Critical Appraisal of Salting-Out and Its Implications for Chemical and Biological Sciences

An overview on the current status and future prospects in Aspergillus cellulase production

Cellulase is a new research point besides glucoamylase, amylase, and protease in the enzyme industry. Cellulase can decompose lignocellulosic biomass into small-molecule sugars, which facilitates microbial utilization; thus, it has a vast market potential in the field of feed, food, energy, and chemistry. The Aspergillus was the first strain used in cellulase preparation because of its safety and non-toxicity, strong growth ability, and high enzyme yield. This review provides the latest research and advances on preparing cellulase from Aspergillus. The metabolic mechanisms of cellulase secretion by Aspergillus, the selection of fermentation substrates, the comparison of the fermentation modes, and the effect of fermentation conditions have been discussed in this review. Also, the subsequent separation and purification techniques of Aspergillus cellulase, including salting out, organic solvent precipitation, ultrafiltration, and chromatography, have been declared. Further, bottlenecks in Aspergillus cellulase preparation and corresponding feasible approaches, such as genetic engineering, mixed culture, and cellulase immobilization, have also been proposed in this review. This paper provides theoretical support for the efficient production and application of Aspergillus cellulase.

Elucidating the Mechanism on the Transition-Metal Ion-Synergetic-Catalyzed Oxidation of SO2 with Implications for Sulfate Formation in Beijing Haze

Currently, atmospheric sulfate aerosols cannot be predicted reliably by numerical models because the pathways and kinetics of sulfate formation are unclear. Here, we systematically investigated the synergetic catalyzing role of transition-metal ions (TMIs, Fe3+/Mn2+) in the oxidation of SO2 by O2 on aerosols using chamber experiments. Our results showed that the synergetic effect of TMIs is critically dependent on aerosol pH due to the solubility of Fe(III) species sensitive to the aqueous phase acidity, which is effective only under pH < 3 conditions. The sulfate formation rate on aerosols is 2 orders of magnitude larger than that in bulk solution and increases significantly on smaller aerosols, suggesting that such a synergetic-catalyzed oxidation occurs on the aerosol surface. The kinetic reaction rate can be described as R = k*[H+]-2.95[Mn(II)][Fe(III)][S(IV)] (pH ≤ 3.0). We found that TMI-synergetic-catalyzed oxidation is the dominant pathway of sulfate formation in Beijing when haze particles are very acidic, while heterogeneous oxidation of SO2 by NO2 is the most important pathway when haze particles are weakly acidic. Our work for the first time clarified the role and kinetics of TMI-synergetic-catalyzed oxidation of SO2 by O2 in haze periods, which can be parameterized into models for future studies of sulfate formation.

Dummy molecularly imprinted polymer-based solid-phase extraction method for the determination of some phthalate monoesters in urine by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis

A dummy molecularly imprinted polymer-based solid-phase extraction (SPE) sorbent was used for the selective extraction of some phthalate monoesters, monoethyl phthalate (MEP), monobutyl phthalate (MnBP) and mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP) in urine prior to gas-chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis. Diethyl phthalate (DEP), a phthalate ester, was successfully used as a dummy template to prepare selective sorbent for MEP, MnBP, and MEHP extraction. DEP-imprinted poly(ethylene glycol dimethacrylate N-methacryloyl-l-tryptophan methyl ester) (DPEMT) microbeads were synthesized by suspension polymerization and characterized by Fourier Transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Brunauer Emmet Teller (BET) analysis. The critical parameters (i.e., pH, sorbent amount, ionic strength, sample volume, elution solvent) affecting the extraction performance of the DPEMT-SPE sorbent were optimized. Under optimum conditions, good linearities were obtained in the concentration range of 4 to 60 ng/mL with determination coefficients (R2) of greater than 0.9959. The developed SPE method provided low limits of detection (LOD) of 0.05-1.20 ng/mL and limits of quantification (LOQ) of 0.18-4.01 ng/mL with relative standard deviations (RSDs) of less than 8.95 % for intra- and inter-day analyses. The proposed SPE method was used to analyze phthalate monoesters in spiked urine samples, and recoveries of 97.45-109.26 % were obtained. DPEMT-SPE sorbent was reused for 15 times without any losses of performance. Consequently, a highly selective and sensitive SPE method based on a dummy molecularly imprinted polymer combined with GC-MS was successfully developed to monitor human phthalate exposure via urine samples.

Exosome Precipitation by Ionic Strength Modulation: ExoPRISM

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are emerging as crucial materials for precision theragnostic applications. However, current separation methods are time-consuming, costly, and not scalable and deliver limited yields or purity. Here, we present EV precipitation by ionic strength modulation (ExoPRISM), a simple, low-cost, user-friendly, and readily adaptable approach for separating EVs in high yields without compromising their biological functions. Adding an electrolyte solution to blood plasma in small increments generates the sequential precipitation of proteins and EVs, allowing for fractional separation of EVs using low-speed centrifugation. The coprecipitated electrolytes are easily washed away, and the entire EV separation and washing process takes less than an hour. This approach successfully separates EVs from a broad range of volumes and types of biological fluids, including culture medium, urine, plasma, and serum, showing promise as a robust tool for next-generation liquid biopsies and regenerative medicine.

Salting-Out Assisted Liquid-Liquid Microextraction and Reverse-Phase Chromatographic Quantification of Two Neonicotinoid Insecticides from Fruits and Vegetables

The present monograph describes the salting-out assisted liquid-liquid microextraction (SALLME) and reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography with diode array detector (RP-HPLC-DAD) based quantification of two frequently applied neonicotinoid insecticides, i.e., acetamiprid (ACE) and imidacloprid (IMD), from selected tropical fruits (citrus and guava) and vegetables (tomato, okra and cauliflower). The SALLME conditions like pH, liquid/solid ratio and salt ratio (NaCl/Na2SO4) were varied over a wide range of conditions for the enhanced recovery of IMD and ACE from spiked quality control (low, high and medium) of fruits and vegetables. Meanwhile, RP-HPLC-DAD quantification of IMD and ACE was found to be linear over 1-100 μg/L with the coefficient of determination (R2) value ≥0.997 and slope of the calibration curve (sensitivity) ≥2.3 × 104 peak area unit (μAu). The analysis of selected fruits and vegetables after 0 (1 h), 1, 3, 7, 10 and 14 days of foliar application revealed the presence of IMD and ACE residues in okra and guava higher than maximum residual limits set by the Codex Alimentarius Commission until the third day of spray. Overall, the SALLME-RP-HPLC-DAD was found to be a rapid, selective and expedient choice for the routine analysis of neonicotinoids in environmental and food commodities.

Highly efficient adsorption of antibiotic ciprofloxacin hydrochloride from aqueous solution by diatomite-basic zinc chloride composites

The antibiotic ciprofloxacin (CIP) is used to treat a variety of bacterial infections, yet it poses significant health risks to aquatic environments. While adsorption is a promising technique for CIP removal, current adsorption capacities remain limited. In this study, we introduce a diatomite and basic zinc chloride composite (ZnHC-Dt) prepared using a straightforward deposition method, with the ability to achieve highly efficient ciprofloxacin removal. ZnHC-Dt is characterized using field emission scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller method (BET). We also assess the zeta potential. The optimized ZnHC-Dt adsorbent, achieved at a mass ratio of 0.45 with ZnHC/(ZnHC+Dt), is adopted with a CIP adsorption capacity of 831.96 mg/g at 25 °C, broad pH adaptability (within 3.0-10.0), rapid adsorption rate (reaching equilibrium in 4 h), and stable performance under Na+ ionic strength. The CIP adsorption process follows pseudo-second-order kinetics and aligns well with the Langmuir adsorption model. The high adsorption capacity of ZnHC-Dt can be attributed to electrostatic attraction, hydrogen bonding, surface complexation, and available adsorption sites. During the desorption process, the CIP removal rate retains 65.33% effectiveness after five cycles. The results suggest that ZnHC-Dt holds significant potential for CIP removal in aqueous solutions.

Effect of ionic strength on aggregation of nile red and coumarin 30 in aqueous medium: primary kinetic salt effect or salting-out effect?

The effect of ionic strength on the aggregation of planar dyes like nile red (NR) and coumarin-30 (C30) in aqueous medium has been explored. The dyes are known to undergo dimerization, resulting in fading of their respective colors in the visible range. The present study demonstrates that the fading process is accelerated appreciably upon increasing ionic strength of the solution through addition of soluble salts. Experiments consist of variation of cations (Na+, Mg2+ and Al3+) with different valencies in a series of salts keeping the anion same and a similar set with a variation of anions (NO3-, SO42- and PO43-), keeping the cation same. The question of involvement of 'primary kinetic salt effect' or 'salting-out effect' for accelerating the aggregation process has also been resolved. Using Na+, K+ and NH4+ ions with the same counterpart NO3-, our experimental results do not show any differential effect, in terms of making the aggregation process faster, and hence rule out any effect of Hofmeister series on the self-aggregation process. The detailed study explicitly establishes that it is the 'primary kinetic salt effect' and not the 'salting-out effect' that is involved in the present case.

Reactivity of aminophenols in forming nitrogen-containing brown carbon from iron-catalyzed reactions

Nitrogen-containing organic carbon (NOC) in atmospheric particles is an important class of brown carbon (BrC). Redox active NOC like aminophenols received little attention in their ability to form BrC. Here we show that iron can catalyze dark oxidative oligomerization of o- and p-aminophenols under simulated aerosol and cloud conditions (pH 1-7, and ionic strength 0.01-1 M). Homogeneous aqueous phase reactions were conducted using soluble Fe(III), where particle growth/agglomeration were monitored using dynamic light scattering. Mass yield experiments of insoluble soot-like dark brown to black particles were as high as 40%. Hygroscopicity growth factors (κ) of these insoluble products under sub- and super-saturated conditions ranged from 0.4-0.6, higher than that of levoglucosan, a prominent proxy for biomass burning organic aerosol (BBOA). Soluble products analyzed using chromatography and mass spectrometry revealed the formation of ring coupling products of o- and p-aminophenols and their primary oxidation products. Heterogeneous reactions of aminophenol were also conducted using Arizona Test Dust (AZTD) under simulated aging conditions, and showed clear changes to optical properties, morphology, mixing state, and chemical composition. These results highlight the important role of iron redox chemistry in BrC formation under atmospherically relevant conditions.

Origin, accumulation and fate of dissolved organic matter in an extreme hypersaline shallow lake

Hypersaline endorheic aquatic systems (H-SEAS) are lakes/shallow playas in arid and semiarid regions that undergo extreme oscillations in salinity and severe drought episodes. Although their geochemical uniqueness and microbiome have been deeply studied, very little is known about the availability and quality of dissolved organic matter (DOM) in the water column.. A H-SEAS from the Monegros Desert (Zaragoza, NE Spain) was studied during a hydrological wetting-drying-rewetting cycle. DOM analysis included: (i) a dissolved organic carbon (DOC) mass balance; (ii) spectroscopy (absorbance and fluorescence) and (iii) a molecular characterization with Fourier-transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FT-ICR-MS). The studied system stored a large amount of DOC and under the highest salinity conditions, salt-saturated waters (i.e., brines with salinity > 30%) accumulated a disproportionate quantity of DOC, indicating a significant in-situ net DOM production. Simultaneously, during the hydrological transition from wet to dry, the DOM pool showed strong alterations of it molecular composition. Spectroscopic methods indicated that aromatic and degraded DOM was rapidly replaced by fresher, relatively small, microbial-derived moieties with a large C/N ratio. FT-ICR-MS highlighted the accumulation of small, saturated and oxidized molecules (molecular O/C > 0.5), with a remarkable increase in the relative contribution of highly oxygenated (molecular O/C>0.9) compounds and a decrease of aliphatic and carboxyl-rich alicyclic moleculesThese results indicated that H-SEAS are extremely active in accumulating and processing DOM, with the notable release of organic solutes probably originated from decaying microplankton under large osmotic stress at extremely high salinities.

The Impact of Dehulling and Germination on the Physiochemical, Protein Solubility and Water and Oil Holding Capacities of Yellow Eye Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) Protein Concentrates

Pulse varieties including Yellow Eye (YE) beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) are a rich source of protein (~26.5%) that can be utilized to create value-added protein concentrates. Pre-treatments including dehulling and germination have been shown to be effective at improving the nutritional and functional properties of extracted protein concentrates. However, the composition and functionality of these protein concentrates can vary depending on the pre-treatments and the method of extraction used (salt vs. alkaline). Furthermore, little is known about the impact of combining these different processing methods on the properties of YE bean protein concentrates. The objective of this study was to evaluate how germination and dehulling pre-treatments individually and when combined influence protein extraction efficiency, physiochemical properties (surface hydrophobicity and intrinsic fluorescence), and the functionality (solubility, oil and water holding capacities) of salt and alkaline extracted protein concentrates. Compared to the salt extracted concentrates, the alkaline protein concentrates exhibited higher protein recovery yields (16–23% vs. 43–56%) respectively. Conversely, the salt extracted protein concentrates exhibited superior functional properties as observed by improved water holding capacities and less variation in their solubilities at different pH values (4 to 10). When the pre-treatments were combined, the salt extracted concentrates exhibited improved extraction efficiencies and improved hydrophobicity and intrinsic fluorescence, whereas the opposite trend was observed in the alkaline protein concentrates. These observations were attributed to differences in the protein content and composition of the salt vs. alkaline protein concentrates. Overall, these findings suggest that dehulling and germination are potential processing methods that may be used to improve the physiochemical characteristics of salt extracted protein concentrates from yellow eye beans. Future research may investigate the potential application of these ingredients in different food formulations.

Super-moisturizing Materials from Morphological Deformation of Suprapolysaccharides

The evaporative interface on polysaccharides has evolved to form hierarchical structures with moisture sensitivity to enable organisms to live in drying environment. Here, we report the discovery of the morphological instability of polysaccharides, especially the reversible self-assembly/disassembly between micron-fibers and microparticles in response to changes in aquatic environments. This is similar but different to the dynamic instability observed in cytoskeletal proteins, in terms of an accompanying the polymeric deformation. The formation of the polymeric fibers containing crystalline structures can be flexibly controlled by controlling the polymer concentration and salt concentration in aqueous mixtures. Moreover, the microparticles having crosslinking points in the interior acquire the ability to retain a larger number of water molecules in drying environments and behave as super-moisturizing materials. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Purification of quantum dot-based bioprobes with a salting out strategy

A salting out strategy is reported for purification of IgG-conjugated QD (IgG-QD) bioprobes. Adding NaCl can precipitate free IgG selectively, while the IgG-QD maintains good colloidal stability. The dynamic light scattering technique reveals that this is due to the relatively positive zeta potential of free IgG than that of the IgG-QD.

Mapping shifts in nanopore signal to changes in protein and protein-DNA conformation

Solid-state nanopores have been used extensively in biomolecular studies involving DNA and proteins. However, the interpretation of signals generated by the translocation of proteins or protein-DNA complexes remains challenging. Here, we investigate the behavior of monovalent streptavidin and the complex it forms with short biotinylated DNA over a range of nanopore sizes, salts, and voltages. We describe a simple geometric model that is broadly applicable and employ it to explain observed variations in conductance blockage and dwell time with experimental conditions. The general approach developed here underscores the value of nanopore-based protein analysis and represents progress toward the interpretation of complex translocation signals.

Quartz crystal microbalance-based method to study adsorption of endocrine disruptor compounds on zeolite

Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) can be present as trace-level organic pollutants in aquatic environments and are difficult to measure and remove. In this study, a method was developed using a modified quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) to investigate the adsorption of EDCs by zeolite filter. Bisphenol A (BPA), oestrone (E1), oestradiol (E2), and sulfamethoxazole (SMZ) were selected as four representative endocrine disruptors in a water environment and their adsorption on zeolite was measured by QCM in real-time. The adsorption results were well described by a pseudo-first-order kinetic model and by a Sips isotherms model. The adsorption of the four adsorbents is related to their molecular structure, molecular polarity, and chargeability. The removal rate of EDCs by zeolite for different initial concentrations appeared to plateau, with the removal rates of the four selected EDCs all above 80% except for the maximum initial concentration. Changes of pH and ionic strength had no effect on the adsorption capacity of the four EDCs, with a removal rate of about 90%. However, the response time at pH 5.50 was about 300 s faster than that at pH 8.50 and the addition of electrolyte shortened the mass response time of several organic compounds on QCM.

Homo-oligomerization of the human adenosine A2A receptor is driven by the intrinsically disordered C-terminus

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) have long been shown to exist as oligomers with functional properties distinct from those of the monomeric counterparts, but the driving factors of oligomerization remain relatively unexplored. Herein, we focus on the human adenosine A2A receptor (A2AR), a model GPCR that forms oligomers both in vitro and in vivo. Combining experimental and computational approaches, we discover that the intrinsically disordered C-terminus of A2AR drives receptor homo-oligomerization. The formation of A2AR oligomers declines progressively with the shortening of the C-terminus. Multiple interaction types are responsible for A2AR oligomerization, including disulfide linkages, hydrogen bonds, electrostatic interactions, and hydrophobic interactions. These interactions are enhanced by depletion interactions, giving rise to a tunable network of bonds that allow A2AR oligomers to adopt multiple interfaces. This study uncovers the disordered C-terminus as a prominent driving factor for the oligomerization of a GPCR, offering important insight into the effect of C-terminus modification on receptor oligomerization of A2AR and other GPCRs reconstituted in vitro for biophysical studies.

Salting-out effect promoting highly efficient ambient ammonia synthesis

The electroreduction of nitrogen to ammonia offers a promising alternative to the energy-intensive Haber-Bosch process. Unfortunately, the reaction suffers from low activity and selectivity, owing to competing hydrogen evolution and the poor accessibility of nitrogen to the electrocatalyst. Here, we report that deliberately triggering a salting-out effect in a highly concentrated electrolyte can simultaneously tackle the above challenges and achieve highly efficient ammonia synthesis. The solute ions exhibit strong affinity for the surrounding H₂O molecules, forming a hydration shell and limiting their efficacy as both proton sources and solvents. This not only effectively suppresses hydrogen evolution but also ensures considerable nitrogen flux at the reaction interface via heterogeneous nucleation of the precipitate, thus facilitating the subsequent reduction process in terms of both selectivity and activity. As expected, even when assembled with a metal-free electrocatalyst, a high Faradaic efficiency of 71 ± 1.9% is achieved with this proof-of-concept system.

Phase equilibria, physical and rheological properties of extracellular polymeric substances in the aqueous urea solutions at different temperatures and concentrations

Extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) were extracted from aerobic granule sludge (AGS) using 8 M aqueous urea solution. It seems that the knowledge of these multi-component systems properties and the ability to predict their phase behavior is necessary for the extraction units design as well as process optimization. In this regard, water activity using the Dynamic Vapor Sorption (DVS) method, viscosity and shear stress, pH, and conductivity were measured at 283.15-343.15 K and 0.0108 to 0.0375 wt fraction of EPS. The salting effects in ternary systems assessed and the results were interpreted in terms of solute-water and solute-solute interactions. It was found these systems were not semi-ideal and except at 283.15 K, had a positive deviation from ideal solution behavior and only at this temperature as the optimum extraction temperature, the salting-in effect was observed for each concentration of EPS. The ternary solutions behave like pseudo-plastic fluids while aqueous urea solution is a Newtonian fluid. Increasing the temperature causes a decrease and increase in pH and conductivity of ternary solutions, respectively and the presence of EPS increases those of 8 M urea solution significantly.

Efficient removal of three dyes using porous covalent triazine frameworks: adsorption mechanism and role of pore distribution

Dyes are widely used in production and life. In this study, porous covalent triazine frameworks (CTFs) were synthesized and the adsorption behavior for three dyes was investigated by batch adsorption experiments. CTFs were characterized by various spectroscopic techniques for structure, porosity and surface properties. Several possible adsorption mechanisms were proposed including pore-filling, electrostatic attraction and hydrogen bonding interaction with the triazine structure of CTFs. The mechanisms were further verified by the pore size distribution and pH dependence. Additionally, CTF_DCBP displayed stronger adsorption affinity and faster adsorption kinetics for dyes, because of the wide pore size distribution. This study provides a new insight into the mesoporous CTFs, which exhibit great potential as an effective adsorbent for dye removal.

Alkaline Water Electrolysis Powered by Renewable Energy: A Review

Alkaline water electrolysis is a key technology for large-scale hydrogen production powered by renewable energy. As conventional electrolyzers are designed for operation at fixed process conditions, the implementation of fluctuating and highly intermittent renewable energy is challenging. This contribution shows the recent state of system descriptions for alkaline water electrolysis and renewable energies, such as solar and wind power. Each component of a hydrogen energy system needs to be optimized to increase the operation time and system efficiency. Only in this way can hydrogen produced by electrolysis processes be competitive with the conventional path based on fossil energy sources. Conventional alkaline water electrolyzers show a limited part-load range due to an increased gas impurity at low power availability. As explosive mixtures of hydrogen and oxygen must be prevented, a safety shutdown is performed when reaching specific gas contamination. Furthermore, the cell voltage should be optimized to maintain a high efficiency. While photovoltaic panels can be directly coupled to alkaline water electrolyzers, wind turbines require suitable converters with additional losses. By combining alkaline water electrolysis with hydrogen storage tanks and fuel cells, power grid stabilization can be performed. As a consequence, the conventional spinning reserve can be reduced, which additionally lowers the carbon dioxide emissions.

A salt-out strategy for purification of amphiphilic polymer-coated quantum dots

A purification strategy is presented that the OPA micelles are precipitated selectively in an OPA–QD solution by adding NaCl.

A mechanistic examination of salting out in protein-polymer membrane interactions

Developing a mechanistic understanding of protein dynamics and conformational changes at polymer interfaces is critical for a range of processes including industrial protein separations. Salting out is one example of a procedure that is ubiquitous in protein separations yet is optimized empirically because there is no mechanistic description of the underlying interactions that would allow predictive modeling. Here, we investigate peak narrowing in a model transferrin-nylon system under salting out conditions using a combination of single-molecule tracking and ensemble separations. Distinct surface transport modes and protein conformational changes at the negatively charged nylon interface are quantified as a function of salt concentration. Single-molecule kinetics relate macroscale improvements in chromatographic peak broadening with microscale distributions of surface interaction mechanisms such as continuous-time random walks and simple adsorption-desorption. Monte Carlo simulations underpinned by the stochastic theory of chromatography are performed using kinetic data extracted from single-molecule observations. Simulations agree with experiment, revealing a decrease in peak broadening as the salt concentration increases. The results suggest that chemical modifications to membranes that decrease the probability of surface random walks could reduce peak broadening in full-scale protein separations. More broadly, this work represents a proof of concept for combining single-molecule experiments and a mechanistic theory to improve costly and time-consuming empirical methods of optimization.

Characteristic and Application of Anionic Dimeric Surfactants: A Review

Anionic dimeric surfactants have attracted much interest compared to the conventional monomeric surfactants. These surfactants have low critical micellar concentrations and an excellent ability in reducing the surface tension of water than conventional surfactants. Therewith, they also show better solubilizing and foaming properties, and a magnificent mildness to the skin. These special features may make them potentially attractive in several applications, for example, laundry detergents, cosmetics and personal care. This article describes the micellization and mixed micellization properties, performance properties, application and biodegradability of anionic dimeric surfactants.

Effects of ionic strength on removal of toxic pollutants from aqueous media with multifarious adsorbents: A review

Adsorption is one of the most widely used and effective wastewater treatment methods. The role of ionic strength (IS) in shaping the adsorption performances is much necessary due to the ubiquity of electrolyte ions in water body and industrial effluents. The influences of IS on adsorption are rather complex, because electrolyte ions affect both adsorption kinetics and thermodynamics by changing the basic characteristics of adsorbents and adsorbates. For a given adsorption system, multiple or even contradictory effects of IS may coexist under identical experimental conditions, rendering the dominant mechanism recognition and net effect prediction complicated. We herein reviewed the key advancement on the interaction and mechanisms of IS, including change in number of active sites for adsorbents, ion pair for metal ions, molecular aggregation and salting-out effect for organic compounds, site competition for both inorganic and organic adsorbates, and charge compensation for adsorbent-adsorbate reciprocal interactions. The corresponding fundamental theory was thoroughly described, and the efforts made by various researchers were explicated. The structural optimization of adsorbents affected by IS was detailed, also highlighting polyamine materials with exciting "salt-promotion" effects on heavy metal removal from high salinity wastewater. In addition, the research trends and prospects were briefly discussed.

Polymer nanoparticles for the intravenous delivery of anticancer drugs: the checkpoints on the road from the synthesis to clinical translation

In this review article we discuss some of the key aspects concerning the development of a polymer-based nanoparticle formulation for intravenous drug delivery. Since numerous preparations fail before and during clinical trials, our aim is to emphasize the main issues that a nanocarrier has to face once injected into the body. These include biocompatibility and toxicity, drug loading and release, nanoparticle storage and stability, biodistribution, selectivity towards the target organs or tissues, internalization in cells and biodegradability. They represent the main checkpoints to define a polymer-based formulation as safe and effective. Indeed, this review is intended to provide guidelines to be followed in the early development of a new nanotherapeutic to hopefully increase the success rate of polymer-based formulations entering clinical trials. The corresponding requirements and characteristics are discussed in the context of some relevant case studies taken from the literature and mainly related to the delivery of lipophilic anticancer therapeutics.

Salt Solubilities in Aqueous Solutions of NaNO3, NaNO2, NaCl, and NaOH: A Hofmeister-like Series for Understanding Alkaline Nuclear Waste

Nonelectrolyte solubility in electrolyte solutions follow the Hofmeister series, but the applicability of the series to salt solubility has been less appreciated. This study, using solubility data for thirteen sodium-bearing salts, shows that salts are consistently salted out by electrolytes important to alkaline nuclear waste in the order NaOH > NaCl > NaNO₂ > NaNO₃ at 298.15 K, which is the same order as the Hofmeister series. Graphical presentation allowed for easy separation of the common ion effect (caused by the addition of Na⁺) from the salting-out effect (caused by the presence of anions) because there is a large difference between the solubility of a given salt in different background electrolytes at a common Na⁺ molality. The trend persists even in very high electrolyte concentrations where essentially all of the water molecules must be in the coordination sphere of an ion, which means that the effect of electrolytes on "bulk water" is not the cause of the trend. These specific interactions more likely result from the sharing of water molecules between ions, augmented by differences in ion-pairing of the electrolytes. The Hofmeister series has practical application to the management of alkaline high-level radioactive waste created at nuclear fuel reprocessing facilities, where a predictive understanding of salt solubility is essential for blending wastes of disparate compositions prior to treatment.

Nanomaterials for treating emerging contaminants in water by adsorption and photocatalysis: Systematic review and bibliometric analysis

Emerging contaminants in the aquatic environment have become a worldwide problem. Conventional wastewater treatment processes are ineffective for eliminating the emerging contaminants at trace concentrations. Nanomaterials possessing novel size-dependent properties, however, have shown great potential for removing these contaminants. Herein we reviewed nanomaterials reported for removing emerging contaminants by adsorption and/or photocatalysis, and their removal capacity, mechanism, and influencing factors are discussed. Meanwhile, a large-scale bibliometric analysis is conducted on the trends of the emerging contaminants, nanoadsorbents, nanophotocatalysts, and related research topics from the literature during 1998-2017.

Aggregation of a Cationic Gemini Surfactant with a Chelating Molecule and Effects from Calcium Ions

The aggregation behavior of cationic ammonium gemini surfactant hexamethylene-1,6-bis(dodecyldimethylammonium bromide) (12-6-12) with chelating molecule ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) and the effects of calcium bromide (CaBr₂) on the structure and morphology of the aggregates in the mixture have been investigated by surface tension, isothermal titration microcalorimetry, electrical conductivity, ζ potential, dynamic light scattering, cryogenic transmission electron microscopy, freeze-fracture transmission electron microscopy, and ¹H NMR techniques. It was found that the electrostatic attraction between the carboxyl groups of EDTA and the headgroups of 12-6-12 leads to the formation of oligomeric-like surfactant EDTA(12-6-12)₂ at an EDTA/12-6-12 molar ratio of 0.50. The critical aggregation concentration of the EDTA(12-6-12)₂ complexes is much lower than that of 12-6-12, and the complexes form loose, large network-like premicellar aggregates and then transfer into small micelles with an increase in concentration. Moreover, the addition of CaBr₂ induces the transition from the loose aggregates and micelles to vesicles owing to the coordination interaction between the calcium ion and EDTA and the electrostatic interaction between EDTA and 12-6-12. The work reveals that as a bridging molecule between the calcium ion and the gemini surfactant, the chelating molecule greatly promotes the assembly of the gemini surfactant and strengthens the molecular packing in the presence of calcium ions.

Adsorptive removal of pharmaceutical antibiotics from aqueous solution by porous covalent triazine frameworks

The exposures of pharmaceutical antibiotics in water solution caused potential risks for ecological environment and human health. In the present study, porous covalent triazine frameworks (CTFs) were synthesized and the adsorption behavior of sulfamethoxazole (SMX) and tylosin (TL) was investigated. The CTFs were characterized by X-ray diffraction, transform infrared and N₂ adsorption/desorption. Sulfamethoxazole displayed much stronger adsorption than tylosin on microporous CTF-1 adsorbent due to the pore-filling effect. While the adsorption of bulky tylosin on microporous CTF-1 was suppressed because of the size exclusion effect. Additionally, the porous CTF_DCBP showed stronger adsorption affinity and faster adsorption kinetics than other porous adsorbents, which was attributed to wide pore size distribution and open pore structure. Findings in this study highlight the potential of using porous CTFs as a potential adsorbent to eliminate antibiotics from water, especially for selective adsorption of bulky molecular pollutant.

A novel and environmentally friendly bioprocess for separation and partial purification of polysaccharides from Cordyceps sinensis mycelia by an aqueous two-phase system

An aqueous two-phase system comprising ethanol and salt not only could purify CS polysaccharides with high efficiency, but also simultaneously separated multiple active substances through coupling with ultrafiltration.

Effect of Sodium Sulfate, Ammonium Chloride, Ammonium Nitrate, and Salt Mixtures on Aqueous Phase Partitioning of Organic Compounds

Dissolved inorganic salts influence the partitioning of organic compounds into the aqueous phase. This influence is especially significant in atmospheric aerosol, which usually contains large amounts of ions, including sodium, ammonium, chloride, sulfate, and nitrate. However, empirical data on this salt effect are very sparse. Here, the partitioning of numerous organic compounds into solutions of Na₂SO₄, NH₄Cl, and NH₄NO₃ was measured and compared with existing data for NaCl and (NH₄)₂SO₄. Salt mixtures were also tested to establish whether the salt effect is additive. In general, the salt effect showed a decreasing trend of Na₂SO₄ > (NH)₂SO₄ > NaCl > NH₄Cl > NH₄NO₃ for the studied organic compounds, implying the following relative strength of the salt effect of individual anions: SO₄^2- > Cl^- > NO₃^- and of cations: Na⁺ > NH₄⁺. The salt effect of different salts is moderately correlated. Predictive models for the salt effect were developed based on the experimental data. The experimental data indicate that the salt effect of mixtures may not be entirely additive. However, the deviation from additivity, if it exists, is small. Data of very high quality are required to establish whether the effect of constituent ions or salts is additive or not.

pH Dependence of Liquid-Liquid Phase Separation in Organic Aerosol

Atmospheric aerosol particles influence climate through their direct and indirect effects. These impacts depend in part on the morphology of the particles, which is determined by their composition. The effect of pH on morphology was investigated using particles composed of 3-methylglutaric acid and ammonium sulfate by manipulating the starting pH of the bulk solution through the addition of aqueous sodium hydroxide. Efflorescence, deliquescence, phase separation, and mixing transitions were observed with optical microscopy. Due to changes in its protonation states, the solubility of the organic component increases with increasing pH, which shifts the location of the separation relative humidity (SRH) from 78.7% for the fully protonated acid to 63.9% for the fully deprotonated acid. Surprisingly, this shift in the SRH leads to hysteresis between the SRH and the mixing relative humidity (MRH). Particle pH has the greatest effect on phase transitions that require nucleus formation, that is, efflorescence and SRH.