Enhanced water purification: a single atom makes a difference

Molecular insight into DOM fate using EEM-PARAFAC and FT-ICR MS and concomitant heavy metal behaviors in biologically treated landfill leachate during coagulation: Al speciation dependence

Various combined processes with pre-coagulation have been developed for biologically treated landfill leachate, but the microscopic-level processes occurring during coagulation remain largely unknown. Herein, dissolved organic matter (DOM) fate using fluorescence excitation emission matrix spectroscopy combined with parallel factor analysis and electrospray ionization coupled Fourier transform-ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry and concomitant heavy metal (HM) behaviors were explored at the molecular level. In addition, AlCl3 and two polyaluminum chloride (PACl) species (dominated by [AlO4Al12(OH)24(H2O)12]7+ and [(AlO4)2Al28(OH)56(H2O)26]18+, respectively) were used. The results show that all coagulants are efficient at removing DOM. PACl was found to be advantageous over AlCl3 in overcoming pH fluctuation, which is ascribed to the different dominant mechanisms, namely, entrapment and sweep flocculation for AlCl3 and charge neutralization for PACl. Consequently, PACl was more effective at removing humic substances, usually high-molecular-weight, oxygen-rich and unsaturated, than protein substances. For HM removal, PACl was likewise better and more stable, where As, Cu, Ni, Co and Hg were removed predominantly via adsorption, and Cr, Zn, Pb, Cd and Mn were removed via coprecipitation. Correlation analysis showed that humic substances tended to complex with HMs and be removed synergistically due to the ubiquitous occurrences of aromatic structures and oxygen-containing functional groups.

Polyoxocationic antimony oxide cluster with acidic protons

The success and continued expansion of research on metal-oxo clusters owe largely to their structural richness and wide range of functions. However, while most of them known to date are negatively charged polyoxometalates, there is only a handful of cationic ones, much less functional ones. Here, we show an all-inorganic hydroxyiodide [H_10.7Sb_32.1O₄₄][H_2.1Sb_2.1I₈O₆][Sb_0.76I₆]₂·25H₂O (HSbOI), forming a face-centered cubic structure with cationic Sb₃₂O₄₄ clusters and two types of anionic clusters in its interstitial spaces. Although it is submicrometer in size, electron diffraction tomography of HSbOI allowed the construction of the initial structural model, followed by powder Rietveld refinement to reach the final structure. The cationic cluster is characterized by the presence of acidic protons on its surface due to substantial Sb³⁺ deficiencies, which enables HSbOI to serve as an excellent solid acid catalyst. These results open up a frontier for the exploration and functionalization of cationic metal-oxo clusters containing heavy main group elements.

Formation of Nanoscale [Ge4 O16 Al48 (OH)108 (H2 O)24 ]20+ from Condensation of ϵ-GeAl12 8+ Keggin Polycations*

Keggin-type polyaluminum cations belong to a unique class of compounds with their large positive charge, hydroxo bridges, and divergent isomerization/oligomerization. Previous reports indicated that oligomerization of this species can only occur through one isomer (δ), but herein we report the isolation of largest Keggin-type cluster that occurs through self-condensation of four ϵ-isomers ϵ-GeAl₁₂ ⁸⁺ to form [Ge₄ O₁₆ Al₄₈ (OH)₁₀₈ (H₂ O)₂₄ ]²⁰⁺ cluster (Ge₄ Al₄₈ ). The cluster was crystallized and structurally characterized by single-crystal X-ray diffraction (SCXRD) and the elemental composition was confirmed by ICP-MS and SEM-EDS. Additional dynamic light scattering experiments confirms the presence of the Ge₄ Al₄₈ in thermally aged solutions. DFT calculations reveal that a single atom Ge substitution in tetrahedral site of ϵ-isomer is the key for the formation of Ge₄ Al₄₈ because it activates deprotonation at key surface sites that control the self-condensation process.

The identification of Al nanoclusters by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS)

Lacking consolidated qualitative and quantitative analysis methods of Al nanoclusters in aqueous, the distributions and concentrations of each Al species could not be revealed with single method before or after coagulation, which limited the development of environmental Al clusters control. As the ESI-MS applied in the inorganic cluster's identification tentatively, the deficient identification of Al species could be analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively with mass spectrum directly. Although many studies have applied the ESI-MS to analyze Al species in aqueous, the experimental conditions were not compared and not reached an agreement. Therefore, this work is the first study to review the methodology developments of ESI-MS in Al identification and to summarize the qualitative and quantitative analysis promoted by ESI-MS. The principle and rationality of quantitative ESI-MS method were inducted and discussed from the prospects of resolving mass spectrum assignment and transforming species in ionization. The qualitative ESI-MS results in previous studies were also analyzed by quantitative ESI-MS analysis in this work. The quantitative Al species results are accordant with the distribution results concluded via Al-Ferron and ²⁷Al NMR methods. The identification principles and instrumental parameters were summarized and unified, which would give hints to further methodological applications and modifications. This study puts forward the further possibilities and prospects of ESI-MS applied in the transformation and in-situ identification of Al₁₃ nanocluster in aqueous.

Ga3+ Incorporation into Al13 Keggin Polyoxometalates and the Formation of δ-(GaAl12)7+ and (Ga2.5Al28.5)19+ Polycations

Keggin-type polyaluminum species (ε-Al₁₃, δ-Al₁₃, Al₂₆, Al₃₀, Al₃₂) can form upon partial hydrolysis of Al³⁺-bearing solutions and are important species for water purification and contaminant transport. While the structural features for the major Al³⁺ polyaluminum species have been delineated, much less is known regarding heteroatom substitution and resultant structures other than the previously identified ε-GaAl₁₂⁷⁺ and ε-GeAl₁₂⁸⁺ cations. Single-atom substitution within polyaluminum species can change the surface reactivity within water treatment scenarios; thus, it is important to understand heteroatom incorporation within this system. The present work describes the synthesis and characterization of two novel Ga³⁺-substituted Keggin-type polyaluminum species. Na[GaO₄Al₁₂(OH)₂₄(H₂O)₁₂](2,6-NDS)₄(H₂O)_20.5 (δ-GaAl₁₂) and [Ga₂O₈Al_28.5Ga_0.5(OH)₅₈(H₂O)₂₇(SO₄)₂](SO₄)₄Cl₇(H₂O)_8.5 (Ga_2.5Al_28.5) were crystallized from a thermally aged, partially hydrolyzed Ga³⁺/Al³⁺ solution. Structural refinement from single-crystal X-ray diffraction indicated fully occupied Ga³⁺ within tetrahedral site(s) of both isolated species. Partial substitution was observed for octahedral sites for the larger Ga_2.5Al_28.5 cluster. The chemical compositions of both clusters were confirmed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Density functional theory (DFT) calculations corroborated the structural refinement, with the energetics of Ga³⁺ substitution suggesting preferential substitution within tetrahedral sites for both species. Additional theoretical work suggests that the rotated trimer in δ-GaAl₁₂ is highly reactive, which can serve as the driving force in the formation of the Ga_2.5Al_28.5 cluster.

Valorization of alum sludge via a pyrolysis platform using CO2 as reactive gas medium

In an effort to seek a new technical platform for disposal of drinking water treatment sludge (DWTS: alum sludge), pyrolysis of DWTS was mainly investigated in this study. To establish a more sustainable thermolytic platform for DWTS, this study particularly employed CO₂ as reactive gas medium. Thus, this study laid great emphasis on elucidating the mechanistic roles of CO₂ during the thermolysis of DWTS. A series of the TGA tests of DWTS in CO₂ in reference to N₂ revealed no occurrence of the heterogeneous reaction between CO₂ and the sample surface of DWTS. As such, at the temperature regime before initiating the Boudouard reaction (i.e., ≥700 °C), the mass decay patterns of DWTS in N₂ and CO₂ were nearly identical. However, the gaseous effluents from lab-scale pyrolysis of DWTS in CO₂ in reference to N₂ were different. In sum, the homogeneous reactions between CO₂ and volatile matters (VMs) evolved from the thermolysis of DWTS led to the enhanced generation of CO. Also, CO₂ suppressed dehydrogenation of VMs. Such the genuine mechanistic roles of CO₂ in the thermolysis of DWTS subsequently led to the compositional modifications of the chemical species in pyrolytic oil. Furthermore, the biochar composite was obtained as byproduct of pyrolysis of DWTS. Considering that the high content of Al₂O₃ and Fe-species in the biochar composite imparts a strong affinity for As(V), the practical use of the biochar composite as a sorptive material for arsenic (V) was evaluated at the fundamental levels. This work reported that adsorption of As(V) onto the biochar composite followed the pseudo-second order model and the Freundlich isotherm model.

Peroxide-Promoted Disassembly Reassembly of Zr-Polyoxocations

Zr/Hf aqueous-acid clusters are relevant to inorganic nanolithography, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), catalysis, and nuclear fuel reprocessing, but only two topologies have been identified. The (Zr₄) polyoxocation is the ubiquitous square aqueous Zr/Hf-oxysalt of all halides (except fluoride), and prior-debated for perchlorate. Simply adding peroxide to a Zr oxyperchlorate solution leads to a striking modification of Zr₄, yielding two structures identified by single-crystal X-ray diffraction. Zr₂₅, isolated from a reaction solution of 1:1 peroxide/Zr, is fully formulated [Zr₂₅O₁₀(OH)₅₀(O₂)₅(H₂O)₄₀](ClO₄)₁₀·xH₂O. Zr₂₅ is a pentagonal assembly of 25 Zr-oxy/peroxo/hydroxyl polyhedra and is the largest Zr/Hf cluster topology identified to date. Yet it is completely soluble in common organic solvents. ZrT_d, an oxo-centered tetrahedron fully formulated [Zr₄(OH)₄(μ-O₂)₂(μ₄-O)(H₂O)₁₂](ClO₄)₆·xH₂O, is isolated from a 10:1 peroxide/Zr reaction solution. The formation pathways of ZrT_d and Zr₂₅ in water were described by small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), pair distribution function (PDF), and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS). Zr₄ undergoes disassembly by 1 equiv of peroxide (per Zr) to yield small oligomers of Zr₂₅ that assemble predominantly in the solid state, an unusual crystal growth mechanism. The self-buffering acidity of the Zr-center prevents Zr₂₅ from remaining intact in water. Identical species distribution and cluster fragments are observed in the assembly of Zr₂₅ and upon redissolution of Zr₂₅. On the other hand, the 10:1 peroxide/Zr ratio of the ZrT_d reaction solution yields larger prenucleation clusters before undergoing peroxide-promote disassembly into smaller fragments. Neither these larger cluster intermediates of ZrT_d nor the smaller intermediates of Zr₂₅ have yet been isolated and structurally characterized, and they represent an opportunity to expand this new class of group IV polycations, obtained by peroxide reactivity and ligation.

A highly selective aggregation-induced emission fluorogen for sensitive detection of Al3+ in living cells

A Schiff's base derivative was synthesized using a condensation reaction between 8-formyl-7-hydroxy-4-methylcoumarin and furan-2-carbohydrazide that produced marked aggregation-induced emission and had excellent ability to specifically recognize aluminium ions (Al³⁺ ). This compound displayed faint fluorescence in the benign solvent dimethyl formamide, and exhibited obvious green fluorescence following addition of specific amounts of water. Moreover, it exhibited strong blue fluorescence after combination with Al³⁺ even in the presence of other interfering ions. These experimental results demonstrated that this derivative could be used as a fluorescence probe for Al³⁺ . The advantages, including significant fluorescence change, high selectivity and sensitivity, and fast response, meant that this probe could be used both to detect Al³⁺ in water samples and for fluorescence imaging in living cells.

Group additivity-Pourbaix diagrams advocate thermodynamically stable nanoscale clusters in aqueous environments

The characterization of water-based corrosion, geochemical, environmental and catalytic processes rely on the accurate depiction of stable phases in a water environment. The process is aided by Pourbaix diagrams, which map the equilibrium solid and solution phases under varying conditions of pH and electrochemical potential. Recently, metastable or possibly stable nanometric aqueous clusters have been proposed as intermediate species in non-classical nucleation processes. Herein, we describe a Group Additivity approach to obtain Pourbaix diagrams with full consideration of multimeric cluster speciation from computations. Comparisons with existing titration results from experiments yield excellent agreement. Applying this Group Additivity-Pourbaix approach to Group 13 elements, we arrive at a quantitative evaluation of cluster stability, as a function of pH and concentration, and present compelling support for not only metastable but also thermodynamically stable multimeric clusters in aqueous solutions.

Aggregation and Dissociation of Aqueous Al13 Induced by Fluoride Substitution

The ε-Keggin ion AlO₄Al₁₂(OH)₂₄(H₂O)₁₂⁷⁺ (ε-K Al₁₃⁷⁺) is a double-edged sword, because it commonly acts as a toxic component toward aquatic organisms, but also is considered to be an effective coagulant. Gaining deep insight into the transformation of ε-K Al₁₃⁷⁺ in the presence of coexisting ligands would have significant implications for water environmental science, as well as for practical water purification. The aggregation and dissociation of aqueous Al₁₃⁷⁺ induced by fluoride (F^-) substitution were herein investigated using nuclear magnetic resonance, electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry, and theoretical calculations. The F^- substitution on η-OH₂ sites was extremely fast, reducing the charge of ε-K Al₁₃⁷⁺ so that the repulsive force between fluorinated Al₁₃ species was immediately reduced. Consequently, fluorinated Al₁₃ aggregated, with the formula [Al₁₃F₅]²⁺, which was demonstrated by calculating the Gibbs free energy changes (Δ_rG) of the substitution reactions involved. Moreover, the replacement of η-OH₂ with F^- weakened the strength of Al-OH^a/b bonds and thus prompted the replacement of μ-OH^a/b with F^-. In addition, fluorination prompted [Al₁₃F₅]²⁺ to dissociate to oligomers.

Synthesis of an Aluminum Hydroxide Octamer through a Simple Dissolution Method

Multimeric oxo-hydroxo Al clusters function as models for common mineral structures and reactions. Cluster research, however, is often slowed by a lack of methods to prepare clusters in pure form and in large amounts. Herein, we report a facile synthesis of the little known cluster Al₈ (OH)₁₄ (H₂ O)₁₈ (SO₄ )₅ (Al₈ ) through a simple dissolution method. We confirm its structure by single-crystal X-ray diffraction and show by ²⁷ Al NMR spectroscopy, electrospray-ionization mass spectrometry, and small- and wide-angle X-ray scattering that it also exists in solution. We speculate that Al₈ may form in natural water systems through the dissolution of aluminum-containing minerals in acidic sulfate solutions, such as those that could result from acid rain or mine drainage. Additionally, the dissolution method produces a discrete Al cluster on a scale suitable for studies and applications in materials science.

Characterization of Al30 in commercial poly-aluminum chlorohydrate by solid-state (27)Al NMR spectroscopy

Investigation of commercially produced hydrolysis salts of aluminum by solid-state (27)Al NMR spectroscopy and size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) reveals well-defined and distinct Al environments that can be related to physicochemical properties. (27)Al MAS and MQ-MAS NMR spectroscopic data show that the local structure of the solids is dominated by moieties that closely resemble the Al30 polyoxocation (Al30O8(OH)56(H2O)26(18+)), accounting for 72-85% of the total Al. These Al30-like clusters elute as several size fractions by SEC. Comparison of the SEC and NMR results indicates that the Al30-like clusters includes intact isolated clusters, moieties of larger polymers or aggregates, and possibly fragments resembling δ-Al13 Keggin clusters. The coagulation efficacy of the solids appears to correlate best with the abundance of intact Al30-like clusters and of smaller species available to promote condensation reactions.

Coagulation/flocculation process with polyaluminum chloride for the remediation of oil sands process-affected water: Performance and mechanism study

This study investigated the application of polyaluminum chloride (PACl) for the treatment of the oil sands process-affected water (OSPW). These coagulants are commonly used in water treatment with the most effective species reported to be Al13. PACl with 83.6% Al13 was synthesized using the slow base titration method and compared with a commercially available PACl in terms of aluminum species distribution, coagulation/flocculation (CF) performance, floc morphology, and contaminant removal. Both coagulants were effective in removing suspended solids, achieving over 96% turbidity removal at all applied coagulant doses (0.5-3.0 mM Al). The removal efficiencies of metals varied among different metals depending on their pKa values with metal cations having pKa values (Fe, Al, Ga, and Ti) below OSPW pH of 6.9-8.1 (dose dependent) being removed by more than 90%, while cations with higher pKa values (K, Na, Ca, Mg and Ni) had removals of less than 40%. Naphthenic acids were not removed due to their low molecular weights, negative charges, and hydrophilic characteristics at the OSPW pH. At the highest applied coagulant dose of 3.0 mM Al, the synthetic PACl reduced Vibrio fischeri inhibition effect to 43.3 ± 3.0% from 49.5 ± 0.4% in raw OSPW. In contrast, no reduction of toxicity was found for OSPW treated with the commercial PACl. Based on water quality and floc analyses, the dominant CF mechanism for particle removal during OSPW treatment was considered to be enmeshment in the precipitates (i.e., sweep flocculation). Overall, the CF using synthesized PACl can be a valuable pretreatment process for OSPW to create wastewater that is more easily treated by downstream processes.

Electrospray ionization time-of-flight mass spectrum analysis method of polyaluminum chloride flocculants

Electrospray mass spectrometry has been reported as a novel technique for Al species identification, but to date, the working mechanism is not clear and no unanimous method exists for spectrum analysis of traditional Al salt flocculants, let alone for analysis of polyaluminum chloride (PAC) flocculants. Therefore, this paper introduces a novel theoretical calculation method to identify Al species from a mass spectrum, based on deducing changes in m/z (mass-to-charge ratio) and molecular formulas of oligomers in five typical PAC flocculants. The use of reference chemical species was specially proposed in the method to guarantee the uniqueness of the assigned species. The charge and mass reduction of the Al cluster was found to proceed by hydrolysis, gasification, and change of hydroxyl on the oxy bridge. The novel method was validated both qualitatively and quantitatively by comparing the results to those obtained with the (27)Al NMR spectrometry.

Contaminant adsorption on nanoscale particles: structural and theoretical characterization of Cu2+ bonding on the surface of Keggin-type polyaluminum (Al30) molecular species

The adsorption of contaminants onto metal oxide surfaces with nanoscale Keggin-type structural topologies has been well established, but identification of the reactive sites and the exact binding mechanism are lacking. Polyaluminum species can be utilized as geochemical model compounds to provide molecular level details of the adsorption process. An Al30 Keggin-type species with two surface-bound Cu(2+) cations (Cu2Al30-S) has been crystallized in the presence of disulfonate anions and structurally characterized by single-crystal X-ray diffraction. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations of aqueous molecular analogues for Cu2Al30-S suggest that the reactivity of Al30 toward Cu(2+) and SO4(2-) shows opposite trends in preferred adsorption site as a function of particle topology, with anions preferring the beltway and cations preferring the caps. The bonding competition was modeled using two stepwise reaction schemes that consider Cu2Al30-S formation through initial Cu(2+) or SO4(2-) adsorption. The associated DFT energetics and charge density analyses suggest that strong electrostatic interactions between SO4(2-) and the beltway of Al30 play a vital role in governing where Cu(2+) binds. The calculated electrostatic potential of Al30 provides a theoretical interpretation of the topology-dependent reactivity that is consistent with the present study as well as other results in the literature.

Photocatalytic degradation of bacteriophages evidenced by atomic force microscopy

Methods to supply fresh water are becoming increasingly critical as the world population continues to grow. Small-diameter hazardous microbes such as viruses (20-100 nm diameter) can be filtered by size exclusion, but in this approach the filters are fouled. Thus, in our research, we are investigating an approach in which filters will be reusable. When exposed to ultraviolet (UV) illumination, titanate materials photocatalytically evolve (•)OH and O2(•-) radicals, which attack biological materials. In the proposed approach, titanate nanosheets are deposited on a substrate. Viruses adsorb on these nanosheets and degrade when exposed to UV light. Using atomic force microscopy (AFM), we image adsorbed viruses and demonstrate that they are removed by UV illumination in the presence of the nanosheets, but not in their absence.

Energetics of Al₁₃ Keggin cluster compounds

The ε-Al(13) Keggin aluminum hydroxide clusters are essential models in establishing molecular pathways for geochemical reactions. Enthalpies of formation are reported for two salts of aluminum centered ε-Keggin clusters, Al(13) selenate, (Na(AlO(4))Al(12)(OH)(24)(SeO(4))(4)•12H(2)O) and Al(13) sulfate, (NaAlO(4)Al(12)(OH)(24)(SO(4))(4)•12H(2)O). The measured enthalpies of solution, ΔH(sol), at 28 °C in 5 N HCl for the ε-Al(13) selenate and sulfate are -924.57 (± 3.83) and -944.30 ( ± 5.66) kJ·mol(-1), respectively. The enthalpies of formation from the elements, ΔH(f,el), for Al(13) selenate and sulfate are -19,656.35 ( ± 67.30) kJ·mol(-1), and -20,892.39 ( ± 70.01) kJ·mol(-1), respectively. In addition, ΔH(f,el) for sodium selenate decahydrate was calculated using data from high temperature oxide melt solution calorimetry measurements: -4,006.39 ( ± 11.91) kJ·mol(-1). The formation of both ε-Al(13) Keggin cluster compounds is exothermic from oxide-based components but energetically unfavorable with respect to a gibbsite-based assemblage. To understand the relative affinity of the ε-Keggin clusters for selenate and sulfate, the enthalpy associated with two S-Se exchange reactions was calculated. In the solid state, selenium is favored in the Al(13) compound relative to the binary chalcogenate, while in 5 N HCl, sulfur is energetically favored in the cluster compound compared to the aqueous solution. This contribution represents the first thermodynamic study of ε-Al(13) cluster compounds and establishes a method for other such molecules, including the substituted versions that have been created for kinetic studies. Underscoring the importance of ε-Al(13) clusters in natural and anthropogenic systems, these data provide conclusive thermodynamic evidence that the Al(13) Keggin cluster is a crucial intermediate species in the formation pathway from aqueous aluminum monomers to aluminum hydroxide precipitates.

Density functional theory study on aqueous aluminum-fluoride complexes: exploration of the intrinsic relationship between water-exchange rate constants and structural parameters for monomer aluminum complexes

Density functional theory (DFT) calculation is carried out to investigate the structures, (19)F and (27)Al NMR chemical shifts of aqueous Al-F complexes and their water-exchange reactions. The following investigations are performed in this paper: (1) the microscopic properties of typical aqueous Al-F complexes are obtained at the level of B3LYP/6-311+G**. Al-OH(2) bond lengths increase with F(-) replacing inner-sphere H(2)O progressively, indicating labilizing effect of F(-) ligand. The Al-OH(2) distance trans to fluoride is longer than other Al-OH(2) distance, accounting for trans effect of F(-) ligand. (19)F and (27)Al NMR chemical shifts are calculated using GIAO method at the HF/6-311+G** level relative to F(H(2)O)(6)(-) and Al(H(2)O)(6)(3+) references, respectively. The results are consistent with available experimental values; (2) the dissociative (D) activated mechanism is observed by modeling water-exchange reaction for [Al(H(2)O)(6-i)F(i)]((3-i)+) (i = 1-4). The activation energy barriers are found to decrease with increasing F(-) substitution, which is in line with experimental rate constants (k(ex)). The log k(ex) of AlF(3)(H(2)O)(3)(0) and AlF(4)(H(2)O)(2)(-) are predicted by three ways. The results indicate that the correlation between log k(ex) and Al-O bond length as well as the given transmission coefficient allows experimental rate constants to be predicted, whereas the correlation between log k(ex) and activation free energy is poor; (3) the environmental significance of this work is elucidated by the extension toward three fields, that is, polyaluminum system, monomer Al-organic system and other metal ions system with high charge-to-radius ratio.

Estimation of norovirus removal performance in a coagulation-rapid sand filtration process by using recombinant norovirus VLPs

Norovirus (NV) is an important human pathogen that causes epidemic acute nonbacterial gastroenteritis worldwide. Because of the lack of a cell culture system or an animal model for this virus, studies of drinking water treatment such as separation and disinfection processes are still hampered. We successfully estimated NV removal performance during a coagulation-rapid sand filtration process by using recombinant NV virus-like particles (rNV-VLPs) morphologically and antigenically similar to native NV. The behaviors of two widely accepted surrogates for pathogenic waterborne viruses, bacteriophages Qbeta and MS2, were also investigated for comparison with that of rNV-VLPs. Approximately 3-log(10) removals were observed for rNV-VLPs with a dose of 40 muM-Al or -Fe, as polyaluminum chloride at pH 6.8 or ferric chloride at pH 5.8, respectively. Smaller removal ratios were obtained with alum and ferric chloride at pH 6.8. The removal performance for MS2 was somewhat larger than that for rNV-VLPs, meaning that MS2 is not recommended as an appropriate surrogate for native NV. By comparison, the removal performance for Qbeta was similar to, or smaller than, that for rNV-VLPs. However, the removal performances for rNV-VLPs and Qbeta differed between the coagulation process and the following rapid sand filtration process. Therefore, Qbeta also is not recommended as an appropriate surrogate for native NV.