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Wang Y, Dong B, Ge J. How can the recycling of power batteries for EVs be promoted in China? A multiparty cooperative game analysis. WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2024; 186:64-76. [PMID: 38861773 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2024.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2023] [Revised: 06/01/2024] [Accepted: 06/07/2024] [Indexed: 06/13/2024]
Abstract
While electric vehicles (EVs) are developing at a high speed in China, the power battery market is facing a decommissioning peak. The problem is that the recycling situation of domestic power batteries is not ideal, partly due to neglect by consumers. By considering the recycling system, mode, and policy of China's EV power batteries, we construct a tripartite evolutionary game model of the government, consumers and EV manufacturers; analyse the stable strategy adjustment mechanisms of tripartite participation in this recycling cooperation game; and simulate the tripartite evolutionary game. The results show that when the initial willingness of the government, consumers and EV manufacturers to recycle power batteries is not strong, the government takes the lead, driving EV manufacturers and consumers to participate in power battery recycling. When the government, consumers and EV manufacturers have medium or high levels of initial willingness, the government evolves and chooses a nonregulation strategy. In addition, by simulating the impact of changes in consumer-related influencing factors on this tripartite evolutionary game, we find that subsidies for recycling power batteries are a key factor affecting consumers' strategy choices and that boosting recycling compensation for consumers can improve their enthusiasm to participate in such recycling. Therefore, to improve the recycling of power batteries for EVs, in terms of both efficiency and percentage of deployment, the Chinese government should strengthen public education on power battery recycling, further integrate informal recycling channels, and balance the distribution of profits among consumers for recycling compensation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yibo Wang
- School of Economics and Management, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Boqi Dong
- School of Economics and Management, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Jianping Ge
- School of Economics and Management, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China; Key Laboratory of Carrying Capacity Assessment for Resource and Environment, Ministry of Natural Resources of the People's Republic of China, Beijing 100083, China.
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2
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Tang F, Liu HY, He QY, Liu Y, Lv LP, Fei J, Fu L. Cobalt exposure and pulmonary function reduction in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients: the mediating role of club cell secretory protein. Respir Res 2024; 25:324. [PMID: 39182083 PMCID: PMC11344942 DOI: 10.1186/s12931-024-02950-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2024] [Accepted: 08/11/2024] [Indexed: 08/27/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cobalt (Co) is a metal which is widely used in the industrial production. The previous studies found the toxic effects of environmental Co exposure on multiple organs. However, the correlation of blood Co concentration with lung function was inconsistent in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). METHODS All 771 stable COPD patients were recruited. Peripheral blood and clinical information were collected. The levels of blood Co and serum CC16 were measured. RESULTS Cross-sectional study suggested that the level of blood Co was inversely and dose-dependently related to lung function parameters. Each 1 ppm elevation of blood Co was related to 0.598 L decline in FVC, 0.465 L decline in FEV1, 6.540% decline in FEV1/FVC%, and 14.013% decline in FEV1%, respectively. Moreover, higher age, enrolled in winter, current-smoking, higher smoking amount, and inhaled corticosteroids prominently exacerbated the negative correlation between blood Co and lung function. Besides, serum CC16 content was gradually reduced with blood Co elevation in COPD patients. Besides, serum CC16 was positively correlated with lung function, and inversely related to blood Co. Additionally, decreased CC16 substantially mediated 11.45% and 6.37% Co-triggered downregulations in FEV1 and FEV1%, respectively. CONCLUSION Blood Co elevation is closely related to the reductions of pulmonary function and serum CC16. CC16 exerts a significantly mediating role of Co-related to pulmonary function decrease among COPD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Tang
- Department of Interventional Pulmonology and Endoscopic Diagnosis and Treatment Center, Anhui Chest Hospital, Hefei, 230022, Anhui, China
| | - Hong-Yan Liu
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Second Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Furong Road no 678, Hefei, 230601, Anhui, China
- Institute of Respiratory Diseases, Second Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230601, Anhui, China
| | - Qi-Yuan He
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Second Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Furong Road no 678, Hefei, 230601, Anhui, China
| | - Ying Liu
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Second Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Furong Road no 678, Hefei, 230601, Anhui, China
| | - Li-Ping Lv
- Department of Interventional Pulmonology and Endoscopic Diagnosis and Treatment Center, Anhui Chest Hospital, Hefei, 230022, Anhui, China.
| | - Jun Fei
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Second Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Furong Road no 678, Hefei, 230601, Anhui, China.
- Institute of Respiratory Diseases, Second Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230601, Anhui, China.
| | - Lin Fu
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Second Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Furong Road no 678, Hefei, 230601, Anhui, China.
- Institute of Respiratory Diseases, Second Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230601, Anhui, China.
- Center for Big Data and Population Health of IHM, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230032, Anhui, China.
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Clinical and Preclinical Research in Respiratory Disease, Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, 233030, Anhui, China.
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3
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Liu L, Ouyang X, Gao T, Dai T, Tan J, Liu X, Zhao H, Zeng A, Chen W, He C, Liu G. Spatiotemporal and Multilayer Trade Network Patterns of the Global Cobalt Cycle. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2024. [PMID: 39150153 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.4c02717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/17/2024]
Abstract
Recent years have witnessed increasing attempts to track trade flows of critical materials across world regions and along the life cycle for renewable energy and the low carbon transition. Previous studies often had limited spatiotemporal coverage, excluded end-use products, and modeled different life cycle stages as single-layer networks. Here, we integrated material flow analysis and complex network analysis into a multilayer framework to characterize the spatiotemporal and multilayer trade network patterns of the global cobalt cycle from 1988 to 2020. We found substantial growth and notable structural changes in global cobalt trade over the past 30 years. China, Germany, and the United States play pivotal roles in different layers and stages of the global cobalt cycle. The interlayer relationships among alloys, batteries, and materials are robust and continually strengthening, indicating a trend toward synergistic trade. However, cobalt ore-exporting countries are highly concentrated and rarely involved in later life cycle stages, resulting in the weakest relationship between the ore layer and other layers. This causes fluctuations and uncertainty in the global cobalt trade. Our model, linking industrial ecology, supply chain analysis, and network analysis, can be extended to other materials that are critical for the future green transition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Litao Liu
- Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Xin Ouyang
- Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Tianming Gao
- Research Center for Strategy of Global Mineral Resources, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences and China Geological Survey, Beijing 100037, China
| | - Tao Dai
- Research Center for Strategy of Global Mineral Resources, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences and China Geological Survey, Beijing 100037, China
- SinoProbe Laboratory, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing 100094, China
| | - Juan Tan
- Center for Minerals and Materials, Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland, 1350 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Xiaojie Liu
- Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Huilan Zhao
- Exploration and Development Research Institute of Huabei Oilfield Company, China National Petroleum Corporation, Cangzhou 061000, Hebei, China
| | - Anqi Zeng
- Institute of Marxism, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China
| | - Wu Chen
- SDU Life Cycle Engineering, Department of Green Technology, University of Southern Denmark, 5230 Odense, Denmark
| | - Canfei He
- College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Gang Liu
- College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
- Institute of Carbon Neutrality, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
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4
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Ma X, Lu C, Gao J, Cao J, Wan Y, Fang H. Sustainability of new energy vehicles from a battery recycling perspective: A bibliometric analysis. Heliyon 2024; 10:e33800. [PMID: 39027595 PMCID: PMC11255506 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e33800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2024] [Revised: 05/30/2024] [Accepted: 06/27/2024] [Indexed: 07/20/2024] Open
Abstract
In recent years, new energy vehicles (NEVs) have taken the world by storm. A large number of NEV batteries have been scrapped, and research on NEV battery recycling is important for promoting the sustainable development of NEVs. Battery recycling is an important aspect of the sustainable development of NEVs. In this study, we conducted an in-depth analysis of the current status of research on NEV battery recycling from a new perspective using bibliometric methods and visualization software. This study shows that research targeting the recycling of NEV batteries is growing rapidly, and collaborative networks exist among researchers from different countries, institutions, and fields. The focus of research has shifted from lead-acid batteries to lithium batteries, and the supply chain and circular economy related to NEV battery recycling is an emerging research hotspot. Based on our analysis, we propose that the government should establish policies to improve the recycling networks at the collection stage and provide subsidies to attract consumers. Enterprises should develop low-cobalt and cobalt-free technologies, utilize green solvents, and develop new battery swap modes. The establishment of an information platform is conducive to the further development of collaborative networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiuyan Ma
- School of Management, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, 310023, China
| | - Chunxia Lu
- School of Management, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, 310023, China
| | - Jiawei Gao
- Business School, Hitotsubashi University, Tokyo, 1860004, Japan
| | - Jian Cao
- School of Management, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, 310023, China
- Center for Global & Regional Environmental Research, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, 52242, United States
| | - Yuehua Wan
- Library, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, 310023, China
- Institute of Information Resource, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, 310023, China
| | - Hui Fang
- Library, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, 310023, China
- Institute of Information Resource, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, 310023, China
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5
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Sun X, Hao H, Geng Y, Liu Z, Zhao F. Exploring the potential for improving material utilization efficiency to secure lithium supply for China's battery supply chain. FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH 2024; 4:167-177. [PMID: 38933841 PMCID: PMC11197749 DOI: 10.1016/j.fmre.2022.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2022] [Revised: 10/15/2022] [Accepted: 12/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Lithium-ion battery (LIB) is the key technology for climate change mitigation. The sustainability of LIB supply chain has caused widespread concern since the material utilization efficiency of LIB supply chain has not been well investigated. This study aims to fill this research gap by conducting a dynamic material flow analysis of lithium in China from 2015 to 2021. Results indicate that within the temporal boundary, lithium flow and in-use stock grew significantly in China due to the rapid development of the EV market, with lithium flow in domestic production of basic chemicals increasing by 614% to 100 kt, end-use consumption increasing by 160% to 35 kt, and in-use stock increasing by 62% to 195 kt. China has been a net importer of lithium, of which cumulative imports and exports were 343 kt and 169 kt, respectively. In addition, 103 kt of lithium was converted to inventories or was lost during the processing from 2015 to 2021. By optimizing inventory and processing, developing substitutes for lithium for non-battery applications, and improving lithium recycling, China's net import dependency of lithium could be reduced from 27%-86% to 0%-16%. Our study demonstrates that it is urgent to improve material utilization efficiency so that the lithium resource supply can be secured.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Automotive Safety and Energy, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
- Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, United States
- Tsinghua-Rio Tinto Joint Research Center for Resources Energy and Sustainable Development, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Han Hao
- State Key Laboratory of Automotive Safety and Energy, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
- Tsinghua-Rio Tinto Joint Research Center for Resources Energy and Sustainable Development, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Yong Geng
- School of International and Public Affairs, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Zongwei Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Automotive Safety and Energy, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Fuquan Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Automotive Safety and Energy, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
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Qiao D, Dai T, Ma Y, Gao T. Insights into the evolution of cobalt use and implications through dynamic analysis of cobalt flows and stocks and the recycling potential of cobalt from urban mines in China during 2000-2021. WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2023; 163:122-133. [PMID: 37011560 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2023.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2022] [Revised: 03/10/2023] [Accepted: 03/13/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Several countries regard cobalt as a critical material due to its extensive use in clean energy technology and high-tech industries. To comprehensively examine how China's cobalt industry developed and evolved from 2000 to 2021, our study quantified cobalt flows, stocks and the recycling potential of cobalt from China's urban cobalt mines using dynamic material flow analysis. In 2021, China's in-use cobalt stocks for cobalt-containing end products reached 131 kt, of which battery products and superalloys accounted for 83.8% and 8.1%, respectively. The theoretical cumulative recycling potential of cobalt from China's urban cobalt mines reached 204-356 kt between 2000 and 2021 under different scenarios. However, the actual cumulative exploitation of cobalt from urban cobalt mines was 46-80 kt, of which consumer electronics, cemented carbides, and superalloys were the main recycled products. The cumulative exports and imports of cobalt in all commodities reached 558 and 1117 kt, respectively. China exported a large quantity of cobalt chemicals, chemical derivatives and cobalt-containing end products produced from imported cobalt raw materials. China imported 84.7% of the cobalt raw materials consumed domestically, and 32.6% of the domestically produced cobalt-containing end products were exported. Over the entire life cycle of cobalt, cobalt losses totaled 288 kt, with 51.0% of losses coming from refining, and a 73.8% cobalt utilization efficiency was achieved. China recovered 76.7 kt of cobalt, and the recycling rate of cobalt from end-of-life cobalt-containing end products reached 20.0%. The findings can serve as a scientific basis for China's cobalt industry to develop efficiently and economically.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donghai Qiao
- College of Geographical Science, Inner Mongolia Normal University, Hohhot, Inner Mongolia 010022, China; Provincial Key Laboratory of Mongolian Plateau's Climate System, Inner Mongolia Normal University, Hohhot 010022, China; Inner Mongolia Plateau Key Laboratory of Disaster and Ecological Security, Hohhot, Inner Mongolia 010022, China.
| | - Tao Dai
- Research Center for Strategy of Global Mineral Resources, Institute of Mineral Resources, CAGS, Beijing 100037, China.
| | - Yanling Ma
- College of Life Science and Technology, Inner Mongolia Normal University, Hohhot, Inner Mongolia 010022, China.
| | - Tianming Gao
- Research Center for Strategy of Global Mineral Resources, Institute of Mineral Resources, CAGS, Beijing 100037, China
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7
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Midander K, Werner P, Isaksson M, Wisgrill L, Lidén C, Fyhrquist N, Julander A. Cobalt nanoparticles cause allergic contact dermatitis in humans. Br J Dermatol 2023; 188:278-287. [PMID: 36637098 DOI: 10.1093/bjd/ljac043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2022] [Revised: 09/19/2022] [Accepted: 09/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cobalt (Co) causes allergic contact dermatitis (ACD) and the emerging use of Co nanoparticles (CoNPs) warrants gaining further insight into its potential to elicit ACD in sensitized individuals. OBJECTIVES The aims of the study were to clarify to what extent CoNPs may elicit ACD responses in participants with Co contact allergy, and to evaluate whether the nanoparticles cause a distinct immune response compared with cobalt chloride (CoCl2) in the skin reactions. METHODS Fourteen individuals with Co contact allergy were exposed to CoNPs, CoCl2, a Co-containing hard-metal disc (positive control), and an empty test chamber (negative control) by patch testing. Allergic responses were evaluated clinically by a dermatologist at Days 2, 4 and 7. At Day 2, patch-test chambers were removed, and remaining test-substance and skin-wipe samples were collected for inductive-coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) analysis. Additionally, skin biopsies were taken from patch-test reactions at Day 4 for quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction analysis, histopathology and ICP-MS analysis of Co skin penetration. RESULTS Patch testing with CoNPs elicited allergic reactions in Co-sensitized individuals. At all timepoints, clinical assessment revealed significantly lower frequencies of positive patch-test reactions to CoNPs compared with CoCl2 or to the positive control. CoNPs elicited comparable immune responses to CoCl2. Chemical analysis of Co residues in patch-test filters, and on skin, shows lower doses for CoNPs compared with CoCl2. CONCLUSIONS CoNPs potently elicit immune responses in Co-sensitized individuals. Even though patch testing with CoNPs resulted in a lower skin dose than CoCl2, identical immunological profiles were present. Further research is needed to identify the potential harm of CoNPs to human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klara Midander
- IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute, Stockholm, Sweden.,Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Paulina Werner
- Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Marléne Isaksson
- Lund University, Department of Occupational and Environmental Dermatology, Skane University Hospital Malmö, Malmö, Sweden
| | - Lukas Wisgrill
- Division of Neonatology, Pediatric Intensive Care and Neuropediatrics, Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Comprehensive Center for Pediatrics, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Carola Lidén
- Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Nanna Fyhrquist
- Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Anneli Julander
- IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute, Stockholm, Sweden.,Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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8
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Ma Q, Chen L, Li X, Wang M, Liu L. Assessment of cobalt recycling potential and environmental impact in China from 1994 to 2020. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:27469-27482. [PMID: 36383313 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-24040-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2022] [Accepted: 11/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Cobalt recycling is important for solving environmental problems such as resource shortage and pollution emissions. This paper quantifies the positive significance of cobalt recycling on resource replenishment and pollution emission by using the substance flow analysis and life cycle analysis. The results show that the proportion of recycled cobalt supplied as cobalt raw material is 7.1%, which improves the supply structure of the resource. Meanwhile, the environmental impact of recycling cobalt using the combined treatment process is low. The environmental impact of mining cobalt from mines is about 4.03-41.53 times that of recycling cobalt from cobaltiferous waste materials. However, the overall cobalt recycling is not ideal. First, the cobalt recycling rate is growing slowly. From 1994 to 2020, 245,132 t of cobalt-containing final products entered waste management in China. However, only 79,593 t of cobalt have been recycled, with a recycling rate of 32.47%. Secondly, many recycling enterprises only carry out recycling for a certain type of cobaltiferous waste materials due to the non-uniform cobalt recycling process. Finally, China's cobalt recycling policy does not divide the recycling channels for cobalt waste and does not regulate the specific process. In the future, China should set up separate recycling systems for cobaltiferous waste materials according to different categories and consider adopting combined treatment processes. China can only promote the sustainable use of cobalt if it ensures stable and orderly cobalt recycling in terms of policy and technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiaoying Ma
- College of Management Science, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu, 610059, China
| | - Lilong Chen
- College of Management Science, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu, 610059, China
| | - Xin Li
- College of Management Science, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu, 610059, China.
- Sichuan Mineral Resources Research Center, Sichuan, China.
| | - Minxi Wang
- College of Management Science, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu, 610059, China
| | - Litao Liu
- Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
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9
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Qiao D, Dai T, Wang G, Ma Y, Fan H, Gao T, Wen B. Exploring potential opportunities for the efficient development of the cobalt industry in China by quantitatively tracking cobalt flows during the entire life cycle from 2000 to 2021. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2022; 318:115599. [PMID: 35780676 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.115599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2022] [Revised: 06/09/2022] [Accepted: 06/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Owing to its key role in high-tech industry and clean energy technology, cobalt has been regarded as a critical material in many countries. In this paper, material flow analysis was used to quantitatively track cobalt material flows in China throughout the entire life cycle from 2000 to 2021. Based on data pertaining to cobalt commodity trade, cobalt loss during raw material processing, and recovered cobalt, we analysed the actual cobalt consumption in China. During the study period from 2000 to 2021, the main findings were as follows: (1) China's cobalt raw material imports accounted for 84.7% of the total raw materials acquired, while the export of cobalt-containing end products amounted to 32.6% of the total production. (2) China's cumulative net import of all cobalt commodities reached 561 kt, and battery products accounted for 73.3% of the total cobalt consumption. (3) China recovered 77 kt of cobalt from end-of-life products, while 327 kt of cobalt was not recovered. (4) The cumulative cobalt loss during raw material processing reached 288 kt, with the highest loss occurring in refining (51.0%), followed by manufacturing and fabrication (26.5%), beneficiation (12.3%), and ore mining (10.2%). The overall utilization efficiency of cobalt was 73.8% throughout the entire life cycle. (5) China's actual cobalt consumption reached 497 kt, accounting for 51.9% of the apparent cobalt consumption. Moreover, 61.1% of the cobalt products produced in China was consumed domestically, while 38.9% was exported. The massive export of cobalt commodities resulted in China bearing a disproportionate responsibility for carbon emission reduction. The research results can provide a scientific reference for the reasonable adjustment of the trade structure of cobalt commodities and realization of the economic and efficient utilization of cobalt resources in China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donghai Qiao
- College of Geographical Science, Inner Mongolia Normal University, Hohhot, Inner Mongolia, 010022, China; Inner Mongolia Plateau Key Laboratory of Disaster and Ecological Security, Hohhot, Inner Mongolia, 010022, China.
| | - Tao Dai
- Research Center for Strategy of Global Mineral Resources, Institute of Mineral Resources, CAGS, Beijing, 100037, China.
| | - Gaoshang Wang
- Research Center for Strategy of Global Mineral Resources, Institute of Mineral Resources, CAGS, Beijing, 100037, China
| | - Yanling Ma
- College of Life Science and Technology, Inner Mongolia Normal University, Hohhot, Inner Mongolia, 010022, China
| | - Hailong Fan
- School of Construction Machinery, Chang'an University, Xi'an, 710064, China
| | - Tianming Gao
- Research Center for Strategy of Global Mineral Resources, Institute of Mineral Resources, CAGS, Beijing, 100037, China
| | - Bojie Wen
- Research Center for Strategy of Global Mineral Resources, Institute of Mineral Resources, CAGS, Beijing, 100037, China
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10
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Separation of cobalt and nickel via solvent extraction with Cyanex-272: batch experiments and comparison of mixer-settlers and an agitated column as contactors for continuous counter-current extraction. Sep Purif Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2022.121326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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11
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Zeng A, Chen W, Rasmussen KD, Zhu X, Lundhaug M, Müller DB, Tan J, Keiding JK, Liu L, Dai T, Wang A, Liu G. Battery technology and recycling alone will not save the electric mobility transition from future cobalt shortages. Nat Commun 2022; 13:1341. [PMID: 35292628 PMCID: PMC8924274 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-29022-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2021] [Accepted: 02/16/2022] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
In recent years, increasing attention has been given to the potential supply risks of critical battery materials, such as cobalt, for electric mobility transitions. While battery technology and recycling advancement are two widely acknowledged strategies for addressing such supply risks, the extent to which they will relieve global and regional cobalt demand–supply imbalance remains poorly understood. Here, we address this gap by simulating historical (1998-2019) and future (2020-2050) global cobalt cycles covering both traditional and emerging end uses with regional resolution (China, the U.S., Japan, the EU, and the rest of the world). We show that cobalt-free batteries and recycling progress can indeed significantly alleviate long-term cobalt supply risks. However, the cobalt supply shortage appears inevitable in the short- to medium-term (during 2028-2033), even under the most technologically optimistic scenario. Our results reveal varying cobalt supply security levels by region and indicate the urgency of boosting primary cobalt supply to ensure global e-mobility ambitions. New study finds cobalt-free batteries and recycling progress can significantly alleviate long-term cobalt supply risks, however a cobalt supply shortage appears inevitable in the short- to medium-term, even under the most technologically optimistic scenario.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anqi Zeng
- School of Business, Central South University, 410083, Changsha, China.,SDU Life Cycle Engineering, Department of Green Technology, University of Southern Denmark, 5230, Odense, Denmark.,Institute of Metal Resources Strategy, Central South University, 410083, Changsha, China
| | - Wu Chen
- SDU Life Cycle Engineering, Department of Green Technology, University of Southern Denmark, 5230, Odense, Denmark
| | - Kasper Dalgas Rasmussen
- SDU Life Cycle Engineering, Department of Green Technology, University of Southern Denmark, 5230, Odense, Denmark
| | - Xuehong Zhu
- School of Business, Central South University, 410083, Changsha, China. .,Institute of Metal Resources Strategy, Central South University, 410083, Changsha, China.
| | - Maren Lundhaug
- Industrial Ecology Programme, Department of Energy and Process Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Daniel B Müller
- Industrial Ecology Programme, Department of Energy and Process Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Juan Tan
- Center for Minerals and Materials, Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland, 1350, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Jakob K Keiding
- Center for Minerals and Materials, Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland, 1350, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Litao Liu
- Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100101, Beijing, China
| | - Tao Dai
- Research Center for Strategy of Global Mineral Resources, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences and China Geological Survey, 100037, Beijing, China.
| | - Anjian Wang
- Research Center for Strategy of Global Mineral Resources, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences and China Geological Survey, 100037, Beijing, China
| | - Gang Liu
- SDU Life Cycle Engineering, Department of Green Technology, University of Southern Denmark, 5230, Odense, Denmark.
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Godoy León MF, Blengini GA, Dewulf J. Analysis of long-term statistical data of cobalt flows in the EU. RESOURCES, CONSERVATION, AND RECYCLING 2021; 173:105690. [PMID: 34602748 PMCID: PMC8291040 DOI: 10.1016/j.resconrec.2021.105690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2021] [Revised: 05/07/2021] [Accepted: 05/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Long-term statistical data was explored, acquired, processed, and analysed in order to assess the historical domestic production and international trade of a number of cobalt-containing commodities in the EU. Different data sources were examined for data, such as the British Geological Survey (BGS), the US Geological Survey (USGS), and the Eurostat and UN Comtrade (UNC) databases, considering all EU-member states before and after they joined the EU. For the international trade, hidden flows related to data gaps such as data reported in monetary value or recorded as "special category" were identified and included in the analysis. In addition, data from the Finnish customs database (ULJAS) was used to complement flows reported by Eurostat and UNC. From UNC, data was obtained considering the member states as reporters or as partners of the trade, due to internal differences of the database. Based on the acquired data the domestic production and international trade of the commodities were reconstructed for the timeframes 1938-2018 and 1988-2018, respectively. Next to the analysis of the trend of the production and trade of the different commodities, the importance of including hidden flows was revealed, where hidden flows represented more than 50% of the flow of a year in some cases. In addition, it was identified that even from reliable data sources, strong differences (more than 100% in some cases) can be found in the reported data, which is crucial to consider when utilizing the data in research.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Fernanda Godoy León
- Research Group Sustainable Systems Engineering (STEN), Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, Ghent 9000, Belgium
| | - Gian Andrea Blengini
- European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC), Via E. Fermi 2749, Ispra, VA 21027, Italy
| | - Jo Dewulf
- Research Group Sustainable Systems Engineering (STEN), Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, Ghent 9000, Belgium
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Bhuwalka K, Field FR, De Kleine RD, Kim HC, Wallington TJ, Kirchain RE. Characterizing the Changes in Material Use due to Vehicle Electrification. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:10097-10107. [PMID: 34213890 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c00970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Modern automobiles are composed of more than 2000 different compounds comprising 76 different elements. Identifying supply risks across this palette of materials is important to ensure a smooth transition to more sustainable transportation technologies. This paper provides insight into how electrification is changing vehicle composition and how that change drives supply risk vulnerability by providing the first comprehensive, high-resolution (elemental and compound level) snapshot of material use in both conventional and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) using a consistent methodology. To make these contributions, we analyze part-level data of material use for seven current year models, ranging from internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV) to plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHEVs). With this data set, we apply a novel machine learning algorithm to estimate missing or unreported composition data. We propose and apply a metric of vulnerability, referred to as exposure, which captures economic importance and susceptibility to price changes. We find that exposure increases from $874 per vehicle for ICEV passenger vehicles to $2344 per vehicle for SUV PHEVs. The shift to a PHEV fleet would double automaker exposure adding approximately $1 billion per year of supply risk to a hypothetical fleet of a million vehicles. The increase in exposure is largely not only due to the increased use of battery elements like cobalt, graphite, and nickel but also some more commonly used materials, most notably copper.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karan Bhuwalka
- Materials Systems Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Frank R Field
- Materials Systems Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Robert D De Kleine
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121, United States
| | - Hyung Chul Kim
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121, United States
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121, United States
| | - Randolph E Kirchain
- Materials Systems Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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Zhang L, Xing L, Liu J, Qi T, Li M, Wang L. Synchronous catalysis of sulfite oxidation and abatement of Hg2+ in wet desulfurization using one-pot synthesized Co-TUD-1/S. Sep Purif Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2021.118546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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15
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Godoy León MF, Blengini GA, Dewulf J. Cobalt in end-of-life products in the EU, where does it end up? - The MaTrace approach. RESOURCES, CONSERVATION, AND RECYCLING 2020; 158:104842. [PMID: 32624643 PMCID: PMC7185230 DOI: 10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.104842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2019] [Revised: 03/13/2020] [Accepted: 03/19/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The use of cobalt has experienced a strong growth in the last decades. Due to its high economic importance and high supply risk, it has been classified as a critical raw material for the EU and other economies. Part of the EU's strategy is intended to secure its availability, through fostering its efficient use and recycling. The latter is affected by factors such as the amount of available end-of-life products, and their collection-to-recycling rate. A novel methodology to analyze the impact of these factors on the cobalt flows in society is the model MaTrace, which can track the fate of materials over time and across products. The MaTrace model was expanded, adapted, and applied to predict the fate of cobalt embedded in finished products in use in the EU, considering the underlying life cycle phases within the technosphere. Eleven scenarios were built, assessing different options in the implementation of relevant EU's policies. The flows were projected for a period of 25 years, starting in 2015. The results of the baseline scenario show that after 25 years, around 8% of the initial stock of cobalt stays in use, 3% is being hoarded by users, 28% has been exported, and 61% has been lost. The main contributors to the losses of the system are the non-selective collection of end-of-life products, and the export of end-of-life products, recycled cobalt and final products. The results of the scenarios show that higher collection-to-recycling rates and lower export could increase up to 50% the cobalt that stays in use.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Fernanda Godoy León
- Research Group Sustainable Systems Engineering (STEN), Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, Ghent 9000, Belgium
| | - Gian Andrea Blengini
- European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC), Directorate for Sustainable Resources, Land Resources Unit, Via E. Fermi 2749, Ispra, VA 21027, Italy
- Politecnico di Torino DIATI, Corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24, Torino, TO 10125, Italy
| | - Jo Dewulf
- Research Group Sustainable Systems Engineering (STEN), Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, Ghent 9000, Belgium
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Chen Z, Zhang L, Xu Z. Tracking and quantifying the cobalt flows in mainland China during 1994-2016: Insights into use, trade and prospective demand. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 672:752-762. [PMID: 30974365 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.02.411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2018] [Revised: 02/25/2019] [Accepted: 02/26/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, the demand for cobalt is increasing dramatically because of its critical role in clean energy technologies globally. China has been a leading consumer and refiner of cobalt, and meanwhile is a scarce country of cobalt resources. Its growing domestic demand may impose significant pressure on sustainable development of cobalt resources and make it potentially vulnerable to supply shortages. Aiming at identifying the potential opportunities for improving cobalt resource efficiency and supply security, dynamic stocks and flows analysis was applied to track and quantify the anthropogenic cobalt cycles in mainland China such as its production, use, and trade over the years 1994-2016. The analysis results showed that the production, trade and consumption of cobalt resources in mainland China grew significantly in the past two decades. China has been a net importer of cobalt raw materials but a net exporter of cobalt chemicals and final cobalt-containing products, indicating that China is bearing increasing environmental burden of processing cobalt product for other economies. The in-use stock of cobalt has reached over 140,000 t by 2016, of which the cobalt contained in in-use batteries accounted for approximately 77%. The recycling rate of end-of-life (Eol) products kept at a very low level, less than 20% in the past decades. The cumulative domestic demand of cobalt is projected to exceed China's reserve base by around 2022 based on scenario analysis. Furthermore, some recommendations were proposed for the sustainable development of China's cobalt resource, including the improvement of national cobalt reserve system, development of diversified resource supply channel and the establishment of a recycling system and associated regulations for cobalt-containing obsolete products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenyang Chen
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240, People's Republic of China
| | - Lingen Zhang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhenming Xu
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240, People's Republic of China.
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Abstract
Lithium-ion traction battery systems of hybrid and electric vehicles must have a high level of durability and reliability like all other components and systems of a vehicle. Battery systems get heated while in the application. To ensure the desired life span and performance, most systems are equipped with a cooling system. The changing environmental condition in daily use may cause water condensation in the housing of the battery system. In this study, three system designs were investigated, to compare different solutions to deal with pressure differences and condensation: (1) a sealed battery system, (2) an open system and (3) a battery system equipped with a pressure compensation element (PCE). These three designs were tested under two conditions: (a) in normal operation and (b) in a maximum humidity scenario. The amount of the condensation in the housing was determined through a change in relative humidity of air inside the housing. Through PCE and available spacing of the housing, moisture entered into the housing during the cooling process. While applying the test scenarios, the gradient-based drift of the moisture into the housing contributed maximum towards the condensation. Condensation occurred on the internal surface for all the three design variants.
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Liu J, Lu S, Wang L, Qi T, Qi D, Xing X, Zhang Y, Xiao H, Zhang S. Co-site substitution by Mn supported on biomass-derived active carbon for enhancing magnesia desulfurization. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2019; 365:531-537. [PMID: 30469032 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2018.11.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2018] [Revised: 10/28/2018] [Accepted: 11/10/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Oxidation of magnesium sulfite (MgSO3) is a crucial step for reclaiming the product in wet magnesia desulfurization processes. Here, for enhancing this reaction, a bimetallic catalyst was developed by loading CoOx and MnOx species on a biomass-derived active carbon (AC) support to minimize the costs and potential environmental risks during catalyst application. The substitution effect of Mn to Co sites was investigated, and a comparison of the catalyst with plain cobalt suggested that the ratio of Co/Mn must be greater than 3. A series of catalyst characterizations was performed to reveal the synergistic effect of Co and Mn in the bimetallic catalyst. The introduction of Mn species not only improved the dispersion of CoOx-MnOx mixed oxide but also generated abundant Co3+ species and surface-adsorbed oxygen, both of which acted as the main active sites for sulfite oxidation. Notably, in the bimetallic catalyst, the presence of Mn4+ species assisted regeneration of Co2+ to Co3+ species, further accelerating sulfite oxidation. Besides, the partial substitution of Co sites by Mn also suppressed the losing of Co species during reaction, favoring to decrease the environmental risk, as well as to save the cost of catalyst.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Liu
- MOE Key Lab of Resources and Environmental Systems Optimization, North China Electric Power University, Beijing 102206, China; School of Environmental Science and Engineering, North China Electric Power University, Baoding 071003, China
| | - Su Lu
- MOE Key Lab of Resources and Environmental Systems Optimization, North China Electric Power University, Beijing 102206, China; School of Environmental Science and Engineering, North China Electric Power University, Baoding 071003, China
| | - Lidong Wang
- MOE Key Lab of Resources and Environmental Systems Optimization, North China Electric Power University, Beijing 102206, China; School of Environmental Science and Engineering, North China Electric Power University, Baoding 071003, China.
| | - Tieyue Qi
- MOE Key Lab of Resources and Environmental Systems Optimization, North China Electric Power University, Beijing 102206, China; School of Environmental Science and Engineering, North China Electric Power University, Baoding 071003, China
| | - Dan Qi
- MOE Key Lab of Resources and Environmental Systems Optimization, North China Electric Power University, Beijing 102206, China; School of Environmental Science and Engineering, North China Electric Power University, Baoding 071003, China
| | - Xinyu Xing
- MOE Key Lab of Resources and Environmental Systems Optimization, North China Electric Power University, Beijing 102206, China; School of Environmental Science and Engineering, North China Electric Power University, Baoding 071003, China
| | - Yaoyu Zhang
- MOE Key Lab of Resources and Environmental Systems Optimization, North China Electric Power University, Beijing 102206, China; School of Environmental Science and Engineering, North China Electric Power University, Baoding 071003, China
| | - Huining Xiao
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, NB, E3B 5A3, Canada
| | - Shihan Zhang
- College of Environment, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, 310014, China
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Banza Lubaba Nkulu C, Casas L, Haufroid V, De Putter T, Saenen ND, Kayembe-Kitenge T, Musa Obadia P, Kyanika Wa Mukoma D, Lunda Ilunga JM, Nawrot TS, Luboya Numbi O, Smolders E, Nemery B. Sustainability of artisanal mining of cobalt in DR Congo. NATURE SUSTAINABILITY 2018; 1:495-504. [PMID: 30288453 PMCID: PMC6166862 DOI: 10.1038/s41893-018-0139-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2018] [Accepted: 08/13/2018] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
The sustainability of cobalt is an important emerging issue because this critical base metal is an essential component of lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles. More than half the world's cobalt mine production comes from the Katanga Copperbelt in DR Congo, with a substantial proportion (estimated at 15-20%) being extracted by artisanal miners. Here we show, in a case study performed in the town of Kolwezi, that people living in a neighbourhood that had been transformed into an artisanal cobalt mine, had much higher levels of cobalt in urine and blood than people living in a nearby control area. The differences were most pronounced for children, in whom we also found evidence of exposure-related oxidative DNA damage. It was already known that industrial mining and processing of metals have led to severe environmental pollution in the region. This field study provides novel and robust empirical evidence that the artisanal extraction of cobalt that prevails in the DR Congo may cause toxic harm to vulnerable communities. This strengthens the conclusion that the currently existing cobalt supply chain is not sustainable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Célestin Banza Lubaba Nkulu
- Unit of Toxicology and Environment, School of Public Health, Faculty
of Medicine, University of Lubumbashi, Lubumbashi, Democratic Republic of the
Congo
| | - Lidia Casas
- Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Public Health and
Primary Care, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- ISGlobal, Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (CREAL),
Barcelona, Spain
| | - Vincent Haufroid
- Louvain centre for Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology,
Université catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Thierry De Putter
- Geodynamics and Mineral Resources Unit, Royal Museum for Central
Africa, Tervuren, Belgium
| | - Nelly D. Saenen
- Centre for Environmental Sciences, Hasselt University, Diepenbeek,
Belgium
| | - Tony Kayembe-Kitenge
- Unit of Toxicology and Environment, School of Public Health, Faculty
of Medicine, University of Lubumbashi, Lubumbashi, Democratic Republic of the
Congo
| | - Paul Musa Obadia
- Unit of Toxicology and Environment, School of Public Health, Faculty
of Medicine, University of Lubumbashi, Lubumbashi, Democratic Republic of the
Congo
| | - Daniel Kyanika Wa Mukoma
- Unit of Toxicology and Environment, School of Public Health, Faculty
of Medicine, University of Lubumbashi, Lubumbashi, Democratic Republic of the
Congo
| | - Jean-Marie Lunda Ilunga
- Department of Geology, University of Lubumbashi, Lubumbashi,
Democratic Republic of the Congo
| | - Tim S. Nawrot
- Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Public Health and
Primary Care, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- Centre for Environmental Sciences, Hasselt University, Diepenbeek,
Belgium
| | - Oscar Luboya Numbi
- Unit of Toxicology and Environment, School of Public Health, Faculty
of Medicine, University of Lubumbashi, Lubumbashi, Democratic Republic of the
Congo
| | - Erik Smolders
- Division of Water and Soil Management, Department of Earth and
Environmental Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Benoit Nemery
- Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Public Health and
Primary Care, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- Corresponding author: B. Nemery, MD, PhD. Centre
for Environment and Health, Herestraat 49 (706), B-3000 Leuven, Belgium. Tel
+3216330801, fax +3216330806,
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Sverdrup HU, Ragnarsdottir KV, Koca D. Integrated Modelling of the Global Cobalt Extraction, Supply, Price and Depletion of Extractable Resources Using the WORLD6 Model. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s41247-017-0017-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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21
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Marchand C, Hogland W, Kaczala F, Jani Y, Marchand L, Augustsson A, Hijri M. Effect of Medicago sativa L. and compost on organic and inorganic pollutant removal from a mixed contaminated soil and risk assessment using ecotoxicological tests. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOREMEDIATION 2016; 18:1136-47. [PMID: 27216854 DOI: 10.1080/15226514.2016.1186594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Several Gentle Remediation Options (GRO), e.g., plant-based options (phytoremediation), singly and combined with soil amendments, can be simultaneously efficient for degrading organic pollutants and either stabilizing or extracting trace elements (TEs). Here, a 5-month greenhouse trial was performed to test the efficiency of Medicago sativa L., singly and combined with a compost addition (30% w/w), to treat soils contaminated by petroleum hydrocarbons (PHC), Co and Pb collected at an auto scrap yard. After 5 months, total soil Pb significantly decreased in the compost-amended soil planted with M. sativa, but not total soil Co. Compost incorporation into the soil promoted PHC degradation, M. sativa growth and survival, and shoot Pb concentrations [3.8 mg kg(-1) dry weight (DW)]. Residual risk assessment after the phytoremediation trial showed a positive effect of compost amendment on plant growth and earthworm development. The O2 uptake by soil microorganisms was lower in the compost-amended soil, suggesting a decrease in microbial activity. This study underlined the benefits of the phytoremediation option based on M. sativa cultivation and compost amendment for remediating PHC- and Pb-contaminated soils.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte Marchand
- a Institut de Recherche en Biologie Végétale (IRBV), Université de Montréal , Montréal , QC , Canada
| | - William Hogland
- b Department of Biology and Environmental Sciences , Linnaeus University , Kalmar , Sweden
| | - Fabio Kaczala
- b Department of Biology and Environmental Sciences , Linnaeus University , Kalmar , Sweden
| | - Yahya Jani
- b Department of Biology and Environmental Sciences , Linnaeus University , Kalmar , Sweden
| | | | - Anna Augustsson
- b Department of Biology and Environmental Sciences , Linnaeus University , Kalmar , Sweden
| | - Mohamed Hijri
- a Institut de Recherche en Biologie Végétale (IRBV), Université de Montréal , Montréal , QC , Canada
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22
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Chen WQ, Graedel TE, Nuss P, Ohno H. Building the Material Flow Networks of Aluminum in the 2007 U.S. Economy. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2016; 50:3905-3912. [PMID: 26926828 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b05095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Based on the combination of the U.S. economic input-output table and the stocks and flows framework for characterizing anthropogenic metal cycles, this study presents a methodology for building material flow networks of bulk metals in the U.S. economy and applies it to aluminum. The results, which we term the Input-Output Material Flow Networks (IO-MFNs), achieve a complete picture of aluminum flow in the entire U.S. economy and for any chosen industrial sector (illustrated for the Automobile Manufacturing sector). The results are compared with information from our former study on U.S. aluminum stocks and flows to demonstrate the robustness and value of this new methodology. We find that the IO-MFN approach has the following advantages: (1) it helps to uncover the network of material flows in the manufacturing stage in the life cycle of metals; (2) it provides a method that may be less time-consuming but more complete and accurate in estimating new scrap generation, process loss, domestic final demand, and trade of final products of metals, than existing material flow analysis approaches; and, most importantly, (3) it enables the analysis of the material flows of metals in the U.S. economy from a network perspective, rather than merely that of a life cycle chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Qiang Chen
- Center for Industrial Ecology, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University , New Haven, Connecticut 06511, United States
- Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1799 Jimei Road, Xiamen, Fujian 361021, P.R. China
| | - T E Graedel
- Center for Industrial Ecology, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University , New Haven, Connecticut 06511, United States
| | - Philip Nuss
- Center for Industrial Ecology, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University , New Haven, Connecticut 06511, United States
| | - Hajime Ohno
- Center for Industrial Ecology, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University , New Haven, Connecticut 06511, United States
- Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University , 6-6-04, Aramaki Aza Aoba Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8579, Japan
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Zeng X, Gong R, Chen WQ, Li J. Uncovering the Recycling Potential of "New" WEEE in China. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2016; 50:1347-58. [PMID: 26709550 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b05446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Newly defined categories of WEEE have increased the types of China's regulated WEEE from 5 to 14. Identification of the amounts and valuable-resource components of the "new" WEEE generated is critical to solving the e-waste problem, for both governmental policy decisions and recycling enterprise expansions. This study first estimates and predicts China's new WEEE generation for the period of 2010-2030 using material flow analysis and the lifespan model of the Weibull distribution, then determines the amounts of valuable resources (e.g., base materials, precious metals, and rare-earth minerals) encased annually in WEEE, and their dynamic transfer from in-use stock to waste. Main findings include the following: (i) China will generate 15.5 and 28.4 million tons WEEE in 2020 and 2030, respectively, and has already overtaken the U.S. to become the world's leading producer of e-waste; (ii) among all the types of WEEE, air conditioners, desktop personal computers, refrigerators, and washing machines contribute over 70% of total WEEE by weight. The two categories of EEE-electronic devices and electrical appliances-each contribute about half of total WEEE by weight; (iii) more and more valuable resources have been transferred from in-use products to WEEE, significantly enhancing the recycling potential of WEEE from an economic perspective; and (iv) WEEE recycling potential has been evolving from ∼16 (10-22) billion US$ in 2010, to an anticipated ∼42 (26-58) billion US$ in 2020 and ∼73.4 (44.5-103.4) billion US$ by 2030. All the obtained results can improve the knowledge base for closing the loop of WEEE recycling, and contribute to governmental policy making and the recycling industry's business development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xianlai Zeng
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Tsinghua University , Beijing 100084, China
| | - Ruying Gong
- Department of Ecology, Environmental Management College of China , Qinhuangdao, Hebei 066102, China
| | - Wei-Qiang Chen
- Center for Industrial Ecology, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University , New Haven, Connecticut 06511, United States
| | - Jinhui Li
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Tsinghua University , Beijing 100084, China
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Müller E, Hilty LM, Widmer R, Schluep M, Faulstich M. Modeling metal stocks and flows: a review of dynamic material flow analysis methods. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2014; 48:2102-13. [PMID: 24494583 DOI: 10.1021/es403506a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Dynamic material flow analysis (MFA) is a frequently used method to assess past, present, and future stocks and flows of metals in the anthroposphere. Over the past fifteen years, dynamic MFA has contributed to increased knowledge about the quantities, qualities, and locations of metal-containing goods. This article presents a literature review of the methodologies applied in 60 dynamic MFAs of metals. The review is based on a standardized model description format, the ODD (overview, design concepts, details) protocol. We focus on giving a comprehensive overview of modeling approaches and structure them according to essential aspects, such as their treatment of material dissipation, spatial dimension of flows, or data uncertainty. The reviewed literature features similar basic modeling principles but very diverse extrapolation methods. Basic principles include the calculation of outflows of the in-use stock based on inflow or stock data and a lifetime distribution function. For extrapolating stocks and flows, authors apply constant, linear, exponential, and logistic models or approaches based on socioeconomic variables, such as regression models or the intensity-of-use hypothesis. The consideration and treatment of further aspects, such as dissipation, spatial distribution, and data uncertainty, vary significantly and highly depends on the objectives of each study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther Müller
- EMPA, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology , Technology and Society Laboratory, Lerchenfeldstrasse 5, CH-9014 St. Gallen, Switzerland
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Nansai K, Nakajima K, Kagawa S, Kondo Y, Suh S, Shigetomi Y, Oshita Y. Global flows of critical metals necessary for low-carbon technologies: the case of neodymium, cobalt, and platinum. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2014; 48:1391-400. [PMID: 24387330 PMCID: PMC3915747 DOI: 10.1021/es4033452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
This study, encompassing 231 countries and regions, quantifies the global transfer of three critical metals (neodymium, cobalt, and platinum) considered vital for low-carbon technologies by means of material flow analysis (MFA), using trade data (BACI) and the metal contents of trade commodities, resolving the optimization problem to ensure the material balance of the metals within each country and region. The study shows that in 2005 international trade led to global flows of 18.6 kt of neodymium, 154 kt of cobalt, and 402 t of platinum and identifies the main commodities and top 50 bilateral trade links embodying these metals. To explore the issue of consumption efficiency, the flows were characterized according to the technological level of each country or region and divided into three types: green ("efficient use"), yellow ("moderately efficient use"), and red ("inefficient use"). On this basis, the shares of green, yellow, and red flows in the aggregate global flow of Nd were found to be 1.2%, 98%, and 1.2%, respectively. For Co, the respective figures are 53%, 28%, and 19%, and for Pt 15%, 84%, and 0.87%. Furthermore, a simple indicator focusing on the composition of the three colored flows for each commodity was developed to identify trade commodities that should be prioritized for urgent technical improvement to reduce wasteful use of the metals. Based on the indicator, we discuss logical, strategic identification of the responsibilities and roles of the countries involved in the global flows.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keisuke Nansai
- Center
for Material Cycles and Waste Management Research, National Institute for Environmental Studies, 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, 305-8506, Japan
- Phone: +81
29-850-2889; fax: +81 29-850-2917; e-mail:
| | - Kenichi Nakajima
- Center
for Material Cycles and Waste Management Research, National Institute for Environmental Studies, 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, 305-8506, Japan
| | - Shigemi Kagawa
- Faculty
of Economics, Kyushu University, 6-19-1 Hakozaki, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka, 812-8581, Japan
| | - Yasushi Kondo
- Faculty
of Political Science and Economics, Waseda
University, 1-6-1 Nishi-Waseda, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 169-8050, Japan
| | - Sangwon Suh
- Bren
School of Environmental Science and Management, University of California Santa Barbara, 3422 Bren Hall, CA, USA
| | - Yosuke Shigetomi
- Center
for Material Cycles and Waste Management Research, National Institute for Environmental Studies, 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, 305-8506, Japan
- Graduate
School of Energy Science, Kyoto University, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Yuko Oshita
- Faculty of
Maritime Sciences, Kobe University, 5-1-1 Fukaeminami-machi, Higashinada-ku, Kobe, 658-0022, Japan
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Amir A, Lee W. Enhanced reductive dechlorination of tetrachloroethene during reduction of cobalamin (III) by nano-mackinawite. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2012; 235-236:359-366. [PMID: 22939091 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2012.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2012] [Revised: 08/03/2012] [Accepted: 08/06/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrated adsorption and reduction of cobalamin(III) (Co(III)) on nano-mackinawite (nFeS) surface and their impact on reductive dechlorination of tetrachloroethene (PCE). The adsorption of Co(III) on the nFeS surface followed Langmuir isotherm and the reduction of Co(III) provided different reactive surface chemical species on nFeS surface. Content of Fe(2+)S on nFeS surface decreased (45.9-14.5%) as Fe(2+)S was oxidized to Fe(3+)S and Fe(3+)O coupled with the surface reduction of Co(III) to cobalamin(II) (Co(II)). S(2-) and S(n)(2-) contents on the nFeS surface also decreased by 48.5% and 82.3%, respectively during the formation of sulfidecobalamin(II) (≡S(2-)Co(II)) by the reactive surface sulfur. PCE was fully degraded in nFeSCo(III) suspension at pH 8.3 in 120 h. The dechlorination kinetic rate constant of PCE in the nFeSCo(III) suspension (k(FeSCo(III))=0.188±0.003 h(-1)) was 145 times greater than that in nFeS suspension, showing a potential role of ≡S(2-)Co(II) as an electron transfer mediator to shuttle electrons for the enhanced reductive dechlorination. PCE was transformed to acetylene and 1,3-butadiene as major products via reductive β-elimination and isomerization reactions, respectively. The experimental findings can provide basic knowledge to identify a reaction mechanism for the enhanced reductive dechlorination of chlorinated organic by biogeochemical reactions possibly observed in natural reducing environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amnorzahira Amir
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, 291 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-Gu, Daejeon 305-701, South Korea
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Chen WQ, Graedel TE. Anthropogenic cycles of the elements: a critical review. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2012; 46:8574-8586. [PMID: 22803614 DOI: 10.1021/es3010333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
A cycle is the quantitative characterization of the flows of a specific material into, within, and from a given system. An anthropogenic elemental cycle can be static (for a point in time) or dynamic (over a time interval). The about 350 publications collected for this review contain a total of 1074 individual cycle determinations, 989 static and 85 dynamic, for 59 elements; more than 90% of the publications have appeared since 2000. The cycles are of varying quality and completeness, with about 80% at country- or territory-level, addressing 45 elements, and 5% at global-level, addressing 30 elements. Despite their limitations, cycles have often been successful in revealing otherwise unknown information. Most of the elements for which no cycles exist are radioactively unstable or are used rarely and in small amounts. For a variety of reasons, the anthropogenic cycles of only perhaps a dozen elements are well characterized. For all the others, with cycles limited or nonexistent, our knowledge of types of uses, lifetimes in those uses, international trade, losses to the environment, and rates of recycling is quite limited, thereby making attempts to evaluate resource sustainability particularly problematic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Qiang Chen
- Center for Industrial Ecology, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, United States.
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