Bioaccessibility of As, Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Sb in toys and low-cost jewelry

Direct solid sample analysis of low-cost jewelry using spectroanalytical techniques: exploratory chemical data evaluation and metal migration with synthetic sweat

Humans have used jewelry for a long time. Initially, this habit had religious purposes for individual protection, then it became a compliment accessory to noble appearance until its popularization with production using cheaper and potentially toxic chemical elements. Therefore, the health of people of low social status has been compromised in such a way that a big part of the metals present in these accessories are potentially toxic. In this regard, with the proposition of legislation limiting these elements' concentrations, several analytical techniques have been used to study their determinations; laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) direct analysis of solids has been highlighted in the past years due to many advantages in several areas. In this study, LIBS and energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (ED-XRF) were implemented in low-cost jewelry analyses. Then, an exploratory data analysis was carried out using chemometric tools. Finally, the migration of these elements to synthetic sweat was studied to verify its contact with human organisms, and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP OES) was employed for the determination of Al, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sb, Sn, and Zn.

Prenatal and childhood lead exposure is prospectively associated with biological markers of aging in adolescence

Few studies have related early life lead exposure to adolescent biological aging, a period characterized by marked increases in maturational tempo. We examined associations between prenatal and childhood lead exposure and adolescent biological age (mean 14.5 years) utilizing multiple epigenetic clocks including: intrinsic (IEAA), extrinsic (EEAA), Horvath, Hannum, PhenoAge, GrimAge, Skin-Blood, Wu, PedBE, as well as DNA methylation derived telomere length (DNAmTL). Epigenetic clocks and DNAmTL were calculated via adolescent blood DNA methylation measured by Infinium MethylationEPIC BeadChips. We constructed general linear models (GLMs) with individual lead measures predicting biological age. We additionally examined sex-stratified models and lead by sex interactions, adjusting for adolescent age and lead levels, maternal smoking and education, and proportion of cell types. We also estimated effects of lead exposure on biological age using generalized estimating equations (GEE). First trimester blood lead was positively associated with a 0.14 increase in EEAA age in the GLMs though not the GEE models (95%CI 0.03, 0.25). First and 2nd trimester blood lead levels were associated with a 0.02 year increase in PedBE age in GLM and GEE models (1st trimester, 95%CI 0.004, 0.03; 2nd trimester, 95%CI 0.01, 0.03). Third trimester and 24 month blood lead levels were associated with a -0.06 and -0.05 decrease in Skin-Blood age, respectively, in GLM models. Additionally, 3rd trimester blood lead levels were associated with a 0.08 year decrease in Hannum age in GLM and GEE models (95%CI -0.15, -0.01). There were multiple significant results in sex-stratified models and significant lead by sex interactions, where males experienced accelerated biological age, compared to females who saw a decelerated biological age, with respect to IEAA, EEAA, Horvath, Hannum, and PedBE clocks. Further research is needed to understand sex-specific relationships between lead exposure and measures of biological aging in adolescence and the trajectory of biological aging into young adulthood.

An investigation into the present levels of contamination in children's toys and jewelry in different countries: a systematic review

Contamination by heavy metals and toxic elements in children's toys and jewelry is an ongoing challenge in different countries. These contaminants can enter the children's body via oral, dermal, and respiratory routes, leading to adverse health effects. This study aimed to investigate the present levels of contamination in children's toys and jewelry in 15 countries, including UK, Saudi Arabia, Cambodia, China, Kosovo, Nigeria, North American, Kazakhstan, UAE, Pakistan, Iraq, Israel, West Bank/Palestine, Czech Republic, and Turkey. In this review, the legislation and recommendation of the United States (U.S.), the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), Turkish Standards Institute (TSE), Canada, and the European Union (E.U.) on toxic elements in toys and jewelry are introduced. Plastic or metallic toys and children's jewelry still have the most severe toxic elements pollution and the existence of lead (Pb), nickel (Ni), cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), mercury (Hg), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), selenium (Se), barium (Ba), Zinc (Zn), cobalt (Co), manganese (Mn), bisphenol A, phthalates, parabens, azo dyes, and flame retardants has been regarded as an ongoing challenge in these articles. Finally, this review offers benchmarking of the concentrations of toxic elements in all types of children's toys and jewelry in different nations.

Changes in oral bioaccessibility of heavy metals in non-digestive sucking habits due to the formation of complexes between digestive fluid components and metals/metalloids

Humans, especially infants, are exposed to harmful substances through various means, including non-nutritive sucking behaviors. Here, we compared the "one-compartment model" and the "three-compartment model" within the "suck model" to assess the oral bioaccessibility of heavy metals in various products and evaluated whether these models can be employed to assess 12 heavy metals present in consumer products. Several certified reference materials, including plastic, paint, glass, and metals, were employed to ensure sample homogeneity. By comparing the two models, we validated that a considerable amount of complexes were formed between saliva components and the extracted heavy metals and that some of these complexes dissociated during reactions with the gastric/intestinal fluids. Furthermore, we observed that in the cases of Cu and Pb, additional complexes were formed as a result of reactions with gastric/intestinal fluids. We measured the total concentrations of the extracted heavy metals using artificial saliva through acid digestion and found that up to 99.7% of the heavy metals participated in the formation of complexes, depending on the characteristics of the sample (e.g., composition) and the target element. This result indicates that the current suck model may notably underestimate the oral bioaccessibility of heavy metals in products associated with sucking behaviors. Therefore, we propose a more conservative and simpler test method for assessing oral bioaccessibility of heavy metals that involves measuring the total concentrations of heavy metals extracted from consumer products using artificial saliva. By doing so, we can account for potential variations in the digestive milieu (e.g., due to ingested food) and the inconsistency in complex formation-dissociation characteristics.

Metal(loid) speciation in dermal bioaccessibility extracts from contaminated soils and permeation through synthetic skin

Dermal exposure to metal(loid)s from contaminated soils can contribute to health risk. Metal(loid) speciation will influence their bioaccessibility in sweat and subsequent permeation across the skin. Therefore, the speciation of the bioaccessible fraction of metal(loid)s in two synthetic sweat formulations (sweat A (pH 6.5) and B (pH 4.7)) was assessed using chemical equilibrium modelling (Visual MINTEQ). Permeation through synthetic skin and the influence of sebum in the permeation of As, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn were also investigated using Franz cells. Following dermal bioaccessibility tests for five Chromated Copper Arsenate (CCA)-contaminated soils and one certified soil (SQC001), mean metal(loid) bioaccessibility (%) was higher in sweat B (2.33-18.8) compared to sweat A (0.12-7.53). Arsenic was almost entirely found as As(V) in both sweats. In sweat A, comparable concentrations of Cr(III) and Cr(VI) were found whereas in sweat B, Cr was primarily present as Cr(III). Copper was primarily found as Cu2+. Bioaccessible Cr extracted from nearly all soils permeated through the Strat-M membrane when it was coated with sebum. The Cr permeation coefficient (Kp) ranged between 0.004 and 0.13 cm/h and the Kp for Cu was higher (0.024-0.52 cm/h). As, Ni, Pb, and Zn did not permeate the synthetic skin.

Environmental assessment in fine jewelry in the U.S.-Mexico's Paso del Norte region: A qualitative study via X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy

Heavy metal contamination in raw materials has spread widely in the United States. The high increased number of recalls in consumer products and the lack of stricter regulations in the raw materials to be used in the jewelry industry have raised concerns among consumers. Studies in low-cost jewelry have shown the presence and high content of heavy metals; this environmental problem led to a child's death after swallowing a charm containing elevated levels of lead (Pb). Exposure to heavy metals, through inhalation, mouth, and skin contact, causes adverse health effects in children and adults. Exposure to lead affects mainly the nervous system and brain development; exposure to cadmium (Cd) causes damage to liver, kidneys, and lungs, and potentially leads to cancer; exposure to nickel (Ni) causes severe dermatitis. Thus, the importance and impact of studies of this nature cannot be overstated. As heavy metal contamination has increased in the United States, this research fills an important knowledge gap between previous studies conducted on low-cost jewelry and fine jewelry. In this study, conducted in the Paso del Norte region, one hundred and forty-three pieces of fine jewelry were evaluated for the presence of heavy metals using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy. Our study showed that 61 samples (42.7 %) exhibited the presence of Ni in the metal alloy, prevailing in jewelry pieces with lower percentage of gold. Eighteen samples showed the presence of Pb in gemstones, 11 pieces of these samples (7.7 % total) had <33.3 % gold (≤10 K); however, none of the samples showed the presence of Pb in the metal alloy. Further research is needed to evaluate the bioaccessibility of Pb in these gemstones, which may pose a potential health hazard to children and adults in the US Paso del Norte region and throughout the world.

Occurrence and health implications of heavy metals in preschool children's clothing manufactured in four Asian regions

Clothing may be a potential contributor to body metal burden in children. However, available information on heavy metals in children's clothing is extremely limited and the associated health risks remain poorly understood. This study investigated the concentrations of Pb, Cd, Co, Zn, Cr, As, Cu and Ni in new preschool children's clothing manufactured in four Asian regions. The children's clothing had higher levels of Ni and Cr but lower levels of Pb and Cd in comparison to the concentrations reported in other textile products. The concentrations of Cd were higher in the black clothing than those in the white and color samples. The non-cotton samples contained higher Co concentrations. The Pb concentrations in the samples manufactured in China were significantly higher than those in the other three regions. We estimated the dermal exposure doses for these metals and calculated the associated risks. The results indicated that the health risks from exposure to these metals in the children's clothing were acceptable. However, more research is required to investigate heavy metals and the associated risks in child clothing due to the increasing complexity of their materials and manufacturing processes.

Contamination of potentially toxic metals in children's toys marketed in Iran

Chemical exposure of heavy metals in children is of particular concern. However, using heavy metal-contaminated toys can threaten the life and well-being of children. Therefore, quality control of toys for avoiding children exposure to potentially toxic metals is important. The investigation of potentially toxic metals (arsenic, barium, antimony, cadmium, chromium, mercury, lead, selenium) in toys was performed in present study. A total number of 150 popular cheap priced plastic toy samples were purchased from the eight metropolitan and most visited provinces in Iran and analyzed by atomic absorption spectrophotometer for arsenic, barium, antimony cadmium, chromium, mercury, lead, and selenium. As results showed As, Ba, Cd, Cr, Hg, Pb, Sb, and Se respectively were in the range of 0-0.9 mg/kg, 0.3-5 mg/kg, 0-3.1 mg/kg, 0.04-4.8 mg/kg, 0-0.03 mg/kg, 0.22-11.7 mg/kg, 0-1.2 mg/kg, and 0.03-1.1 mg/kg. Cadmium was higher than the European standard in Kurdistan province. The highest amount of mercury was also observed in Tehran. The highest amount of lead, selenium, and antimony was detected in Qom province. The results showed that all the toxic elements in the collected toys were within the permissible limit. Furthermore, market monitoring is needed to control toys safety on a large scale in metropolitan cities like Qom province.

Contamination by hazardous elements in low-priced children's plastic toys bought on the local markets of Karachi, Pakistan

Children's plastic toys may contain toxic metals to which infants and young children can be orally exposed and may pose acute or chronic adverse health effects. This research aims to evaluate the total metal concentrations (TMCs) of Pb, Cd, Cr, Ni, Zn, Cu, and Mn in children's plastic toys bought in the local markets of Karachi, Pakistan, and compare TMCs to different toy safety regulatory limits. A total of 44 children's plastic toys sourced in the Karachi local markets were analyzed by an atomic absorption spectrophotometer for contamination of hazardous elements. Toy samples were divided into two groups: plastic toys (DCT) and plastic toys with paints or coatings (DPCT). For plastic toys, 83% (19) of samples had TMCs that exceeded European Union (EU) toy safety regulation limits for Pb, and 65% (15) of samples that exceeded for Cd. For plastic toys with paints or coating, 43% (9) of samples had TMCs that exceeded EU migration limits for Pb and 24% (5) for Cd. More than 20 samples exceeded the United States Consumer Product Safety Commission (US CPSC), Canadian, and Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) toy safety regulation limits. In toy samples (n = 44), very high TMCs of Pb (64%), Cd (45%), Cr (5%), and Ni (2%) were observed. Zn, Cu, and Mn TMCs existed but were below the regulation limits. The contamination levels of Pb, Cd, Cr, and Ni and smaller extent of Zn, Cu, and Mn still pose health issues in children and may cause serious problems in their health.

Health repercussions of environmental exposure to lead: Methylation perspective

Lead (Pb) exposure has been a major public health concern for a long time now due to its permanent adverse effects on the human body. The process of lead toxicity has still not been fully understood, but recent advances in Omics technology have enabled researchers to evaluate lead-mediated alterations at the epigenome-wide level. DNA methylation is one of the widely studied and well-understood epigenetic modifications. Pb has demonstrated its ability to induce not just acute deleterious health consequences but also alters the epi-genome such that the disease manifestation happens much later in life as supported by Barkers Hypothesis of the developmental origin of health and diseases. Furthermore, these alterations are passed on to the next generation. Based on previous in-vivo, in-vitro, and human studies, this review provides an insight into the role of Pb in the development of several human disorders.

Buyer beware: Inexpensive, high cadmium jewelry can pose severe health risks

The use of cadmium to produce inexpensive jewelry has recently been documented. Governments have adopted varying standards, with US states focused on either total cadmium content or extractable cadmium from children's jewelry, while the European Union has adopted a limit of 100 mg/kg cadmium for all jewelry. This study evaluated 80 items purchased at a discount jewelry store. The objective was to determine prevalence of cadmium in this jewelry, the amount of cadmium released by simulated mouthing or ingestion, and to confirm previous reports that damage to jewelry can increase cadmium release. Finally, a modified toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP) assessed the potential for jewelry to release cadmium after disposal. Thirty-two (40%) items showed detectable cadmium by X-ray fluorescence. Nine high‑cadmium pendants and rings with cadmium content ranging from 31.3 to 89.2% were subjected to extractions simulating mouthing or ingestion. Seven of nine items extracted in dilute saline to simulate mouthing released more than the US recommended maximum of 18 micrograms. Damaged jewelry released more cadmium for most items tested, with one ring yielding an average of 10,600 micrograms. Two pendants small enough to be swallowed were tested using dilute HCl to simulate ingestion. While one pendant did not release cadmium in excess of the US recommended maximum of 200 micrograms even when damaged, the other released an average of 63,100 micrograms after being damaged. Fourteen of fifteen samples of two high cadmium charms extracted using a modified TCLP extraction exceeded the 1.0 mg/L TCLP limit for cadmium, averaging 13.1 and 9.6 mg/L respectively for the two charms. These results demonstrate that high‑cadmium jewelry may pose a serious hazard if mouthed or ingested, and that regulatory standards that do not take into account the potential for increased release of cadmium resulting from damage to jewelry electroplating are inadequate.

Preliminary Study of Heavy Metals in Low-Cost Jewelry Items Available in Nigerian Markets

BACKGROUND

Many developing countries either lack or have weakly enforced regulations on imported goods. A high percentage of low-cost jewelry items in Nigeria are imported from abroad. There is concern about the levels of heavy metals present in these products.

OBJECTIVES

The present study examined the levels of lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr) and nickel (Ni) in inexpensive jewelry purchased from retail wholesale shops in Ibadan metropolis, southwestern Nigeria.

METHODS

One hundred (100) assorted jewelry items were digested in dilute nitric acid solution followed by atomic absorption spectrophotometric analysis.

RESULTS

Out of the total number of jewelry items analyzed, 12% of them had Pb concentrations above European Union (EU) safety limits. Also, 63%, 42% and 62% of items had Cd, Cr and Ni average concentrations above their EU limits. Notably, 3%, 27% and 8% of the items had Pb, Cd and Cr concentrations over 10³ times above their EU limits Overall, Cd showed the highest average level in rings (256,952 mg/kg) followed by bracelets (60,627 mg/kg) and earrings (54,388 mg/kg). All metals in solid bangles were within their EU guidelines.

CONCLUSIONS

Given the significant deleterious impacts of these metals on human health, low-cost jewelry poses a serious potential threat to users' health. Policies to guarantee the safety of low-cost jewelry items must be established and enforced.

COMPETING INTERESTS

The authors declare no competing financial interests.

Potentially toxic elements in toys and children's jewelry: A critical review of recent advances in legislation and in scientific research

Contamination by potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in children's toys and jewelry is an ongoing problem where PTEs can become bioavailable especially via oral pathway (ingestion as a whole or of parts, and mouthing) and may cause adverse health effects for children. In the present review, legislation updates from the last decade in the United States (U.S.), Canada, and the European Union (E.U.) on PTEs in toys and jewelry are presented. Then, a literature review mostly covering the last decade on the total concentration, bioavailability, children's exposure, and bioaccessibility of PTEs in toys and jewelry is provided. The U.S. and Canadian legislations mainly focus on lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) total/soluble concentration limits to prevent exposure and have received several updates within the last decade, extending particularly the covered span of children's products. It seems that the introduction, subsequent enforcement, and update of regulations in developed countries have shifted the problem towards developing countries. In terms of categories, metallic toys and children's jewelry still have the most severe PTE contamination and the presence of Pb and Cd in these articles is an ongoing issue. Some studies suggest that color can be used as an indicator for the potential presence of PTEs (linked to chemicals such as lead chromate, cadmium sulfide) but the evidence is not always clear. Another concern is vintage/second-hand toys and jewelry as those items might have been produced before the legislation was present. As total and bioaccessible concentrations of PTEs in toys and jewelry do not always correlate, approaches considering bioaccessibility (e.g. of the E.U.) are more scientifically appropriate and help with better estimation of risk from exposure. Studies on toy and jewelry contamination using in vitro bioaccessibility techniques has become more common, however, there is still no in vitro test specifically designed and validated for toys and jewelry.

Contamination by eleven harmful elements in children's jewelry and toys from Central Asian market

Contamination by potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in children's toys and jewelry is an ongoing problem, and there is evidence in the literature that the issue is shifting towards developing countries and small markets. The present research aims (1) to characterize total concentrations of eleven PTEs (As, Ba, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, Se, and Zn) in children's jewelry and toys purchased from the Central Asian market (n = 65), and (2) to investigate the relationship between the extent of contamination and sample categories/properties. The laboratory analyses showed that the majority of the samples had PTEs above the total and soluble limits for PTEs stated in the USA, Canadian, and the EU legislation. Particularly for metallic toys and jewelry (n = 46), the total concentrations in 45 samples exceeded the EU migration limits for one or more PTEs. In particular, Cu and Zn concentrations were extremely high (up to 100%) in many samples and highly toxic Cd and Pb were present in elevated quantities in several articles. Contamination was also present, albeit to a much lesser extent, in other toy categories: brittle/pliable toys for Co and Cr, plastic toys and jewelry for Pb, and other toys for Co. Although average values and visual observations suggested evidence, no statistically significant relationship between PTE concentrations and sample properties (color, price, and degree of appeal) could be found. The findings supported the evidence that the contamination issue in children's jewelry and toys by PTEs is an ongoing issue in developing countries. Very high total concentrations of PTEs particularly found in several metallic samples warrant further investigation of migratable concentrations. Thus, conducting bioaccessibility tests and a subsequent human health risk characterization is recommended. Overall, there is a potential risk for children in the case of exposure to PTEs from children's jewelry and toys sold on the Central Asian market. More effective enforcement of legislation for consumer goods in the region and raising public awareness regarding chemicals in children's products are recommended.

Cadmium pigments in consumer products and their health risks

Cadmium is a toxic heavy metal that has been increasingly regulated over the past few decades. The main exposure routes for the general public are the consumption of certain foods and the inhalation of cigarette smoke. However, additional exposure may occur through the current and historical use of the metal in consumer products. In this paper, the uses of Cd in consumer goods are reviewed, with the focus on brightly-coloured Cd sulphide and sulphoselenide pigments, and measurements of Cd in historical and contemporary products ascertained by XRF are reported. Cadmium is encountered across a wide range of contemporary plastic products, mainly because of the unregulated recycling of electronic waste and polyvinyl chloride. However, concentrations are generally low (<100 μg g^-1), conforming with current limits and posing minimal risk to consumers. Of greater concern is high concentrations of pigmented Cd (up to 2% by weight) in old products, and in particular children's toys that remain in circulation. Here, tests conducted suggest that Cd migration in some products exceeds the Toy Safety Directive limit of 17 μg g^-1 by an order of magnitude. The principal current use of Cd pigments is in ceramic products where the metal is encapsulated and overglazed. Leaching tests on new and secondhand items of hollowware indicate compliance with respect to the current Cd limit of 300 μg L^-1, but that non-compliance could occur for items of earthenware or damaged articles should a proposed limit of 5 μg L^-1 be introduced. The greatest consumer risk identified is the use of Cd pigments in the enamels of decorated drinking glasses. Thus, while décor is restricted to the exterior, any enamel within the lip area is subject to ready attack from acidic beverages because the pigments are neither encapsulated nor overglazed. Glass bottles decorated with Cd-based enamel do not appear to represent a direct health hazard but have the propensity to contaminate recycled glass products. It is recommended that decorated glassware is better regulated and that old, brightly-coloured toys are treated cautiously.

Analysis of Hazardous Elements in Children Toys: Multi-Elemental Determination by Chromatography and Spectrometry Methods

This paper presents the results of determination of hazardous metal (Cd, Cu, Cr, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn) and metalloid (As, Sb) levels in toys available in the Polish market. Two independent sample preparation methods were used to determine the concentration and content of the metals and metalloids. The first one is defined by the guidelines of the EN-71 standard and undertook extraction in 0.07 mol/L HCl. This method was used to conduct speciation analysis of Cr(III) and Cr(VI), as well as for the determination of selected metals and metalloids. The second method conducted mineralization in a HNO₃ and H₂O₂ mixture using microwave energy to determine the content of metals and metalloids. Determination of chromium forms was made using the high-performance liquid chromatography inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (HPLC-ICP-MS) method, while those of metals and metalloids were made using the ICP-MS technique. Additionally, in order to determine total content of chromium in toys, an energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometer (EDX) was used. The results of the analyses showed that Cr(VI) was not detected in the toys. In general, the content of heavy metals and metalloids in the studied samples was below the migration limit set by the norm EN-71.

Metals in paints on chopsticks: Solubilization in simulated saliva, gastric, and food solutions and implication for human health

Paints are often used on chopsticks, however, a paucity of studies has assessed metals in the paints and the associated health risk. In this study, total Pb, Cd, Cr, Co, and Ni concentrations in paints were assessed for 72 wood and 29 stainless steel chopsticks with different colors while metal solubilization from paints in simulated saliva, 0.07 M HCl, and 1% citric acid solutions was measured for 9 samples having total Pb > 90 mg kg^-1, representing exposure scenarios of mouthing, incidental paint ingestion, and metal migration in food. Results showed that Pb (0.12-500,000 mg kg^-1), Cd (0.002-120,000 mg kg^-1), Cr (2.2-8400 mg kg^-1), Co (0.004-2600 mg kg^-1), and Ni (0.10-150,000 mg kg^-1) concentrations varied considerably among paint samples. Most samples showed low metal concentrations, however, high metal concentrations were observed in red and green paints on stainless steel chopsticks, while paints on wood chopsticks showed lower metal concentrations. Estimation of daily metal intakes incorporating metal solubilization data in saliva, 0.07 M HCl, and 1% citric acid solutions suggested that the health risk via saliva contact was negligible, while unacceptable health risk was observed for Pb and Cd via their solubilization in 0.07 M HCl and 1% citric acid solutions from paints with high Pb and Cd concentrations. To avoid Pb and Cd exposure, use of metal-based paints on chopsticks should be banned, particularly in countries where food is regularly consumed with chopsticks.

The environmental impact of informal and home productive arrangement in the jewelry and fashion jewelry chain on sanitary sewer system

The outsourcing informal home practices adopted in jewelry and fashion jewelry chain can cause toxic substance elimination in the effluents and raise a concern for its environmental impact. This study evaluates if this informal work alters the concentration of potentially toxic elements (PTEs: As, Cd, Cr total and Cr-VI, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, Sn, and Zn) in the sewage network. The sanitary sewage samples (n = 540) were collected in 15 manholes during two campaigns in three different areas of Limeira-SP, Brazil (industrial area, with informal work and without known industrial/informal activity). The sewage sludge (n = 12), raw (n = 12), and treated sewage (n = 12) were collected in two wastewater treatment plants (WWT: AS and TATU) operating with different treatment process. The PTE determination was performed by ICP-OES, direct mercury analysis, and UV-Vis spectroscopy. Cr-VI, Cu, Ni, and Zn were the only elements above the quantification limit. Four samples exceeded Cu or Zn values permitted to be discharged into sewage system; however, the concentration average was lower than that established by Brazilian legislation. A difference was found between values above and below the 75th percentile for campaign and total organic carbon values (p < 0.015). The AS-treated sewage presented low concentrations of Cu (p < 0.05), Zn (p = 0.02), and Ni (p = 0.01) compared to treated sewage from TATU. In the sludge samples, the Cu means exceeded the limits of the Brazilian legislation (1500 mg kg^-1) and the Zn results were very close to the limits (2800 mg kg^-1). The heterogeneity of the results can indicate the sporadic nature of the PTE's sanitary disposal. PTEs used in jewelry and fashion jewelry chain may precipitate on the sludge, where presented high concentrations of Cu and Zn which require controlled destination.

Regulation of chemicals in children's products: How U.S. and EU regulation impacts small markets

Toys and children's products may contain trace metals and organic compounds that are potentially harmful to the health and development of infants and young children. Intergovernmental organizations and individual countries regulate chemicals in consumer products, but a coordinated international approach is lacking. This paper examines the implications of chemical regulation in children's products in large markets for a smaller market, namely Israel. We compared chemical regulations in children's products in the U.S., EU and Israel, and conducted in-depth interviews with diverse stakeholders in the Israeli product standardization process. Israel adopted EU chemical standards for certain chemicals (e.g., trace metals, phthalates) but not others (e.g., bisphenol A, flame retardants, trace metals in children's jewelry). Israeli regulation of chemicals in consumer products relies on regulations in large markets such as the U.S. and EU, which therefore have impacts beyond their territories. However, Israel adopts only product-specific standards and has regulatory gaps due to the lack of an overarching regulatory approach that exists in the U.S. and the EU. Furthermore, Israeli policy is to adopt parallel standards from large markets in order to remove trade barriers, despite their different approaches to chemical regulation, an approach which prioritizes trade considerations over health considerations. We conclude with policy recommendations for Israel, which have relevance for other small markets.

Investigating the relationship between lead speciation and bioaccessibility of mining impacted soils and dusts

Lead (Pb) bioaccessibility measurements have been the subject of much research in recent years, given the desire to develop a cost-effective and reliable alternative method to estimate its bioavailability from soils and dusts. This study investigates the relationship between Pb bioaccessibility estimated using the Relative Bioavailability Leaching Procedure (RBALP) and solid phase speciation of Pb using mining impacted soils and associated dusts. Solid phase speciation was conducted prior to and after RBALP extractions. The average Pb concentrations were 59, 67, and 385 mg/kg for top soil, sub-soil, and house dust samples, respectively. Lead bioaccessibility in selected top soils and dusts ranged from 16.7 to 57.3% and 8.9 to 98.1%, respectively. Solid phase speciation of Pb in <250 μm residues prior to and after RBALP extraction revealed 83% decrease in Pb bound to carbonate fraction after RBALP extraction. This accounts for 69% of RBALP-extractable Pb. Besides contribution from carbonate bound Pb, 76.6 and 53.2% of Pb bound to Mn oxyhydroxides and amorphous Fe and Al oxyhydroxides contributed to bioaccessible Pb, respectively. However, Pb bound to Mn oxyhydroxides and amorphous Fe and Al oxyhydroxides account for only 13.8 and 20.0% of total RBALP-extractable Pb, respectively. Both non-specifically bound and easily exchangeable fractions and strongly bound inner-sphere complexes were also part of bioaccessible Pb. The present study demonstrates that bioaccessible Pb is released from both soil solution phase Pb as well as that from all soil solid phase with the most contribution being from Pb bound to carbonate mineral phase.

Decreased vaccine antibody titers following exposure to multiple metals and metalloids in e-waste-exposed preschool children

We explored acquired immunity resulting from vaccination in 3 to 7-year-old children, chronically exposed to multiple heavy metals and metalloids, in an e-waste recycling area (Guiyu, China). Child blood levels of ten heavy metals and metalloids, including lead (Pb), arsenic (As), mercury (Hg), chromium (Cr), cadmium (Cd), manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn) and selenium (Se), and seven vaccine antibodies (diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus, hepatitis B, Japanese encephalitis, polio, measles) were measured. The exposed group had higher levels of blood Pb, Mn, Cu, Zn and Cr compared to the reference group (P < 0.05). Levels of all vaccine antibodies in the exposed group were significantly lower than in the reference group (P < 0.01). All vaccine antibodies negatively correlated with blood concentrations of Cu, Zn and Pb, based on spearman rank correlation analysis. Multiple logistic regression and univariate analyses identified the location of residence (Guiyu), high blood Pb (>10 μg/dL) and high blood Cu and Zn (upper median value of each group) to be inversely associated with seven antibody titers. Antibody titers increased with age, BMI, high blood Mn (>15 μg/L), and high blood Cd and Ni (upper median value of each group). Results suggest multiple heavy metal and metalloid exposure, especially to Pb, Zn and Cu, may be a risk factor inhibiting the development of child immunity, resulting in decreased child antibody levels against vaccines.

Children's exposure to harmful elements in toys and low-cost jewelry: characterizing risks and developing a comprehensive approach

Contamination problem in jewelry and toys and children's exposure possibility have been previously demonstrated. For this study, risk from oral exposure has been characterized for highly contaminated metallic toys and jewelry ((MJ), n=16) considering three scenarios. Total and bioaccessible concentrations of Cd, Cu, Ni, and Pb were high in selected MJ. First scenario (ingestion of parts or pieces) caused unacceptable risk for eight items for Cd, Ni, and/or Pb (hazard index (HI)>1, up to 75, 5.8, and 43, respectively). HI for ingestion of scraped-off material scenario was always <1. Finally, saliva mobilization scenario caused HI>1 in three samples (two for Cd, one for Ni). Risk characterization identified different potentially hazardous items compared to United States, Canadian, and European Union approaches. A comprehensive approach was also developed to deal with complexity and drawbacks caused by various toy/jewelry definitions, test methods, exposure scenarios, and elements considered in different regulatory approaches. It includes bioaccessible limits for eight priority elements (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, and Sb). Research is recommended on metals bioaccessibility determination in toys/jewelry, in vitro bioaccessibility test development, estimation of material ingestion rates and frequency, presence of hexavalent Cr and organic Sn, and assessment of prolonged exposure to MJ.