Dechlorination and detoxification of 1,2,3,4,7,8-hexachlorodibenzofuran by a mixed culture containing Dehalococcoides ethenogenes Strain 195

Enhancement of perchloroethene dechlorination by a mixed dechlorinating culture via magnetic nanoparticle-mediated isolation method

Highly enriched active dechlorinating cultures are important in advancing microbial remediation technology. This study attempted to enrich a rapid perchloroethene (PCE) dechlorinating culture via magnetic nanoparticle-mediated isolation (MMI). MMI is a novel method that can separate the fast-growing and slow-growing population in a microbial community without labelling. In the MMI process, PCE dechlorination was enhanced but the subsequent trichloroethene (TCE) dechlorination was inhibited, with TCE cumulative rate reached up to 80.6% within 70 days. Meanwhile, the microbial community was also changed, with fast-growing genera like Dehalobacterium and Petrimonas enriched, and slow-growing Methanosarcina almost ruled out. Relative abundances of several major genera including Petrimonas and Methanosarcina were positively related to TCE dechlorination rate and the relative abundance of Dehalococcoides. On the other hand, Dehalobacterium was negatively related to TCE dechlorination rate and Dehalococcoides abundance, suggesting potential competition between Dehalobacterium and Dehalococcoides. The regrowth of Methanosarcina coupled well with the recovery of TCE dechlorination capacity, which implied the important role of methanogens in TCE dechlorination. Via MMI method, a simpler but more active microbial consortium could be established to enhance PCE remediation efficiency. Methanogens may act as the indicators or biomarkers for TCE dechlorination, suggesting that methanogenic activity should also be monitored when enriching dechlorination cultures and remediating PCE contaminated sites. CAPSULE: A rapid perchloroethene dechlorinator was gotten via magnetic nanoparticles and dechlorination of trichloroethene coupled well with growth of Methanosarcina.

Establishing the relationship between molecular biomarkers and biotransformation rates: Extension of knowledge for dechlorination of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and furans (PCDD/Fs)

Anaerobic reductive treatment technologies offer cost-effective and large-scale treatment of chlorinated compounds, including polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and furans (PCDD/Fs). The information about the degradation rates of these compounds in natural settings is critical but difficult to obtain because of slow degradation processes. Establishing a relationship between biotransformation rate and abundance of biomarkers is one of the most critical challenges faced by the bioremediation industry. When solved for a given contaminant, it may result in significant cost savings because of serving as a basis for action. In the current review, we have summarized the studies highlighting the use of biomarkers, particularly DNA and RNA, as a proxy for reductive dechlorination of chlorinated ethenes. As the use of biomarkers for predicting biotransformation rates has not yet been executed for PCDD/Fs, we propose the extension of the same knowledge for dioxins, where slow degradation rates further necessitate the need for developing the biomarker-rate relationship. For this, we have first retrieved and calculated the bioremediation rates of different PCDD/Fs and then highlighted the key sequences that can be used as potential biomarkers. We have also discussed the implications and hurdles in developing such a relationship. Improvements in current techniques and collaboration with some other fields, such as biokinetic modeling, can improve the predictive capability of the biomarkers so that they can be used for effectively predicting biotransformation rates of dioxins and related compounds. In the future, a valid and established relationship between biomarkers and biotransformation rates of dioxin may result in significant cost savings, whilst also serving as a basis for action.

Strategy for the Rapid Dechlorination of Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) by Dehalococcoides mccartyi Strains

Anaerobic bacteria play critical roles in the environmental bioremediation of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). However, in situ applications of PCB dechlorinating anaerobes have been largely impeded by difficulties in growing PCB dechlorinators to a high cell abundance in short time periods. Here, we report the accelerated onset of PCB dechlorination by pre-cultivating Dehalococcoides mccartyi strains on chloroethenes as alternative electron acceptors. The extensive dechlorination of Aroclor 1260 was achieved within 1 week by D. mccartyi CG4 pregrown on trichloroethene (TCE) or tetrachloroethene (PCE). Compared to control cultures fed solely with Aroclor 1260, the PCB dechlorination rate was up to 30 times greater in cultures pre-cultivated with chloroethenes. However, when CG4 was simultaneously exposed to multiple potential substrates (PCE, TCE, and PCBs), PCB dechlorination was not observed until PCE was completely depleted. The expression of the bifunctional PCE and PCBs reductive dehalogenase (RDase) gene pcbA4 was inhibited by the presence of both substrates. Furthermore, in the presence of >0.3 mM TCE (produced as an intermediate from PCE dechlorination), the PCB dechlorination rate was an order of magnitude lower than in cultures amended with Aroclor 1260 after the complete depletion of TCE. This reduced PCB dechlorination rate corresponded with a sharp decrease in pcbA4 transcripts in the presence of both TCE and PCBs. The utilization of chloroethenes and PCBs as substrates by CG4 was found to be largely sequential rather than concurrent, suggesting that PCE and TCE are preferred substrates for the RDase responsible for PCE, TCE, and PCB dechlorination.

Diastereoisomer-Specific Biotransformation of Hexabromocyclododecanes by a Mixed Culture Containing Dehalococcoides mccartyi Strain 195

Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) stereoisomers may exhibit substantial differences in physicochemical, biological, and toxicological properties. However, there remains a lack of knowledge about stereoisomer-specific toxicity, metabolism, and environmental fate of HBCD. In this study, the biotransformation of (±)α-, (±)β-, and (±)γ-HBCD contained in technical HBCD by a mixed culture containing the organohalide-respiring bacterium Dehalococcoides mccartyi strain 195 was investigated. Results showed that the mixed culture was able to efficiently biotransform the technical HBCD mixture, with 75% of the initial HBCD (∼12 μM) in the growth medium being removed within 42 days. Based on the metabolites analysis, HBCD might be sequentially debrominated via dibromo elimination reaction to form tetrabromocyclododecene, dibromocyclododecadiene, and 1,5,9-cyclododecatriene. The biotransformation of the technical HBCD was likely diastereoisomer-specific. The transformation rates of α-, β-, and γ-HBCD were in the following order: α-HBCD > β-HBCD > γ-HBCD. The enantiomer fractions of (±)α-, (±)β-, and (±)γ-HBCD were maintained at about 0.5 during the 28 days of incubation, indicating a lack of enantioselective biotransformation of these diastereoisomers. Additionally, the amendment of another halogenated substrate tetrachloroethene (PCE), which supports the growth of strain 195, had a negligible impact on the transformation patterns of HBCD diastereoisomers and enantiomers. This study provided new insights into the stereoisomer-specific transformation patterns of HBCD by anaerobic microbes and has important implications for microbial remediation of anoxic environments contaminated by HBCD using the mixed culture containing Dehalococcoides.

Dehalogenases: From Improved Performance to Potential Microbial Dehalogenation Applications

The variety of halogenated substances and their derivatives widely used as pesticides, herbicides and other industrial products is of great concern due to the hazardous nature of these compounds owing to their toxicity, and persistent environmental pollution. Therefore, from the viewpoint of environmental technology, the need for environmentally relevant enzymes involved in biodegradation of these pollutants has received a great boost. One result of this great deal of attention has been the identification of environmentally relevant bacteria that produce hydrolytic dehalogenases—key enzymes which are considered cost-effective and eco-friendly in the removal and detoxification of these pollutants. These group of enzymes catalyzing the cleavage of the carbon-halogen bond of organohalogen compounds have potential applications in the chemical industry and bioremediation. The dehalogenases make use of fundamentally different strategies with a common mechanism to cleave carbon-halogen bonds whereby, an active-site carboxylate group attacks the substrate C atom bound to the halogen atom to form an ester intermediate and a halide ion with subsequent hydrolysis of the intermediate. Structurally, these dehalogenases have been characterized and shown to use substitution mechanisms that proceed via a covalent aspartyl intermediate. More so, the widest dehalogenation spectrum of electron acceptors tested with bacterial strains which could dehalogenate recalcitrant organohalides has further proven the versatility of bacterial dehalogenators to be considered when determining the fate of halogenated organics at contaminated sites. In this review, the general features of most widely studied bacterial dehalogenases, their structural properties, basis of the degradation of organohalides and their derivatives and how they have been improved for various applications is discussed.

Forensic Analysis of Polychlorinated Dibenzo-p-Dioxin and Furan Fingerprints to Elucidate Dechlorination Pathways

Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and -furans (PCDD/Fs) are persistent organic pollutants whose main removal process in the environment is due to biodegradation, and particularly anaerobic reductive dechlorination. Since PCDD/F congeners that are substituted in the lateral 2, 3, 7, and 8 positions are the most toxic, removal of these chlorines is advantageous, but previous studies have only demonstrated their removal under laboratory conditions. We evaluated a concentration data set of PCDD/F congeners with four or more chlorines along with all 209 polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congeners in surface water, treated and untreated wastewater, landfill leachate, and biosolids (NY CARP data set) to determine whether peri and peri/lateral dechlorination of PCDD/Fs occurs in these environments. Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) applied to the data set revealed a factor indicative of the microbial dechlorination of PCBs, and this factor also contained a variety of non-2,3,7,8 substituted PCDD/F congeners. These results suggest that dechlorination of PCDD/Fs at the lateral positions is facile if not preferred in these environments. The relative lack of tetra- and penta-chlorinated PCDD/Fs suggested that dechlorination proceeds to PCDD/F congeners with less than four chlorines. The PMF results were confirmed by examining three samples that contained >90% PCB dechlorination products from the Fresh Kills Landfill and the Hudson River. Even without factor analysis, these samples demonstrated almost identical PCDD/F congener patterns. This study suggests that PCDD/Fs are reductively dechlorinated to nontoxic non-2,3,7,8 PCDD/F congeners in sewers and landfills as well as in the sediment of the Upper Hudson River.

Impact of estuarine gradients on reductive dechlorination of 1,2,3,4-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin in river sediment enrichment cultures

Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) are among the most persistent organic pollutants. Although the total input of PCDDs into the environment has decreased substantially over the past four decades, their input via non-point sources is still increasing, especially in estuarine metropolitan areas. Here we report on the microbially mediated reductive dechlorination of PCDDs in anaerobic enrichment cultures established from sediments collected from five locations along the Hackensack River, NJ and investigate the impacts of sediment physicochemical characteristics on dechlorination activity. Dechlorination of 1,2,3,4-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (1,2,3,4-TeCDD) and abundance of Dehalococcoides spp. negatively correlated with salinity and sulfate concentration in sediments used to establish the cultures. 1,2,3,4-TeCDD was dechlorinated to a lesser extent in cultures established from sediments from the tidally influenced estuarine mouth of the river. In cultures established from low salinity sediments, 1,2,3,4-TeCDD was reductively dechlorinated with the accumulation of 2-monochlorodibenzo-p-dioxin as the major product. Sulfate concentrations above 2 mM inhibited 1,2,3,4-TecDD dechlorination activity. Consecutive lateral- and peri- dechlorination took place in enrichment cultures with a minimal accumulation of 2,3-dichlorodibenzo-p-dioxin in active cultures. A Dehalococcoides spp. community was enriched and accounted for up to 64% of Chloroflexi detected in these sediment cultures.

Pyrosequencing analysis reveals high population dynamics of the soil microcosm degrading octachlorodibenzofuran

A deeper understanding of the microbial community structure is very important in bioremediation for polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins/dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs). However, this has been insufficiently addressed in previous studies. To obtain more information, we pyrosequenced the V4/V5 regions of the 16S rRNA genes of bacterial communities transited from polluted soil to batch microcosms that rapidly degraded high concentrations of octachlorodibenzofuran (OCDF). The analysis results contained an average of 11,842 reads per sample, providing the first detailed description of bacterial communities associated with PCDD/Fs. The community composition markedly changed to be concomitant with the degradation of OCDF, indicating that a distinctive population structure developed rapidly in the microcosm. Although oxygen gas was provided weekly to the microcosm, the growth of potential degraders, Sphingomonas, Pseudomonas, Rhodococcus, and Clostridium, was observed, but in consistently low quantities. While anaerobic Sedimentibacter initially emerged as an abundant pioneer, several aerobic participants, such as the genera Brevundimonas, Pseudoxanthomonas, and Lysobacter, exhibited a large increase in their 16S rRNA gene copies within the timeframe, which showed a temporal population dynamic, and indicated their collaborative contributions to the degradation of OCDF under hypoxic conditions. These results have provided a deeper insight into the microbial community structure and population dynamics of the OCDF-degrading microcosm.

Dehalococcoides mccartyi strain DCMB5 Respires a broad spectrum of chlorinated aromatic compounds

Polyhalogenated aromatic compounds are harmful environmental contaminants and tend to persist in anoxic soils and sediments. Dehalococcoides mccartyi strain DCMB5, a strain originating from dioxin-polluted river sediment, was examined for its capacity to dehalogenate diverse chloroaromatic compounds. Strain DCMB5 used hexachlorobenzenes, pentachlorobenzenes, all three tetrachlorobenzenes, and 1,2,3-trichlorobenzene as well as 1,2,3,4-tetra- and 1,2,4-trichlorodibenzo-p-dioxin as electron acceptors for organohalide respiration. In addition, 1,2,3-trichlorodibenzo-p-dioxin and 1,3-, 1,2-, and 1,4-dichlorodibenzo-p-dioxin were dechlorinated, the latter to the nonchlorinated congener with a remarkably short lag phase of 1 to 4 days following transfer. Strain DCMB5 also dechlorinated pentachlorophenol and almost all tetra- and trichlorophenols. Tetrachloroethene was dechlorinated to trichloroethene and served as an electron acceptor for growth. To relate selected dechlorination activities to the expression of specific reductive dehalogenase genes, the proteomes of 1,2,3-trichlorobenzene-, pentachlorobenzene-, and tetrachloroethene-dechlorinating cultures were analyzed. Dcmb_86, an ortholog of the chlorobenzene reductive dehalogenase CbrA, was the most abundant reductive dehalogenase during growth with each electron acceptor, suggesting its pivotal role in organohalide respiration of strain DCMB5. Dcmb_1041 was specifically induced, however, by both chlorobenzenes, whereas 3 putative reductive dehalogenases, Dcmb_1434, Dcmb_1339, and Dcmb_1383, were detected only in tetrachloroethene-grown cells. The proteomes also harbored a type IV pilus protein and the components for its assembly, disassembly, and secretion. In addition, transmission electron microscopy of DCMB5 revealed an irregular mode of cell division as well as the presence of pili, indicating that pilus formation is a feature of D. mccartyi during organohalide respiration.

Identifying the Correct Biotransformation Model from Polychlorinated Biphenyl and Dioxin Dechlorination Batch Studies

We performed Monte Carlo simulations of batch transformations of hydrophobic compounds using typical numbers of data points, extent of reaction, and measurement error, to identify the most appropriate biotransformation model to describe such data under different conditions. Highly hydrophobic compounds such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dioxins present special challenges for parameterization due to low environmental concentrations and slow biotransformation rates, which result in high sample variability, few samples, and limited substrate concentration range. Four models of varying complexity (zero-order, first-order, Monod, and Best) were fit to simulated data. Various combinations of initial concentration (S0), half saturation concentration (KS), maximum substrate utilization rate (qmax), measurement error, number of data points per batch run, and extent of biotransformation were simulated. One thousand Monte-Carlo runs were performed for each parameter combination, and AICc (Akaike's information criterion corrected for small numbers of data points) was used to determine the most appropriate model. Neither the Best model nor the zero-order model ever produced the lowest AICc for a majority of simulations under any combination of test conditions. With 10% measurement error, the first-order model always outperformed the others. In the case of 1% measurement error with 10 evenly-spaced data points, the Monod model was the better choice when S0>KS and the system was not mass transfer limited [Formula: see text] otherwise, the first-order model was indicated. S0 is constrained by the compound's aqueous solubility; therefore, for highly hydrophobic compounds such as PCBs or polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans, a first-order model is likely to fit batch biotransformation data as well or better than a more complicated model.

Enhanced anaerobic biodegradation of OCDD-contaminated soils by Pseudomonas mendocina NSYSU: microcosm, pilot-scale, and gene studies

In this study, microcosm and pilot-scale experiments were performed to investigate the capability and effectiveness of Pseudomonas mendocina NSYSU (P. mendocina NSYSU) on the bioremediation of octachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (OCDD)-contaminated soils. The objectives were to evaluate the (1) characteristics of P. mendocina NSYSU, (2) feasibility of enhancing OCDD biodegradation with the addition of P. mendocina NSYSU and lecithin, and (3) variation in microbial diversity and genes responsible for the dechlorination of OCDD. P. mendocina NSYSU was inhibited when salinity was higher than 7%, and it could biodegrade OCDD under reductive dechlorinating conditions. Lecithin could serve as the solubilization agent causing the enhanced solubilization and dechlorination of OCDD. Up to 71 and 62% of OCDD could be degraded after 65 days of incubation under anaerobic conditions with and without the addition of lecithin, respectively. Decreased OCDD concentrations caused significant increase in microbial diversity. Results from the pilot-scale study show that up to 75% of OCDD could be degraded after a 2.5-month operational period with lecithin addition. Results from the gene analyses show that two genes encoding the extradiol/intradiol ring-cleavage dioxygenase and five genes encoding the hydrolase in P. mendocina NSYSU were identified and played important roles in OCDD degradation.

Effect of temperature on the reductive dechlorination of 1,2,3,4-tetrachlorodibenzofuran in anaerobic PCDD/F-contaminated sediments

The effect of temperature on the reductive dechlorination in sediments of the PCDD/F-contaminated Kymijoki River, Finland was assessed with 1,2,3,4-tetrachlorodibenzofuran (1,2,3,4-TeCDF) at various temperatures and with co-amendment of 2,3,4,6-tetrachlorophenol (2,3,4,6-TeCP) in laboratory microcosms. The dechlorination rate of 1,2,3,4-TeCDF increased with incubation temperature, with TeCDF half-lives of 2.1 y at 21°C, 3.9 y at 15°C, and 19.0 y at 4°C. Co-amendment with 2,3,4,6-TeCP reduced the TeCDF half-life to 1.8 y at 21°C. 1,2,3,4-TeCDF was dechlorinated mainly in the lateral position to 1,3,4-TrCDF and then to 1,3-DiCDF over 29 months, but incubation temperature affected the relative molar ratios of the dechlorination products. The abundance of the Dehalococcoides-like Chloroflexi community did not substantially change in microcosms over 24 months incubation at the different temperatures. The dechlorination activity of 1,2,3,4-TeCDF was significantly limited at lower temperatures, which should be considered in predicting the environmental fate of aged PCDD/Fs in sediments of the Kymijoki River.

Reductive dechlorination of 1,2,3,7,8-pentachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin and Aroclor 1260, 1254 and 1242 by a mixed culture containing Dehalococcoides mccartyi strain 195

A mixed culture containing Dehalococcoides mccartyi strain 195 dechlorinated 1,2,3,7,8-pentachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (1,2,3,7,8-PeCDD) and selected polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congeners in Aroclors 1260, 1254 and 1242. 1,2,3,7,8-PeCDD was dechlorinated to 1,3,7-trichlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (1,3,7-TrCDD) and/or 1,3,8-TrCDD via 1,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (1,3,7,8-TeCDD), a pathway that excludes the production of the toxic congener 2,3,7,8-TeCDD. Dechlorination rate and extent was greatly enhanced by the addition of 1,2,3,4-tetrachlorobenzene (1,2,3,4-TeCB) as an alternate halogenated substrate and/or incubation temperature increase from 25 °C to 35 °C. The most extensive dechlorination of PCBs occurred for Aroclor 1260 with 13 major congeners making up 44.1 mol% of the original PCBs dechlorinated by 42% over 250 days at 25 °C. When 1,2,3,4-TeCB was amended as co-substrate, the extent of dechlorination increased to 82%, over 250 days. The mixed culture primarily dechlorinated the doubly-flanked chlorines on 2,3,4-, 2,3,4,6-, and 2,3,4,5,6-substituted chlorophenyl rings, whereas it primarily removed the doubly-flanked para chlorine from the 2,3,4,5-substituted chlorophenyl ring. Experiments using a 20% dilution of culture with 31.8 μg/mL 1,2,3,4-TeCDD or 2,3,4,4',5-pentachlorobiphenyl (PCB 114) as sole halogenated substrate exhibited less than 0.1 mol% dechlorination over 120 days. Further, dechlorination of PCBs and PCDDs by the fully grown culture in the absence of 1,2,3,4-TeCB eventually stopped or greatly slowed over the incubation period. Since Dehalococcoides spp. only gain energy for growth from organohalide respiration, absence of reductive dechlorination upon transfer and dilution or cessation of dechlorination after long incubation times suggest that it is unlikely that strain 195 can grow using the PCDDs or PCBs utilized in this study.

Spatial distribution and reduction of PCDD/PCDF toxic equivalents along three shallow lowland reservoirs

Reservoirs situated along a river continuum are ecosystems where rates of transfer of suspended matter and associated micropollutants are reduced due to sedimentation, accumulation, and biological and physical transformation processes. Among the micropollutants, PCDDs and PCDFs are substances that are highly toxic and carcinogenic for humans and animals. They are emitted and dispersed in the environment throughout the whole catchment area and may accumulate in aquatic and terrestrial food chains, creating a risk for human health. A wealth of data exists indicating the increase in the concentrations of pollutants along a river continuum. A comparative analysis of total, individual, and TEQ PCDD/PCDF concentrations in large lowland, shallow reservoirs located in different catchments ("I"-industrial/urban/agricultural, "U"-urban/agricultural, and "A"-agricultural/rural) showed decreases of the TEQ concentrations in bottom sediments along a gradient from the middle sections to the dam walls. Moreover, penta-, hexa-, and heptachlorinated CDD/CDF congeners were reduced from 28.8 up to 93.6 % in all three types of reservoirs. A further analysis of water samples from the inlets and outlets of the "A" reservoir confirmed this tendency.

Anaerobic reductive dechlorination of 1,2,3,4-tetrachlorodibenzofuran in polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin- and dibenzofuran-contaminated sediments of the Kymijoki River, Finland

Sediments of the Kymijoki River are highly contaminated with polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs). These persistent PCDD/Fs resist biotic degradation and therefore the potential for microbial reductive dechlorination was assessed to determine how microbes impact the fate of these compounds. Anaerobic sediment microcosms of five different sites in the river were spiked with 1,2,3,4-tetrachlorodibenzofuran (1,2,3,4-TeCDF) as a model compound to determine the dechlorination potential in the sediments. Dechlorinating bacteria were active in all the study sites of the river. The extent of dechlorination over 10 and 29 months corresponded to the levels of aged PCDD/Fs, with sediments of the most contaminated site at Kuusankoski being the most active for reductive dechlorination. The dechlorination activity and levels of aged PCDD/Fs were correlated within the sediment cores at the all sites. The pathway of 1,2,3,4-TeCDF dechlorination was mainly via 1,3,4-trichlorodibenzofuran (TrCDF) to 1,3-dichlorodibenzofuran (DiCDF). Dechlorination via 1,2,4-TrCDF to further dechlorination products was also detected. Lateral reductive dechlorination would decrease the toxicity of 2,3,7,8-substituted PCDD/Fs. Our data suggest that sediments of the Kymijoki River contain indigenous microorganisms that are responsible for dechlorination of PCDD/Fs, especially at the most contaminated site.

Enriching for microbial reductive dechlorination of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans

Anaerobic enrichment cultures derived from contaminated Kymijoki River sediments dechlorinated 1,2,3,4-tetrachlorodibenzofuran (1,2,3,4-tetra-CDF), octachlorodibenzofuran (octa-CDF) and 1,2,3,4-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (1,2,3,4-tetra-CDD). 1,2,3,4-tetra-CDF was dechlorinated via 1,2,3-, 2,3,4-, and 1,3,4/1,2,4-tri-CDFs to 1,3-, 2,3-, and 2,4-di-CDFs and finally to 4-mono-CDF. The dechlorination rate of 1,2,3,4-tetra-CDF was generally slower than that of 1,2,3,4-tetra-CDD. The rate and extent of 1,2,3,4-tetra-CDD dechlorination was enhanced by addition of pentachloronitrobenzene (PCNB) as a co-substrate. Dechlorination of spiked octa-CDF was observed with the production of hepta-, hexa-, penta- and tetra-CDFs over 6 months. Two major phylotypes of the Chloroflexi community showed an increase, one of which was identical to the Dehalococcoides mccartyi Pinellas subgroup. A set of twelve putative reductive dehalogenase (rdh) genes increased in abundance with addition of 1,2,3,4-tetra-CDF, 1,2,3,4-tetra-CDD and/or PCNB. This information will aid in understanding how indigenous microbial communities impact the fate of PCDFs and in developing strategies for bioremediation of PCDD/F contaminated sediments.

Microbially mediated reductive dechlorination of weathered polychlorinated dibenzofurans in Kymijoki sediment mesocosms

Little is known about the potential for indigenous microorganisms to reductively dechlorinate weathered polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and dibenzofurans (PCDFs) in contaminated sediments. The sediments of River Kymijoki, Finland are heavily contaminated with PCDFs originating from manufacture of the chlorophenol-based fungicide Ky-5. Reductive dechlorination of weathered PCDFs was monitored to examine strategies for stimulating such activities. Amendments with electron donors, a halogenated co-substrate (tetrachlorobenzene, TeCBz), and bioaugmentation with a mixed culture containing Dehalococcoides mccartyi strain 195 were used to stimulate dechlorination activity in 30 L River Kymijoki sediment mesocosms incubated from 18 °C to 21 °C. An initial onset of dechlorination of octa-, hepta- and hexa-CDFs was observed in all mesocosms in the first 2 years of incubation. During this initial 2-year period, the decrease in the mol% contribution of these PCDFs was coupled with an increase in the mol% contribution of tetra- and penta-CDFs. The ratio of 1,2,3,4,6,7,8- to 1,2,3,4,6,8,9-hepta-CDF increased significantly. Subtle differences were observed between amended and unamended mesocosms. For penta-CDFs, a decreasing mol% ratio of peri vs. total chlorines and increasing mol% ratio of lateral vs. total chlorines was observed in mesocosms amended with TeCBz, suggesting that the amendments may affect pathways of dechlorination. Analysis of congener patterns using principal components analysis supported the observation that dechlorination was most pronounced during the first 2 years. Polymerase chain reaction and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (PCR-DGGE) analysis of 16S rRNA genes revealed a diverse Chloroflexi community. This study showed evidence for dechlorination of weathered PCDFs in Kymijoki sediment mesocosms mediated by indigenous microorganisms.

Isolation and functional gene analyses of aromatic-hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria from a polychlorinated-dioxin-dechlorinating process

Aerobic aromatic-hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria from a semi-anaerobic microbial microcosm that exhibited apparent complete dechlorination of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins/dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) were isolated through enrichment and plating culture procedures with dibenzofuran as the model substrate. By 16S rRNA gene sequence comparisons, these dibenzofuran-degrading isolates were identified as being members of the phyla Actinobacteria, Firmicutes, and Proteobacteria, among which those of the genera Paenibacillus and Rhizobium were most abundant. All of the isolates utilized naphthalene as the sole carbon and energy source and degraded dibenzofuran metabolically or co-metabolically; however, they hardly attacked monochlorinated dibenzofuran and dibenzo-p-dioxin. By PCR cloning and sequencing, genes predicted to encode aromatic-ring-hydroxylating dioxygenase (AhDO) were detected in all test isolates. Real-time quantitative PCR assays with specific primer sets detected approximately 10⁵ copies of the AhDO large subunit genes g⁻¹ wet wt in the microcosm from which the isolates were obtained. This order of the copy number corresponded to approximately 1% of the 16S rRNA gene copies from "Dehalococcoides" and its relatives present as potent dechlorinators. These results suggest that aerobic AhDO-containing bacteria co-exist and play a role in the oxidative degradation of less chlorinated and completely dechlorinated products in the PCDD/F-dechlorinating process, thereby achieving the apparent complete dechlorination of PCDD/Fs.

Evidence for dechlorination of polychlorinated biphenyls and polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and -furans in wastewater collection systems in the New York metropolitan area

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) are persistent organic pollutants targeted by the Stockholm Convention. Both contain aromatic chlorines and are subject to microbial dechlorination. Dechlorination of PCBs in sewers in the Delaware River basin was recently reported. In this work, two data sets on concentrations of PCBs and PCBs+PCDD/Fs in wastewater treatment plant influents and effluents were analyzed to look for evidence that these compounds undergo dechlorination in the sewers of the New York/New Jersey Harbor area. The two data sets come from the Contamination Assessment and Reduction Project (CARP) and were analyzed via Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF). Analysis of the data set containing only PCB concentrations suggests that PCBs are dechlorinated in the sewers of the NY/NJ Harbor via the same pathways observed in the sewers of the Delaware River basin and that advanced dechlorination of PCB mixtures is more likely to occur in combined sewers vs separate sanitary sewers. When the combined data set of PCBs+PCDD/Fs was analyzed, the factor containing PCB dechlorination products also contained high proportions of 1,2,3,4,6,7,8-heptachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (HpCDD), a known product of the dechlorination of octachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (OCDD), and other known dechlorination products of PCDD/Fs. Despite being the most abundant PCDD/F congener in all of the samples in the database, OCDD was a minor component in the dechlorination factor. This provides the first evidence that PCDD/Fs may be dechlorinated in sewers.

Enhanced remediation of dioxins-spiked soil by a plant-microbe system using a dibenzofuran-degrading Comamonas sp. and Trifolium repens L

In this study, rhizoremediation technology was applied to dioxins-spiked soil. A dibenzofuran-degrading bacterium Comamonas sp. strain KD7, reported in the previous paper, was used in combination with white clover (Trifolium repens L.). First, the effect of strain KD7 on clover seed germination and root elongation was examined in the presence of dioxins compounds. As a result, the white clover seeds inoculated with strain KD7 exhibited a higher germination efficiency and increased root elongation compared with uninoculated white clover. Next, the recovery efficiency of two extraction methods were considered for analyzing the dioxin concentration in soil samples, then, the potential of the plant-microbe combination was evaluated for the remediation of dioxins-spiked soil. After 12 week of growth, significant reductions in the soil were confirmed for most compounds. Our results demonstrated that clover can function as a carrier in order to increase the dioxin-degrading activity of strain KD7. The association of clover and strain KD7 is considered to be a potential tool in the remediation of dioxin-contaminated soil.

Carbon isotope fractionation during dechlorination of 1,2,3,4-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin by a Dehalococcoides-containing culture

Carbon isotope fractionation was observed during dechlorination of 1,2,3,4-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (1,2,3,4-TeCDD) by a mixed culture containing Dehalococcoides ethenogenes strain 195. Fractionation was examined when 1,2,3,4-TeCDD was added as the only chlorinated compound and when 1,2,3,4-TeCDD was added with a known growth substrate, tetrachloroethene (PCE). The 1,2,3,4-TeCDD was dechlorinated to 1,2,4-trichlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (1,2,4-TrCDD) which was enriched in (13)C relative to 1,2,3,4-TeCDD with isotope separation factors, epsilon(C), of 1.3+/-0.2 per thousand and 1.7+/-0.4 per thousand (average+/-95% confidence interval (CI)) in cultures with and without PCE, respectively. The 1,2,4-TrCDD was further dechlorinated to 1,3-dichlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (1,3-DCDD) which was depleted in (13)C relative to 1,2,4-TrCDD with epsilon(C) of -2.4+/-0.4 per thousand and -2.9+/-0.8 per thousand (average+/-95% CI) in cultures with and without PCE, respectively. This demonstrates carbon isotope fractionation during sequential reductive dechlorination of PCDDs, where isotope fractionation during dechlorination of the intermediate was substantial and a (13)C depleted lightly chlorinated PCDD congener was ultimately formed during dechlorination of more highly chlorinated PCDD congeners. Despite reproducible, statistically significant differences between isotope compositions of the parent, 1,2,3,4-TeCDD and daughter, 1,2,4-TrCDD and 1,3-DCDD congeners in triplicate bottles of both treatments, fractionation factors for 1,2,3,4-TeCDD could not be determined for all replicates by regression analysis of the plot of the Rayleigh equation. It is possible that dissolution of 1,2,3,4-TeCDD imposed a kinetic limitation on dechlorination, thus masking isotope fractionation during its dechlorination.

Dechlorination pathways of diverse chlorinated aromatic pollutants conducted by Dehalococcoides sp. strain CBDB1

Dechlorination of chlorinated aromatic pollutants (CAPs) has become a major issue in recent decades. This paper reported a theoretical indicator for predicting the reductive dechlorination pathways of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), chlorobenzenes and chlorophenols transformed by Dehalococcoides sp. strain CBDB1. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations were carried out at the B3LYP/6-31G(d) level for all related CAPs and Mulliken atomic charges on chlorine atoms (Q(Cl(n))) were adopted as the probe of the dechlorination reaction activity. Q(Cl(n)) can consistently indicate the main dechlorination daughter products of PCDDs, chlorobenzenes and chlorophenols conducted by strain CBDB1. The dechlorination reaction favors elimination of the chlorine atoms having greater Q(Cl(n)) values. The chlorine atom with the greatest Q(Cl(n)) value tends preferentially to be eliminated, whereas the chlorine atom with the smallest Q(Cl()(n)()) value tends unlikely to be eliminated or does not react at all. For a series of compounds having similar structure, the maximal Q(Cl(n)) of each molecular can be used to predict the possibility of its daughter product(s). In addition, the difference (Q(Cl(n))) between the maximal Q(Cl(n)) and the next maximal Q(Cl(n)) of the same molecule can be used to assess the possibility of formation of multiple dechlorination products.