1
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Campbell S, La C, Zhou Q, Le J, Galvez-Reyes J, Banach C, Houk KN, Chen JR, Paulson SE. Characterizing Hydroxyl Radical Formation from the Light-Driven Fe(II)-Peracetic Acid Reaction, a Key Process for Aerosol-Cloud Chemistry. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2024; 58:7505-7515. [PMID: 38619820 PMCID: PMC11064221 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c10684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Revised: 03/26/2024] [Accepted: 03/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/16/2024]
Abstract
The reaction of peracetic acid (PAA) and Fe(II) has recently gained attention due to its utility in wastewater treatment and its role in cloud chemistry. Aerosol-cloud interactions, partly mediated by aqueous hydroxyl radical (OH) chemistry, represent one of the largest uncertainties in the climate system. Ambiguities remain regarding the sources of OH in the cloud droplets. Our research group recently proposed that the dark and light-driven reaction of Fe(II) with peracids may be a key contributor to OH formation, producing a large burst of OH when aerosol particles take up water as they grow to become cloud droplets, in which reactants are consumed within 2 min. In this work, we quantify the OH production from the reaction of Fe(II) and PAA across a range of physical and chemical conditions. We show a strong dependence of OH formation on ultraviolet (UV) wavelength, with maximum OH formation at λ = 304 ± 5 nm, and demonstrate that the OH burst phenomenon is unique to Fe(II) and peracids. Using kinetics modeling and density functional theory calculations, we suggest the reaction proceeds through the formation of an [Fe(II)-(PAA)2(H2O)2] complex, followed by the formation of a Fe(IV) complex, which can also be photoactivated to produce additional OH. Determining the characteristics of OH production from this reaction advances our knowledge of the sources of OH in cloudwater and provides a framework to optimize this reaction for OH output for wastewater treatment purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven
J. Campbell
- Department
of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, University
of California at Los Angeles, 520 Portola Plaza, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Chris La
- Department
of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, University
of California at Los Angeles, 520 Portola Plaza, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Qingyang Zhou
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Jason Le
- Department
of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, University
of California at Los Angeles, 520 Portola Plaza, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Jennyfer Galvez-Reyes
- Department
of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, University
of California at Los Angeles, 520 Portola Plaza, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Catherine Banach
- Department
of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, University
of California at Los Angeles, 520 Portola Plaza, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - K. N. Houk
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Jie Rou Chen
- Department
of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, University
of California at Los Angeles, 520 Portola Plaza, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Suzanne E. Paulson
- Department
of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, University
of California at Los Angeles, 520 Portola Plaza, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
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2
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Wang Y, Liang S, Le Breton M, Wang QQ, Liu Q, Ho CH, Kuang BY, Wu C, Hallquist M, Tong R, Yu JZ. Field observations of C 2 and C 3 organosulfates and insights into their formation mechanisms at a suburban site in Hong Kong. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 904:166851. [PMID: 37673264 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2023] [Revised: 08/27/2023] [Accepted: 09/03/2023] [Indexed: 09/08/2023]
Abstract
Organosulfates (OSs) are formed from volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and their oxidation products in the presence of sulfate particles. While OSs represent an important component in secondary organic aerosol, the knowledge of their formation driving force, mechanisms, and environmental impact remain inadequately understood. In this study, we report ambient observations of C2-3 oxygenated VOCs derived OSs (C2-3 OSs) at a suburban location of Hong Kong during autumn 2016. The C2-3 OSs, including glycolaldehyde sulfate (GS), hydroxyacetone sulfate (HAS), glycolic acid sulfate (GAS), and lactic acid sulfate (LAS), were quantified/semi-quantified using offline liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis of aerosol filter samples. The average sum concentration of C2-3 OSs was 36 ng/m3. Correlation analysis revealed that sulfate, surface area, and liquid water content were important factors influencing C2-3 OS formation. Online measurement with an iodide High-Resolution Time-of-Flight Chemical-Ionization Mass Spectrometer (HR-ToF-CIMS) coupled with the Filter Inlet for Gases and AEROsols (FIGAERO) was also conducted to monitor C2-3 OSs, and their potential oxygenated VOC precursors in both gas- and particle-phase, and aerosol acidity tracer simultaneously. Our measurements support that glycolaldehyde/glyoxal, hydroxyacetone, glycolic acid/glyoxal, and lactic acid/methylglyoxal are likely precursors for GS, HAS, GAS, and LAS, respectively. Additionally, we found strong correlation between C2-3 OSs and H3S2O8-, a marker for aerosol acidity, providing field observational evidence for acid-catalyzed formation of small OSs. Based on both online and offline measurements, acid-catalyzed formation mechanisms in particle/aqueous phase are proposed. Specifically, the unique structure of adjacent carbonyl and hydroxyl groups in the C2-3 oxygenated VOC precursors can facilitate the formation of (1) a five-member ring intermediate via intramolecular hydrogen bond to react with sulfur trioxide through heterogenous reaction or (2) cyclic sulfate intermediate via particle-phase reaction with sulfuric acid to generate C2-3 OSs. These proposed mechanisms provide an alternative pathway for the liquid-phase production of C2-3 OSs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuchen Wang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hunan University, Hunan, China; Division of Environment and Sustainability, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clearwater Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
| | - Shumin Liang
- Department of Chemistry, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clearwater Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
| | - Michael Le Breton
- Department of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Qiong Qiong Wang
- Department of Chemistry, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clearwater Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
| | - Qianyun Liu
- Division of Environment and Sustainability, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clearwater Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
| | - Chin Hung Ho
- Division of Environment and Sustainability, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clearwater Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
| | - Bin Yu Kuang
- Department of Chemistry, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clearwater Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
| | - Cheng Wu
- Division of Environment and Sustainability, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clearwater Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; Institute of Mass Spectrometer and Atmospheric Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Mattias Hallquist
- Department of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Rongbiao Tong
- Department of Chemistry, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clearwater Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
| | - Jian Zhen Yu
- Division of Environment and Sustainability, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clearwater Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; Department of Chemistry, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clearwater Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China.
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3
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Taghvaee S, Shen J, Banach C, La C, Campbell SJ, Paulson SE. Robust quantification of the burst of OH radicals generated by ambient particles in nascent cloud droplets using a direct-to-reagent approach. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 900:165736. [PMID: 37495143 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2023] [Revised: 07/15/2023] [Accepted: 07/21/2023] [Indexed: 07/28/2023]
Abstract
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) play a central role in chemistry in cloud water, as well as in other aqueous phases such as lung fluid and in wastewater treatment. Recently, work simulating nascent cloud droplets showed that aerosol particles produce a large burst of OH radicals when they first take up water. This activity stops abruptly, within two minutes. The source of the OH radicals is not well understood, but it likely includes the aqueous phase chemistry of ROS and/or organic hydroperoxides and redox active metals such as iron and copper. ROS and their precursors are in general highly reactive and labile, and thus may not survive during traditional sampling methods, which typically involve multi-hour collection on a filter or direct sampling into water or another collection liquid. Further, these species may further decay during storage. Here, we develop a technique to grow aerosol particles into small droplets and capture the droplets directly into a vial containing the terephthalate probe in water, which immediately scavenges OH radicals produced by aerosol particles. The method uses a Liquid Spot Sampler. Extensive characterization of the approach reveals that the collection liquid picks up substantial OH/OH precursors from the gas phase. This issue is effectively addressed by adding an activated carbon denuder. We then compared OH formation measured with the direct-to-reagent approach vs. filter collection. We find that after a modest correction for OH formed in the collection liquid, the samples collected into the reagent produce about six times those collected on filters, for both PM2.5 and total suspended particulate. This highlights the need for direct-to-reagent measurement approaches to accurately quantify OH production from ambient aerosol particles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sina Taghvaee
- Department of Atmospheric & Oceanic Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Jiaqi Shen
- Department of Atmospheric & Oceanic Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Catherine Banach
- Department of Atmospheric & Oceanic Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Chris La
- Department of Atmospheric & Oceanic Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Steven J Campbell
- Department of Atmospheric & Oceanic Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Suzanne E Paulson
- Department of Atmospheric & Oceanic Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.
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4
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Mekic M, Schaefer T, Hoffmann EH, Aiyuk MBE, Tilgner A, Herrmann H. Temperature-Dependent Oxidation of Hydroxylated Aldehydes by •OH, SO 4•-, and NO 3• Radicals in the Atmospheric Aqueous Phase. J Phys Chem A 2023; 127:6495-6508. [PMID: 37498295 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.3c00700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/28/2023]
Abstract
T-dependent aqueous-phase rate constants were determined for the oxidation of the hydroxy aldehydes, glyceraldehyde, glycolaldehyde, and lactaldehyde, by the hydroxyl radicals (•OH), the sulfate radicals (SO4•-), and the nitrate radicals (NO3•). The obtained Arrhenius expressions for the oxidation by the •OH radical are: k(T,GLYCERALDEHYDE+OH•) = (3.3 ± 0.1) × 1010 × exp((-960 ± 80 K)/T)/L mol-1 s-1, k(T,GLYCOLALDEHYDE+OH•) = (4.3 ± 0.1) × 1011 × exp((-1740 ± 50 K)/T)/L mol-1 s-1, k(T,LACTALDEHYDE+OH•) = (1.6 ± 0.1) × 1011 × exp((-1410 ± 180 K)/T)/L mol-1 s-1; for the SO4•- radical: k(T,GLYCERALDEHYDE+SO4•-) = (4.3 ± 0.1) × 109 × exp((-1400 ± 50 K)/T)/L mol-1 s-1, k(T,GLYCOLALDEHYDE+SO4•-) = (10.3 ± 0.3) × 109 × exp((-1730 ± 190 K)/T)/L mol-1 s-1, k(T,LACTALDEHYDE+SO4•-) = (2.2 ± 0.1) × 109 × exp((-1030 ± 230 K)/T)/L mol-1 s-1; and for the NO3• radical: k(T,GLYCERALDEHYDE+NO3•) = (3.4 ± 0.2) × 1011 × exp((-3470 ± 460 K)/T)/L mol-1 s-1, k(T,GLYCOLALDEHYDE+NO3•) = (7.8 ± 0.2) × 1011 × exp((-3820 ± 240 K)/T)/L mol-1 s-1, k(T,LACTALDEHYDE+NO3•) = (4.3 ± 0.2) × 1010 × exp((-2750 ± 340 K)/T)/L mol-1 s-1, respectively. Targeted simulations of multiphase chemistry reveal that the oxidation by OH radicals in cloud droplets is important under remote and wildfire influenced continental conditions due to enhanced partitioning. There, the modeled average aqueous •OH concentration is 2.6 × 10-14 and 1.8 × 10-14 mol L-1, whereas it is 7.9 × 10-14 and 3.5 × 10-14 mol L-1 under wet particle conditions. During cloud periods, the aqueous-phase reactions by •OH contribute to the oxidation of glycolaldehyde, lactaldehyde, and glyceraldehyde by about 35 and 29%, 3 and 3%, and 47 and 37%, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Majda Mekic
- Leibniz Institute for Tropospheric Research (TROPOS), Atmospheric Chemistry Department (ACD), Permoserstraße 15, 04318 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Thomas Schaefer
- Leibniz Institute for Tropospheric Research (TROPOS), Atmospheric Chemistry Department (ACD), Permoserstraße 15, 04318 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Erik H Hoffmann
- Leibniz Institute for Tropospheric Research (TROPOS), Atmospheric Chemistry Department (ACD), Permoserstraße 15, 04318 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Marvel B E Aiyuk
- Leibniz Institute for Tropospheric Research (TROPOS), Atmospheric Chemistry Department (ACD), Permoserstraße 15, 04318 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Andreas Tilgner
- Leibniz Institute for Tropospheric Research (TROPOS), Atmospheric Chemistry Department (ACD), Permoserstraße 15, 04318 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Hartmut Herrmann
- Leibniz Institute for Tropospheric Research (TROPOS), Atmospheric Chemistry Department (ACD), Permoserstraße 15, 04318 Leipzig, Germany
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5
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Rodriguez AA, Rafla MA, Welsh HG, Pennington EA, Casar JR, Hawkins LN, Jimenez NG, de Loera A, Stewart DR, Rojas A, Tran MK, Lin P, Laskin A, Formenti P, Cazaunau M, Pangui E, Doussin JF, De Haan DO. Kinetics, Products, and Brown Carbon Formation by Aqueous-Phase Reactions of Glycolaldehyde with Atmospheric Amines and Ammonium Sulfate. J Phys Chem A 2022; 126:5375-5385. [PMID: 35925760 PMCID: PMC9393862 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.2c02606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Glycolaldehyde (GAld) is a C2 water-soluble
aldehyde
produced during the atmospheric oxidation of isoprene and many other
species and is commonly found in cloudwater. Previous work has established
that glycolaldehyde evaporates more readily from drying aerosol droplets
containing ammonium sulfate (AS) than does glyoxal, methylglyoxal,
or hydroxyacetone, which implies that it does not oligomerize as quickly
as these other species. Here, we report NMR measurements of glycolaldehyde’s
aqueous-phase reactions with AS, methylamine, and glycine. Reaction
rate constants are smaller than those of respective glyoxal and methylglyoxal
reactions in the pH range of 3–6. In follow-up cloud chamber
experiments, deliquesced glycine and AS seed particles were found
to take up glycolaldehyde and methylamine and form brown carbon. At
very high relative humidity, these changes were more than 2 orders
of magnitude faster than predicted by our bulk liquid NMR kinetics
measurements, suggesting that reactions involving surface-active species
at crowded air–water interfaces may play an important role.
The high-resolution liquid chromatography–electrospray ionization–mass
spectrometric analysis of filter extracts of unprocessed AS + GAld
seed particles identified sugar-like C6 and C12 GAld oligomers, including proposed product 3-deoxyglucosone, with
and without modification by reactions with ammonia to diimine and
imidazole forms. Chamber exposure to methylamine gas, cloud processing,
and simulated sunlight increased the incorporation of both ammonia
and methylamine into oligomers. Many C4–C16 imidazole derivatives were detected in an extract of chamber-exposed
aerosol along with a predominance of N-derivatized
C6 and C12 glycolaldehyde oligomers, suggesting
that GAld is capable of forming brown carbon SOA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alyssa A Rodriguez
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of San Diego, 5998 Alcala Park, San Diego, California 92110, United States
| | - Michael A Rafla
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of San Diego, 5998 Alcala Park, San Diego, California 92110, United States
| | - Hannah G Welsh
- Department of Chemistry, Harvey Mudd College, 301 Platt Boulevard, Claremont, California 91711, United States
| | - Elyse A Pennington
- Department of Chemistry, Harvey Mudd College, 301 Platt Boulevard, Claremont, California 91711, United States
| | - Jason R Casar
- Department of Chemistry, Harvey Mudd College, 301 Platt Boulevard, Claremont, California 91711, United States
| | - Lelia N Hawkins
- Department of Chemistry, Harvey Mudd College, 301 Platt Boulevard, Claremont, California 91711, United States
| | - Natalie G Jimenez
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of San Diego, 5998 Alcala Park, San Diego, California 92110, United States
| | - Alexia de Loera
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of San Diego, 5998 Alcala Park, San Diego, California 92110, United States
| | - Devoun R Stewart
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of San Diego, 5998 Alcala Park, San Diego, California 92110, United States
| | - Antonio Rojas
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of San Diego, 5998 Alcala Park, San Diego, California 92110, United States
| | - Matthew-Khoa Tran
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of San Diego, 5998 Alcala Park, San Diego, California 92110, United States
| | - Peng Lin
- Environmental Molecular Sciences Laboratory, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington 99352, United States.,Department of Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Alexander Laskin
- Environmental Molecular Sciences Laboratory, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington 99352, United States.,Department of Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Paola Formenti
- Laboratoire Interuniversitaire des Systèmes Atmosphériques (LISA), UMR7583, CNRS, Université Paris-Est Créteil (UPEC) et Université de Paris, Institut Pierre Simon Laplace (IPSL), 94000 Créteil, France
| | - Mathieu Cazaunau
- Laboratoire Interuniversitaire des Systèmes Atmosphériques (LISA), UMR7583, CNRS, Université Paris-Est Créteil (UPEC) et Université de Paris, Institut Pierre Simon Laplace (IPSL), 94000 Créteil, France
| | - Edouard Pangui
- Laboratoire Interuniversitaire des Systèmes Atmosphériques (LISA), UMR7583, CNRS, Université Paris-Est Créteil (UPEC) et Université de Paris, Institut Pierre Simon Laplace (IPSL), 94000 Créteil, France
| | - Jean-François Doussin
- Laboratoire Interuniversitaire des Systèmes Atmosphériques (LISA), UMR7583, CNRS, Université Paris-Est Créteil (UPEC) et Université de Paris, Institut Pierre Simon Laplace (IPSL), 94000 Créteil, France
| | - David O De Haan
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of San Diego, 5998 Alcala Park, San Diego, California 92110, United States
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6
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He DY, Huang XF, Wei J, Wei FH, Zhu B, Cao LM, He LY. Soil dust as a potential bridge from biogenic volatile organic compounds to secondary organic aerosol in a rural environment. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2022; 298:118840. [PMID: 35026325 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2022.118840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2021] [Revised: 01/06/2022] [Accepted: 01/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The role of coarse particles has recently been proven to be underestimated in the atmosphere and can strongly influence clouds, ecosystems and climate. However, previous studies on atmospheric chemistry of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) have mostly focused on the products in fine particles, it remains less understood how coarse particles promote secondary organic aerosol (SOA) formation. In this study, we investigated water-soluble compounds of size-segregated aerosol samples (0.056 to >18 μm) collected at a coastal rural site in southern China during late summer and found that oxygenated organic matter was abundant in the coarse mode. Comprehensive source apportionment based on mass spectrum and 14C analysis indicated that different from fossil fuel SOA, biogenic SOA existed more in the coarse mode than in the fine mode. The SOA in the coarse mode showed a unique correlation with biogenic VOCs. 13C and elemental composition strongly suggested a pathway of heterogeneous reactions on coarse particles, which had an abundant low-acidic aqueous environment with soil dust to possibly initiate iron-catalytic oxidation reactions to form SOA. This potential pathway might complement understanding of both formation of biogenic SOA and sink of biogenic VOCs in global biogeochemical cycles, warrantying future relevant studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong-Yi He
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Observation Supersite, School of Environment and Energy, Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Xiao-Feng Huang
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Observation Supersite, School of Environment and Energy, Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen, 518055, China.
| | - Jing Wei
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Observation Supersite, School of Environment and Energy, Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Feng-Hua Wei
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Observation Supersite, School of Environment and Energy, Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Bo Zhu
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Observation Supersite, School of Environment and Energy, Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Li-Ming Cao
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Observation Supersite, School of Environment and Energy, Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Ling-Yan He
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Observation Supersite, School of Environment and Energy, Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen, 518055, China
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7
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Wang Y, Brigante M, Mailhot G, Talaga D, Wu Y, Dong W, Sobanska S. Toward a better understanding of ferric-oxalate complex photolysis: The role of the aqueous/air interface of droplet. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 289:133127. [PMID: 34864008 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.133127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Revised: 11/02/2021] [Accepted: 11/28/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
In this work, the photo reactivity of ferric oxalate (Fe(III)-Ox) complex in atmospheric particles was investigated. Raman spectroscopy was used to explore the mechanism and kinetics of Fe(III)-Ox photolysis occurring at the aqueous/gas interface, inside the droplet and in bulk solution. Ferrous carbonate (FeCO3) was detected indicating that carbonate ion (CO32-) formed inside the droplets would compete with oxalate ligands for iron complexation. A higher concentration of photoproduct Fe(II)-Ox was observed at the surface and inside of the droplets than in bulk solution. In particular, Fe(III)-Ox on the droplet surface was quickly reduced with light and Fe(II)-Ox concentration gradually decreased with irradiation time. The evolution of Fe(II)-Ox concentration was similar inside the droplet and in bulk solution with a trend of first increasing and then gradually decreasing during irradiation time. Although FeCO3 would hinder Fenton intermediate reaction, the photolysis rate of Fe(III)-Ox in droplets was almost two orders of magnitude times faster than that observed during bulk experiment. In general, the photolysis mechanism and kinetics of Fe(III)-Ox in aqueous/air interface, inside of droplet and bulk solution were distinct, and the production of oxide species from the atmospheric Fe(III)-Ox droplets was underestimated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Wang
- Department of Environmental Science & Engineering, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200438, China; Institut des Sciences Moléculaires, UMR CNRS 5255, Univ. Bordeaux, Talence, F-33405, France
| | - Marcello Brigante
- Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, Clermont Auvergne INP, Institut de Chimie de Clermont-Ferrand, F-63000, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Gilles Mailhot
- Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, Clermont Auvergne INP, Institut de Chimie de Clermont-Ferrand, F-63000, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - David Talaga
- Institut des Sciences Moléculaires, UMR CNRS 5255, Univ. Bordeaux, Talence, F-33405, France
| | - Yanlin Wu
- Department of Environmental Science & Engineering, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200438, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai, 200092, China
| | - Wenbo Dong
- Department of Environmental Science & Engineering, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200438, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai, 200092, China.
| | - Sophie Sobanska
- Institut des Sciences Moléculaires, UMR CNRS 5255, Univ. Bordeaux, Talence, F-33405, France.
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8
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Li Y, Burns AE, Tran LN, Abellar KA, Poindexter M, Li X, Madl AK, Pinkerton KE, Nguyen TB. Impact of e-Liquid Composition, Coil Temperature, and Puff Topography on the Aerosol Chemistry of Electronic Cigarettes. Chem Res Toxicol 2021; 34:1640-1654. [PMID: 33949191 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.1c00070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
E-cigarette aerosol is a complex mixture of gases and particles with a composition that is dependent on the e-liquid formulation, puffing regimen, and device operational parameters. This work investigated mainstream aerosols from a third generation device, as a function of coil temperature (315-510 °F, or 157-266 °C), puff duration (2-4 s), and the ratio of propylene glycol (PG) to vegetable glycerin (VG) in e-liquid (100:0-0:100). Targeted and untargeted analyses using liquid chromatography high-resolution mass spectrometry, gas chromatography, in situ chemical ionization mass spectrometry, and gravimetry were used for chemical characterizations. PG and VG were found to be the major constituents (>99%) in both phases of the aerosol. Most e-cigarette components were observed to be volatile or semivolatile under the conditions tested. PG was found almost entirely in the gas phase, while VG had a sizable particle component. Nicotine was only observed in the particle phase. The production of aerosol mass and carbonyl degradation products dramatically increased with higher coil temperature and puff duration, but decreased with increasing VG fraction in the e-liquid. An exception is acrolein, which increased with increasing VG. The formation of carbonyls was dominated by the heat-induced dehydration mechanism in the temperature range studied, yet radical reactions also played an important role. The findings from this study identified open questions regarding both pathways. The vaping process consumed PG significantly faster than VG under all tested conditions, suggesting that e-liquids become more enriched in VG and the exposure to acrolein significantly increases as vaping continues. It can be estimated that a 30:70 initial ratio of PG:VG in the e-liquid becomes almost entirely VG when 60-70% of e-liquid remains during the vaping process at 375 °F (191 °C). This work underscores the need for further research on the puffing lifecycle of e-cigarettes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yichen Li
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, University of California at Davis, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Amanda E Burns
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, University of California at Davis, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Lillian N Tran
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, University of California at Davis, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Karizza A Abellar
- Department of Chemistry, University of California at Davis, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Morgan Poindexter
- Center for Health and the Environment, University of California at Davis, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Xiaohan Li
- Center for Health and the Environment, University of California at Davis, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Amy K Madl
- Center for Health and the Environment, University of California at Davis, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Kent E Pinkerton
- Center for Health and the Environment, University of California at Davis, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Tran B Nguyen
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, University of California at Davis, Davis, California 95616, United States
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9
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Yang C, Zhang C, Luo X, Liu X, Cao F, Zhang YL. Isomerization and Degradation of Levoglucosan via the Photo-Fenton Process: Insights from Aqueous-Phase Experiments and Atmospheric Particulate Matter. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:11789-11797. [PMID: 32897062 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c02499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
So far, studies on the conversion of stereochemistry under photo-Fenton conditions and their atmospheric implication are still rare. Here, we found that the biomass burning marker, the chiral compound levoglucosan (L), undergoes oxidative degradation under photo-Fenton conditions and can be isomerized into mannosan (M) and galactosan (G) simultaneously. Among the formic acid, acetic acid, and oxalic acid in the degradation products of levoglucosan, it was found that the yield of formation of formic acid in the photo-Fenton pathway can be as high as 86%. It is worth noting that both levoglucosan and its isomers are present in the atmosphere and their concentrations are strongly correlated. At the same time, the range of their concentration ratios, L/(G + M), measured in the photo-Fenton experiments in the laboratory was found to agree well with that measured in atmospheric PM2.5 samples. However, the sources of L, G, and M in the atmosphere are complex, and the photo-Fenton reaction may be an essential pathway for the distribution of L, G, and M in the atmosphere.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chi Yang
- School of Applied Meteorology, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing 210044, China
| | - Chunyan Zhang
- School of Applied Meteorology, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing 210044, China
| | - Xiaosan Luo
- School of Applied Meteorology, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing 210044, China
| | - Xiaoyan Liu
- School of Applied Meteorology, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing 210044, China
| | - Fang Cao
- School of Applied Meteorology, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing 210044, China
| | - Yan-Lin Zhang
- School of Applied Meteorology, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing 210044, China
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10
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Cummings BE, Li Y, DeCarlo PF, Shiraiwa M, Waring MS. Indoor aerosol water content and phase state in U.S. residences: impacts of relative humidity, aerosol mass and composition, and mechanical system operation. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2020; 22:2031-2057. [PMID: 33084679 DOI: 10.1039/d0em00122h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Hygroscopic particulate matter (PM) constituents promote uptake of aerosol water (AW), depending on relative humidity (RH), which can constrain qualities such as organic aerosol (OA) phase state and inorganic aerosol (IA) deliquescence and efflorescence. This work provides a first incorporation of AW predictions into residential indoor PM simulations. The indoor model, IMAGES, which simulates factored OA concentrations and thermodynamics using the 2D-volatility basis set, was expanded to predict speciated IA concentrations, AW with κ-Köhler theory of hygroscopic growth, and OA phase state with glass transition temperatures. Since RH is the largest driver of AW and varies with meteorology, simulations were conducted using a database of historical ambient weather and pollution records spanning the sixteen U.S. climate zones, facilitating assessment of seasonal and regional trends. Over this diverse simulation set, the residential indoor AW mass was ∼10 to 100 times smaller than dry PM mass. This relative AW amount indoors was about ∼10 times smaller than outdoors, since indoor-emitted aerosol is likely less hygroscopic. The indoor OA phase state was typically semisolid, suggesting kinetic limitations might inhibit thermodynamic OA partitioning equilibrium from being established indoors. Residences in hot and humid climates during the summertime may have liquid indoor OA, while amorphous solid indoor OA can exist in cold climates. Deliquescence and efflorescence of recirculated IA within HVAC systems during cooling or heating, respectively, was also modeled. Oftentimes, two IA populations with different histories existing as wet or dry aerosol were generated by HVAC operation depending on indoor and outdoor environmental conditions and the HVAC operating mode.
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11
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Liu Q, Liggio J, Li K, Lee P, Li SM. Understanding the Impact of Relative Humidity and Coexisting Soluble Iron on the OH-Initiated Heterogeneous Oxidation of Organophosphate Flame Retardants. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:6794-6803. [PMID: 31117542 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b01758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
The current uncertainties in the reactivity and atmospheric persistence of particle-associated chemicals present a challenge for the prediction of long-range transport and deposition of emerging chemicals such as organophosphate flame retardants, which are ubiquitous in the global environment. Here, the OH-initiated heterogeneous oxidation kinetics of organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) coated on inert (NH4)2SO4 and redox-active FeSO4 particles were systematically determined as a function of relative humidity (RH). The derived reaction rate constants for the heterogeneous loss of tricresyl phosphate (TCP; kTCP) and tris(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (TBEP; kTBEP) were in the range of (2.69-3.57) × 10-12 and (3.06-5.55) × 10-12 cm3 molecules-1 s-1, respectively, depending on the RH and coexisting Fe(II) content. The kTCP (coated on (NH4)2SO4) was relatively constant over the investigated RH range while kTBEP was enhanced by up to 19% with increasing RH. For both OPFRs, the presence of Fe(II) enhanced their k by up to 53% over inert (NH4)2SO4. These enhancement effects (RH and Fe(II)) were attributed to fundamental changes in the organic phase state (higher RH lowered particle viscosity) and Fenton-type chemistry which resulted in the formation of reactive oxygen species, respectively. Such findings serve to emphasize the importance of ambient RH, the phase state of particle-bound organics in general, and the presence of coexisting metallic species for an accurate description of the degradation kinetics and aging of particulate OPFRs in models used to evaluate their atmospheric persistence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qifan Liu
- Atmospheric Science and Technology Directorate, Science and Technology Branch , Environment Canada , 4905 Dufferin Street , Toronto , Ontario M3H 5T4 , Canada
| | - John Liggio
- Atmospheric Science and Technology Directorate, Science and Technology Branch , Environment Canada , 4905 Dufferin Street , Toronto , Ontario M3H 5T4 , Canada
| | - Kun Li
- Atmospheric Science and Technology Directorate, Science and Technology Branch , Environment Canada , 4905 Dufferin Street , Toronto , Ontario M3H 5T4 , Canada
| | - Patrick Lee
- Atmospheric Science and Technology Directorate, Science and Technology Branch , Environment Canada , 4905 Dufferin Street , Toronto , Ontario M3H 5T4 , Canada
| | - Shao-Meng Li
- Atmospheric Science and Technology Directorate, Science and Technology Branch , Environment Canada , 4905 Dufferin Street , Toronto , Ontario M3H 5T4 , Canada
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12
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Zhang G, Lin Q, Peng L, Yang Y, Jiang F, Liu F, Song W, Chen D, Cai Z, Bi X, Miller M, Tang M, Huang W, Wang X, Peng P, Sheng G. Oxalate Formation Enhanced by Fe-Containing Particles and Environmental Implications. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:1269-1277. [PMID: 30354091 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b05280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
We used a single particle mass spectrometry to online detect chemical compositions of individual particles over four seasons in Guangzhou. Number fractions (Nfs) of all the measured particles that contained oxalate were 1.9%, 5.2%, 25.1%, and 15.5%, whereas the Nfs of Fe-containing particles that were internally mixed with oxalate were 8.7%, 23.1%, 45.2%, and 31.2% from spring to winter, respectively. The results provided the first direct field measurements for the enhanced formation of oxalate associated with Fe-containing particles. Other oxidized organic compounds including formate, acetate, methylglyoxal, glyoxylate, purivate, malonate, and succinate were also detected in the Fe-containing particles. It is likely that reactive oxidant species (ROS) via Fenton reactions enhanced the formation of these organic compounds and their oxidation product oxalate. Gas-particle partitioning of oxalic acid followed by coordination with Fe might also partly contribute to the enhanced oxalate. Aerosol water content likely played an important role in the enhanced oxalate formation when the relative humidity is >60%. Interactions with Fe drove the diurnal variation of oxalate in the Fe-containing particles. The study could provide a reference for model simulation to improve understanding on the formation and fate of oxalate, and the evolution and climate impacts of particulate Fe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guohua Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Resources Utilization and Protection , Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry , Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640 , P. R. China
| | - Qinhao Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Resources Utilization and Protection , Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry , Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640 , P. R. China
| | - Long Peng
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Resources Utilization and Protection , Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry , Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640 , P. R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences , Beijing 100039 , P. R. China
| | - Yuxiang Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Resources Utilization and Protection , Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry , Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640 , P. R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences , Beijing 100039 , P. R. China
| | - Feng Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Resources Utilization and Protection , Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry , Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640 , P. R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences , Beijing 100039 , P. R. China
| | - Fengxian Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Resources Utilization and Protection , Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry , Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640 , P. R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences , Beijing 100039 , P. R. China
| | - Wei Song
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Resources Utilization and Protection , Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry , Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640 , P. R. China
| | - Duohong Chen
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Regional Air Quality Monitoring , Guangdong Environmental Monitoring Center , Guangzhou 510308 , PR China
| | - Zhang Cai
- John and Willie Leone Family Department of Energy and Mineral Engineering , The Pennsylvania State University , University Park , Pennsylvania 16802 , United States
| | - Xinhui Bi
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Resources Utilization and Protection , Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry , Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640 , P. R. China
| | - Mark Miller
- Department of Environmental Sciences , Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey , New Brunswick , New Jersey 08901 , United States
| | - Mingjin Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Resources Utilization and Protection , Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry , Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640 , P. R. China
| | - Weilin Huang
- Department of Environmental Sciences , Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey , New Brunswick , New Jersey 08901 , United States
| | - Xinming Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Resources Utilization and Protection , Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry , Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640 , P. R. China
| | - Ping'an Peng
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Resources Utilization and Protection , Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry , Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640 , P. R. China
| | - Guoying Sheng
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Resources Utilization and Protection , Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry , Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640 , P. R. China
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13
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Pang H, Zhang Q, Wang H, Cai D, Ma Y, Li L, Li K, Lu X, Chen H, Yang X, Chen J. Photochemical Aging of Guaiacol by Fe(III)-Oxalate Complexes in Atmospheric Aqueous Phase. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:127-136. [PMID: 30484312 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b04507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Fe(III)-oxalate complexes are likely abundant in clouds, fogs and aerosol water. They are photoreactive and can act as an important source of reactive oxygen species (·OH, H2O2 and HO2·) in tropospheric aqueous phases. Although the mechanisms involved in ferrioxalate photolysis have been investigated extensively, few kinetic and mechanistic information is available on the aging of dissolved organic compounds by this photochemical system. In this work, the Fe(III)-oxalate mediated photooxidation of guaiacol (GUA), a model for phenolic compounds emitted from biomass burning, was investigated under typical pH conditions of the atmospheric water. The effect of Fe(III) concentration, oxalate concentration and pH on the photooxidation of GUA was studied in detail. Our results revealed that oxalate can inhibit the oxidation of GUA by Fe(III) under the dark condition. However, the iron-catalyzed photooxidation of GUA can be strongly promoted in the presence of oxalate due to the formation of photoactive Fe(III)-oxalate complexes. GUA was rapidly oxidized to form a number of polymeric, functionalized and open-ring products with low volatility. Detailed reaction pathways for the photooxidation of GUA by Fe(III)-oxalate complexes were proposed based on the results of high-resolution mass spectrometry. This work suggests that ferrioxalate photochemistry can play an important role in the transformation of dissolved organics in atmospheric aqueous phases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongwei Pang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Particle Pollution and Prevention, Department of Environmental Science and Engineering , Fudan University , Shanghai 200433 , China
| | - Qi Zhang
- Department of Environmental Toxicology , University of California , Davis , California 95616 , United States
| | - Hongli Wang
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Formation and Prevention of the Urban Air Pollution Complex , Shanghai Academy of Environmental Sciences , Shanghai 200233 , China
| | - Dongmei Cai
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Particle Pollution and Prevention, Department of Environmental Science and Engineering , Fudan University , Shanghai 200433 , China
| | - Yingge Ma
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Formation and Prevention of the Urban Air Pollution Complex , Shanghai Academy of Environmental Sciences , Shanghai 200233 , China
| | - Li Li
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Formation and Prevention of the Urban Air Pollution Complex , Shanghai Academy of Environmental Sciences , Shanghai 200233 , China
| | - Kangning Li
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Particle Pollution and Prevention, Department of Environmental Science and Engineering , Fudan University , Shanghai 200433 , China
| | - Xiaohui Lu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Particle Pollution and Prevention, Department of Environmental Science and Engineering , Fudan University , Shanghai 200433 , China
| | - Hong Chen
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Particle Pollution and Prevention, Department of Environmental Science and Engineering , Fudan University , Shanghai 200433 , China
| | - Xin Yang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Particle Pollution and Prevention, Department of Environmental Science and Engineering , Fudan University , Shanghai 200433 , China
- Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security , Shanghai 200092 , China
| | - Jianmin Chen
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Particle Pollution and Prevention, Department of Environmental Science and Engineering , Fudan University , Shanghai 200433 , China
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14
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Arroyo PC, Malecha KT, Ammann M, Nizkorodov SA. Influence of humidity and iron(iii) on photodegradation of atmospheric secondary organic aerosol particles. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2018; 20:30021-30031. [PMID: 30480278 DOI: 10.1039/c8cp03981j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The absorption of solar actinic radiation by atmospheric secondary organic aerosol (SOA) particles drives condensed-phase photochemical processes, which lead to particle mass loss by the production of CO, CO2, hydrocarbons, and various oxygenated volatile organic compounds (OVOCs). We examined the influence of relative humidity (RH) and Fe(iii) content on the OVOC release and subsequent mass loss from secondary organic aerosol material (SOM) during UV irradiation. The samples were generated in a flow tube reactor from the oxidation of d-limonene by ozone. The SOM was collected with a Micro Orifice Uniform Deposit Impactor (MOUDI) on CaF2 windows. To selected samples, a variable amount of FeCl3 was added before irradiation. The resulting SOM samples, with or without added FeCl3, were irradiated with a 305 nm light-emitting diode and the release of several OVOCs, including acetic acid, acetone, formic acid and acetaldehyde, was measured with a Proton Transfer Reaction Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometer (PTR-ToF-MS). The release of OVOCs from photodegradation of SOM at typical ambient mid-values of RH (30-70%) was 2-4 times higher than under dry conditions. The release of OVOCs was slightly enhanced in the presence of low concentrations of iron (0.04 Fe molar ratio) but it was suppressed at higher concentrations (0.50 Fe molar ratio) of iron indicating the existence of a complicated radical chemistry driving the photodegradation of SOM. Our findings suggest that the presence of iron in atmospheric aerosol particles will either increase or decrease release of OVOCs due to the photodegradation of SOM depending on whether the relative iron concentration is low or high, respectively. At atmospherically relevant RH conditions, the expected fractional mass loss induced by these photochemical processes from limonene SOA particles would be between 2 and 4% of particle mass per hour. Therefore, photodegradation is an important aging mechanism for this type of SOA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Corral Arroyo
- Paul Scherrer Institute, Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry, 5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland
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15
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Chu B, Liggio J, Liu Y, He H, Takekawa H, Li SM, Hao J. Influence of metal-mediated aerosol-phase oxidation on secondary organic aerosol formation from the ozonolysis and OH-oxidation of α-pinene. Sci Rep 2017; 7:40311. [PMID: 28059151 PMCID: PMC5216392 DOI: 10.1038/srep40311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2016] [Accepted: 12/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The organic component is the most abundant fraction of atmospheric submicron particles, while the formation mechanisms of secondary organic aerosol (SOA) are not fully understood. The effects of sulfate seed aerosols on SOA formation were investigated with a series of experiments carried out using a 9 m3 smog chamber. The presence of FeSO4 or Fe2(SO4)3 seed aerosols decreased SOA yields and increased oxidation levels in both ozonolysis and OH-oxidation of α-pinene compared to that in the presence of ZnSO4 or (NH4)2SO4. These findings were explained by metal-mediated aerosol-phase oxidation of organics: reactive radicals were generated on FeSO4 or Fe2(SO4)3 seed aerosols and reacted further with the organic mass. This effect would help to explain the high O/C ratios of organics in ambient particles that thus far cannot be reproduced in laboratory and model studies. In addition, the gap in the SOA yields between experiments with different seed aerosols was more significant in OH-oxidation experiments compared to ozonolysis experiments, while the gap in estimated O/C ratios was less obvious. This may have resulted from the different chemical compositions and oxidation levels of the SOA generated in the two systems, which affect the branching ratio of functionalization and fragmentation during aerosol oxidation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Biwu Chu
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China.,Center for Excellence in Regional Atmospheric Environment, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - John Liggio
- Air Quality Research Division, Environment Canada, Toronto, Ontario M3H5T4, Canada
| | - Yongchun Liu
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China.,Center for Excellence in Regional Atmospheric Environment, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Hong He
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China.,Center for Excellence in Regional Atmospheric Environment, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Hideto Takekawa
- Toyota Central Research and Development Laboratory, Nagakute, Aichi 480-1192, Japan
| | - Shao-Meng Li
- Air Quality Research Division, Environment Canada, Toronto, Ontario M3H5T4, Canada
| | - Jiming Hao
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
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16
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Thomas DA, Coggon MM, Lignell H, Schilling KA, Zhang X, Schwantes RH, Flagan RC, Seinfeld JH, Beauchamp JL. Real-Time Studies of Iron Oxalate-Mediated Oxidation of Glycolaldehyde as a Model for Photochemical Aging of Aqueous Tropospheric Aerosols. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2016; 50:12241-12249. [PMID: 27731989 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b03588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The complexation of iron(III) with oxalic acid in aqueous solution yields a strongly absorbing chromophore that undergoes efficient photodissociation to give iron(II) and the carbon dioxide anion radical. Importantly, iron(III) oxalate complexes absorb near-UV radiation (λ > 350 nm), providing a potentially powerful source of oxidants in aqueous tropospheric chemistry. Although this photochemical system has been studied extensively, the mechanistic details associated with its role in the oxidation of dissolved organic matter within aqueous aerosol remain largely unknown. This study utilizes glycolaldehyde as a model organic species to examine the oxidation pathways and evolution of organic aerosol initiated by the photodissociation of aqueous iron(III) oxalate complexes. Hanging droplets (radius 1 mm) containing iron(III), oxalic acid, glycolaldehyde, and ammonium sulfate (pH ∼3) are exposed to irradiation at 365 nm and sampled at discrete time points utilizing field-induced droplet ionization mass spectrometry (FIDI-MS). Glycolaldehyde is found to undergo rapid oxidation to form glyoxal, glycolic acid, and glyoxylic acid, but the formation of high molecular weight oligomers is not observed. For comparison, particle-phase experiments conducted in a laboratory chamber explore the reactive uptake of gas-phase glycolaldehyde onto aqueous seed aerosol containing iron and oxalic acid. The presence of iron oxalate in seed aerosol is found to inhibit aerosol growth. These results suggest that photodissociation of iron(III) oxalate can lead to the formation of volatile oxidation products in tropospheric aqueous aerosols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel A Thomas
- Arthur Amos Noyes Laboratory of Chemical Physics, California Institute of Technology , Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - Matthew M Coggon
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology , Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - Hanna Lignell
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology , Pasadena, California 91125, United States
- Environmental Science and Engineering, California Institute of Technology , Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - Katherine A Schilling
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology , Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - Xuan Zhang
- Environmental Science and Engineering, California Institute of Technology , Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - Rebecca H Schwantes
- Environmental Science and Engineering, California Institute of Technology , Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - Richard C Flagan
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology , Pasadena, California 91125, United States
- Environmental Science and Engineering, California Institute of Technology , Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - John H Seinfeld
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology , Pasadena, California 91125, United States
- Environmental Science and Engineering, California Institute of Technology , Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - J L Beauchamp
- Arthur Amos Noyes Laboratory of Chemical Physics, California Institute of Technology , Pasadena, California 91125, United States
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17
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Daumit KE, Carrasquillo AJ, Sugrue RA, Kroll JH. Effects of Condensed-Phase Oxidants on Secondary Organic Aerosol Formation. J Phys Chem A 2015; 120:1386-94. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.5b06160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kelly E. Daumit
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 02139, United States
| | - Anthony J. Carrasquillo
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 02139, United States
| | - Rebecca A. Sugrue
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 02139, United States
| | - Jesse H. Kroll
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 02139, United States
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 02139, United States
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18
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Slikboer S, Grandy L, Blair SL, Nizkorodov SA, Smith RW, Al-Abadleh HA. Formation of Light Absorbing Soluble Secondary Organics and Insoluble Polymeric Particles from the Dark Reaction of Catechol and Guaiacol with Fe(III). ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2015; 49:7793-801. [PMID: 26039867 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b01032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Transition metals such as iron are reactive components of environmentally relevant surfaces. Here, dark reaction of Fe(III) with catechol and guaiacol was investigated in an aqueous solution at pH 3 under experimental conditions that mimic reactions in the adsorbed phase of water. Using UV-vis spectroscopy, liquid chromatography, mass spectrometry, elemental analysis, dynamic light scattering, and electron microscopy techniques, we characterized the reactants, intermediates, and products as a function of reaction time. The reactions of Fe(III) with catechol and guaiacol produced significant changes in the optical spectra of the solutions due to the formation of light absorbing secondary organics and colloidal organic particles. The primary steps in the reaction mechanism were shown to include oxidation of catechol and guaiacol to hydroxy- and methoxy-quinones. The particles formed within a few minutes of reaction and grew to micron-size aggregates after half an hour reaction. The mass-normalized absorption coefficients of the particles were comparable to those of strongly absorbing brown carbon compounds produced by biomass burning. These results could account for new pathways that lead to atmospheric secondary organic aerosol formation and abiotic polymer formation on environmental surfaces mediated by transition metals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha Slikboer
- †Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3C5, Canada
| | - Lindsay Grandy
- †Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3C5, Canada
| | - Sandra L Blair
- ‡Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, California 92697, United States
| | - Sergey A Nizkorodov
- ‡Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, California 92697, United States
| | - Richard W Smith
- §University of Waterloo Mass Spectrometry Facility, Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Hind A Al-Abadleh
- †Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3C5, Canada
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19
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Liao J, Froyd KD, Murphy DM, Keutsch FN, Yu G, Wennberg PO, St Clair JM, Crounse JD, Wisthaler A, Mikoviny T, Jimenez JL, Campuzano-Jost P, Day DA, Hu W, Ryerson TB, Pollack IB, Peischl J, Anderson BE, Ziemba LD, Blake DR, Meinardi S, Diskin G. Airborne measurements of organosulfates over the continental U.S. JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH. ATMOSPHERES : JGR 2015; 120:2990-3005. [PMID: 26702368 PMCID: PMC4677836 DOI: 10.1002/2014jd022378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2014] [Revised: 02/25/2015] [Accepted: 02/26/2015] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Organosulfates are important secondary organic aerosol (SOA) components and good tracers for aerosol heterogeneous reactions. However, the knowledge of their spatial distribution, formation conditions, and environmental impact is limited. In this study, we report two organosulfates, an isoprene-derived isoprene epoxydiols (IEPOX) (2,3-epoxy-2-methyl-1,4-butanediol) sulfate and a glycolic acid (GA) sulfate, measured using the NOAA Particle Analysis Laser Mass Spectrometer (PALMS) on board the NASA DC8 aircraft over the continental U.S. during the Deep Convective Clouds and Chemistry Experiment (DC3) and the Studies of Emissions and Atmospheric Composition, Clouds, and Climate Coupling by Regional Surveys (SEAC4RS). During these campaigns, IEPOX sulfate was estimated to account for 1.4% of submicron aerosol mass (or 2.2% of organic aerosol mass) on average near the ground in the southeast U.S., with lower concentrations in the western U.S. (0.2-0.4%) and at high altitudes (<0.2%). Compared to IEPOX sulfate, GA sulfate was more uniformly distributed, accounting for about 0.5% aerosol mass on average, and may be more abundant globally. A number of other organosulfates were detected; none were as abundant as these two. Ambient measurements confirmed that IEPOX sulfate is formed from isoprene oxidation and is a tracer for isoprene SOA formation. The organic precursors of GA sulfate may include glycolic acid and likely have both biogenic and anthropogenic sources. Higher aerosol acidity as measured by PALMS and relative humidity tend to promote IEPOX sulfate formation, and aerosol acidity largely drives in situ GA sulfate formation at high altitudes. This study suggests that the formation of aerosol organosulfates depends not only on the appropriate organic precursors but also on emissions of anthropogenic sulfur dioxide (SO2), which contributes to aerosol acidity. KEY POINTS IEPOX sulfate is an isoprene SOA tracer at acidic and low NO conditions Glycolic acid sulfate may be more abundant than IEPOX sulfate globally SO2 impacts IEPOX sulfate by increasing aerosol acidity and water uptake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Liao
- Chemical Sciences Division, Earth System Research Laboratory, NOAABoulder, Colorado, USA
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, University of Colorado BoulderBoulder, Colorado, USA
| | - Karl D Froyd
- Chemical Sciences Division, Earth System Research Laboratory, NOAABoulder, Colorado, USA
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, University of Colorado BoulderBoulder, Colorado, USA
| | - Daniel M Murphy
- Chemical Sciences Division, Earth System Research Laboratory, NOAABoulder, Colorado, USA
| | - Frank N Keutsch
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin-MadisonMadison, Wisconsin, USA
- Now at Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard UniversityCambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Ge Yu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin-MadisonMadison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Paul O Wennberg
- Division of Geology & Planetary SciencesPasadena, California, USA
- Division of Engineering and Applied SciencePasadena, California, USA
| | - Jason M St Clair
- Division of Geology & Planetary SciencesPasadena, California, USA
| | - John D Crounse
- Division of Geology & Planetary SciencesPasadena, California, USA
| | - Armin Wisthaler
- Institut für Ionenphysik und Angewandte Physik, Leopold-Franzens Universität InnsbruckInnsbruck, Austria
- Now at Department of Chemistry, University of OlsoOslo, Norway
| | - Tomas Mikoviny
- Institut für Ionenphysik und Angewandte Physik, Leopold-Franzens Universität InnsbruckInnsbruck, Austria
- Now at Department of Chemistry, University of OlsoOslo, Norway
| | - Jose L Jimenez
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, University of Colorado BoulderBoulder, Colorado, USA
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Colorado BoulderBoulder, Colorado, USA
| | - Pedro Campuzano-Jost
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, University of Colorado BoulderBoulder, Colorado, USA
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Colorado BoulderBoulder, Colorado, USA
| | - Douglas A Day
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, University of Colorado BoulderBoulder, Colorado, USA
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Colorado BoulderBoulder, Colorado, USA
| | - Weiwei Hu
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, University of Colorado BoulderBoulder, Colorado, USA
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Colorado BoulderBoulder, Colorado, USA
| | - Thomas B Ryerson
- Chemical Sciences Division, Earth System Research Laboratory, NOAABoulder, Colorado, USA
| | - Ilana B Pollack
- Chemical Sciences Division, Earth System Research Laboratory, NOAABoulder, Colorado, USA
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, University of Colorado BoulderBoulder, Colorado, USA
| | - Jeff Peischl
- Chemical Sciences Division, Earth System Research Laboratory, NOAABoulder, Colorado, USA
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, University of Colorado BoulderBoulder, Colorado, USA
| | | | | | - Donald R Blake
- Department of Chemistry, University of CaliforniaIrvine, California, USA
| | - Simone Meinardi
- Department of Chemistry, University of CaliforniaIrvine, California, USA
| | - Glenn Diskin
- NASA Langley Research CenterHampton, Virginia, USA
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20
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Pöschl U, Shiraiwa M. Multiphase chemistry at the atmosphere-biosphere interface influencing climate and public health in the anthropocene. Chem Rev 2015; 115:4440-75. [PMID: 25856774 DOI: 10.1021/cr500487s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 214] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Ulrich Pöschl
- Multiphase Chemistry Department, Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Manabu Shiraiwa
- Multiphase Chemistry Department, Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, 55128 Mainz, Germany
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21
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Hodas N, Sullivan AP, Skog K, Keutsch FN, Collett JL, Decesari S, Facchini MC, Carlton AG, Laaksonen A, Turpin BJ. Aerosol liquid water driven by anthropogenic nitrate: implications for lifetimes of water-soluble organic gases and potential for secondary organic aerosol formation. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2014; 48:11127-36. [PMID: 25191968 DOI: 10.1021/es5025096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Aerosol liquid water (ALW) influences aerosol radiative properties and the partitioning of gas-phase water-soluble organic compounds (WSOCg) to the condensed phase. A recent modeling study drew attention to the anthropogenic nature of ALW in the southeastern United States, where predicted ALW is driven by regional sulfate. Herein, we demonstrate that ALW in the Po Valley, Italy, is also anthropogenic but is driven by locally formed nitrate, illustrating regional differences in the aerosol components responsible for ALW. We present field evidence for the influence of controllable ALW on the lifetimes and atmospheric budgets of reactive organic gases and note the role of ALW in the formation of secondary organic aerosol (SOA). Nitrate is expected to increase in importance due to increased emissions of nitrate precursors, as well as policies aimed at reducing sulfur emissions. We argue that the impacts of increased particulate nitrate in future climate and air quality scenarios may be under predicted because they do not account for the increased potential for SOA formation in nitrate-derived ALW, nor do they account for the impacts of this ALW on reactive gas budgets and gas-phase photochemistry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natasha Hodas
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Rutgers University , New Brunswick, New Jersey 08901, United States
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22
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Wong JPS, Zhou S, Abbatt JPD. Changes in Secondary Organic Aerosol Composition and Mass due to Photolysis: Relative Humidity Dependence. J Phys Chem A 2014; 119:4309-16. [DOI: 10.1021/jp506898c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Shouming Zhou
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
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23
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Rossignol S, Aregahegn KZ, Tinel L, Fine L, Nozière B, George C. Glyoxal induced atmospheric photosensitized chemistry leading to organic aerosol growth. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2014; 48:3218-27. [PMID: 24555477 DOI: 10.1021/es405581g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, it has been proposed that gas phase glyoxal could significantly contribute to ambient organic aerosol (OA) mass through multiphase chemistry. Of particular interest is the reaction between glyoxal and ammonium cations producing light-absorbing compounds such as imidazole derivatives. It was recently shown that imidazole-2-carboxaldehyde (IC) can act as a photosensitizer, initiating aerosol growth in the presence of gaseous volatile organic compounds. Given the potential importance of this new photosensitized growth pathway for ambient OA, the related reaction mechanism was investigated at a molecular level. Bulk and flow tube experiments were performed to identify major products of the reaction of limonene with the triplet state of IC by direct (±)ESI-HRMS and UPLC/(±)HESI-HRMS analysis. Detection of recombination products of IC with limonene or with itself, in bulk and flow tube experiments, showed that IC is able to initiate a radical chemistry in the aerosol phase under realistic irradiation conditions. Furthermore, highly oxygenated limonene reaction products were detected, clearly explaining the observed OA growth. The chemistry of peroxy radicals derived from limonene upon addition of oxygen explains the formation of such low-volatile compounds without any traditional gas phase oxidant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stéphanie Rossignol
- Université de Lyon , Université Lyon 1, Lyon, F-69626, France and CNRS, UMR5256, IRCELYON, Institut de Recherches sur la Catalyse et l'Environnement de Lyon , Villeurbanne, F-69626, France
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24
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Lignell H, Epstein SA, Marvin MR, Shemesh D, Gerber B, Nizkorodov S. Experimental and Theoretical Study of Aqueous cis-Pinonic Acid Photolysis. J Phys Chem A 2013; 117:12930-45. [DOI: 10.1021/jp4093018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Lignell
- Department
of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, California 92697-2025, United States
- Laboratory of Physical Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, FIN-00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Scott A. Epstein
- Department
of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, California 92697-2025, United States
| | - Margaret R. Marvin
- Department
of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, California 92697-2025, United States
| | - Dorit Shemesh
- Institute of Chemistry and The Fritz Haber Research Center, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem 91904, Israel
| | - Benny Gerber
- Department
of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, California 92697-2025, United States
- Laboratory of Physical Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, FIN-00014 Helsinki, Finland
- Institute of Chemistry and The Fritz Haber Research Center, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem 91904, Israel
| | - Sergey Nizkorodov
- Department
of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, California 92697-2025, United States
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