residues in helix M3 did not affect inhibition of the ATPase by thapsigargin, thapsivillosin A or t-butyl hydroquinone, suggesting that hydrogen-bonding partners for the essential -OH groups on these inhibitors lie elsewhere in the ATPase.

The sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ pump: inhibition by thapsigargin and enhancement by adenovirus-mediated gene transfer

The role of the sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ pump in the excitation-contraction coupling of cardiac muscle fibers was evaluated in experiments on SR ATPase inhibition with thapsigargin or, alternatively, on Ca2+ pump enhancement by SR ATPase transgenic expression. We found that thapsigargin, a highly specific and potent inhibitor of the SR ATPase, produces a strong reduction of cytosolic Ca2+ transient and contractile activation in neonatal rat myocytes, in the absence of any other functional effect. On the other hand, Ca2+ pump enhancement by ATPase transgenic expression affects dramatically Ca2+ transient and twitches, resulting in shorter duration and more rapid decay rates. Of particular interest is gene transfer mediated by recombinant adenovirus vectors under control of a cell-specific promoter, resulting in transgenic expression of all myocytes in culture, and no expression in fibroblasts.

Molecular characterization of a sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase gene from Paramecium tetraurelia and localization of its gene product to sub-plasmalemmal calcium stores

A cDNA encoding the gene for a sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum-type Ca2+-ATPase (SERCA) was isolated from a cDNA library of Paramecium tetraurelia by using degenerated primers according to conserved domains of SERCA-type ATPases. The identified nucleotide sequence (PtSERCA) is 3114 nucleotides in length with an open reading frame of 1037 amino acids. An intron of only 22 nucleotides occurs. Homology searches for the deduced amino acid sequence revealed 38-49% similarity to SERCA-type ATPases from organisms ranging from protozoans to mammals, with no more similarity to some parasitic protozoa of the same phylum. The calculated molecular mass of the encoded protein is 114.7 kDa. It contains the typical 10 transmembrane domains of SERCA-type ATPases and other conserved domains, such as the phosphorylation site and the ATP binding site. However, there are no binding sites for phospholamban and thapsigargin present in the PtSERCA. Antibodies raised against a cytoplasmic loop peptide between the phosphorylation site and the ATP binding site recognize on Western blots a protein of 106 kDa, exclusively in the fraction of sub-plasmalemmal calcium stores ('alveolar sacs'). In immunofluorescence studies the antibodies show labelling exclusively in the cell cortex of permeabilized cells in a pattern characteristic of the arrangement of alveolar sacs. When alveolar sacs where tested for phosphoenzyme-intermediate formation a phosphoprotein of the same molecular mass (106 kDa) could be identified.

Role of the S3 stalk segment in the thapsigargin concentration dependence of sarco-endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ ATPase inhibition

The sarco-endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ ATPase (SERCA) is specifically inhibited by thapsigargin (TG), whereas the Na+,K+-ATPase is not. Large chimeric exchanges between Ca2+ and Na+,K+-ATPases (Norregaard, A., Vilsen, B., and Andersen, J. P. (1994) J. Biol. Chem. 269, 26598-26601), as well as photolabeling with a TG azido derivative (Hua, S., and Inesi, G. (1997) Biochemistry 36, 11865-11872), suggest that the S3-M3 (stalk and membrane-bound) region of the Ca2+ ATPase is involved in TG binding. We produced small site-directed changes in the S3 stalk segment of the Ca2+ ATPase and found that mutation of five amino acids to the corresponding Na+,K+-ATPase residues increases by 3 orders of magnitude the TG concentration required for inhibition of Ca2+ ATPase and coupled Ca2+ transport. A single mutation in the S3 stalk segment (Gly257 --> Ile) is sufficient to increase by 1 order of magnitude the TG concentration required to produce 50% inhibition. By comparison, mutations yielding a nine-amino acid homology in the M3 transmembrane segment, or a 25-amino acid homology in the S4 stalk segment, do not affect the ATPase sensitivity to TG. We suggest that specific binding of TG to the S3 stalk segment, in addition to stacking of the TG ring structure at the membrane interface, determines the high affinity of the ATPase for the inhibitor.