Where water is oxidized to dioxygen: structure of the photosynthetic Mn4Ca cluster from X-ray spectroscopy

Structure Function Studies of Photosystem II Using X-Ray Free Electron Lasers

The structure and mechanism of the water-oxidation chemistry that occurs in photosystem II have been subjects of great interest. The advent of X-ray free electron lasers allowed the determination of structures of the stable intermediate states and of steps in the transitions between these intermediate states, bringing a new perspective to this field. The room-temperature structures collected as the photosynthetic water oxidation reaction proceeds in real time have provided important novel insights into the structural changes and the mechanism of the water oxidation reaction. The time-resolved measurements have also given us a view of how this reaction-which involves multielectron, multiproton processes-is facilitated by the interaction of the ligands and the protein residues in the oxygen-evolving complex. These structures have also provided a picture of the dynamics occurring in the channels within photosystem II that are involved in the transport of the substrate water to the catalytic center and protons to the bulk.

Ionizing Radiation: Effective Physical Agents for Economic Crop Seed Priming and the Underlying Physiological Mechanisms

To overcome various factors that limit crop production and to meet the growing demand for food by the increasing world population. Seed priming technology has been proposed, and it is considered to be a promising strategy for agricultural sciences and food technology. This technology helps to curtail the germination time, increase the seed vigor, improve the seedling establishment, and enhance the stress tolerance, all of which are conducive to improving the crop yield. Meanwhile, it can be used to reduce seed infection for better physiological or phytosanitary quality. Compared to conventional methods, such as the use of water or chemical-based agents, X-rays, gamma rays, electron beams, proton beams, and heavy ion beams have emerged as promising physics strategies for seed priming as they are time-saving, more effective, environmentally friendly, and there is a greater certainty for yield improvement. Ionizing radiation (IR) has certain biological advantages over other seed priming methods since it generates charged ions while penetrating through the target organisms, and it has enough energy to cause biological effects. However, before the wide utilization of ionizing priming methods in agriculture, extensive research is needed to explore their effects on seed priming and to focus on the underlying mechanism of them. Overall, this review aims to highlight the current understanding of ionizing priming methods and their applicability for promoting agroecological resilience and meeting the challenges of food crises nowadays.

Binding of the substrate analog methanol in the oxygen-evolving complex of photosystem II in the D1-N87A genetic variant of cyanobacteria

The solar water-splitting protein complex, photosystem II (PSII), catalyzes one of the most energetically demanding reactions in nature by using light energy to drive a catalyst capable of oxidizing water. The water oxidation reaction is catalyzed at the Mn₄Ca-oxo cluster in the oxygen-evolving complex (OEC), which cycles through five light-driven S-state intermediates (S₀-S₄). A detailed mechanism of the reaction remains elusive as it requires knowledge of the delivery and binding of substrate water in the higher S-state intermediates. In this study, we use two-dimensional (2D) hyperfine sublevel correlation spectroscopy, in conjunction with quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) and density functional theory (DFT), to probe the binding of the substrate analog, methanol, in the S₂ state of the D1-N87A variant of PSII from Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. The results indicate that the size and specificity of the "narrow" channel is altered in D1-N87A PSII, allowing for the binding of deprotonated ¹³C-labeled methanol at the Mn4(IV) ion of the catalytic cluster in the S₂ state. This has important implications on the mechanistic models for water oxidation in PSII.

When x-rays alter the course of your experiments

The continuing increase in the brilliance of synchrotron radiation beamlines allows for many new and exciting experiments that were impossible before the present generation of synchrotron radiation sources came on line. However, the exposure to such intense beams also tests the limits of what samples can endure. Whilst the effects of radiation induced damage in a static experiment often can easily be recognized by changes in the diffraction or spectroscopy curves, the influence of radiation on chemical or physical processes, where one expects curves to change, is less often recognized and can be misinterpreted as a 'real' result instead of as a 'radiation influenced result'. This is especially a concern in time-resolved materials science experiments using techniques as powder diffraction, small angle scattering and x-ray absorption spectroscopy. Here, the effects of radiation (5-50 keV) on some time-resolved processes in different types of materials and in different physical states are discussed. We show that such effects are not limited to soft matter and biology but rather can be found across the whole spectrum of materials research, over a large range of radiation doses and is not limited to very high brilliance beamlines.

Development of functionality of metal complexes based on proton-coupled electron transfer

Proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET) is ubiquitous and fundamental in many kinds of redox reactions. In this paper, are described PCET reactions in metal complexes to highlight their useful and unique properties and functionalities.

Photochemical oxidation of water catalysed by cyclometalated Ir(iii) complexes bearing Schiff-base ligands

Synthesis, characterization and photochemical oxidation of water catalysed by cyclometalated Ir(iii) complexes bearing Schiff-base ligands in the presence of Na₂S₂O₈ and [Ru(bpy)₃]²⁺ as a PS has been demonstrated.

Model of the Oxygen Evolving Complex Which Is Highly Predisposed to O-O Bond Formation

Light-driven water oxidation is a fundamental reaction in the biosphere. The Mn₄Ca cluster of photosystem II cycles through five redox states termed S₀-S₄, after which oxygen is evolved. Critically, the timing of O-O bond formation within the Kok cycle remains unknown. By combining recent crystallographic, spectroscopic, and DFT results, we demonstrate an atomistic S₃ state model with the possibility of a low barrier to O-O bond formation prior to the final oxidation step. Furthermore, the associated one electron oxidized S₄ state does not provide more advantages in terms of spin alignment or the energy of O-O bond formation. We propose that a high energy peroxide isoform of the S₃ state can preferentially be oxidized by Tyr _z^ox in the course of final electron transfer leading to O₂ evolution. Such a mechanism may explain the peculiar kinetic behavior of O₂ evolution as well as serve as an evolutionary adaptation to avoid release of the harmful peroxides.

Structural Dynamics of the Oxygen-Evolving Complex of Photosystem II in Water-Splitting Action

Oxygenic photosynthesis in nature occurs via water splitting catalyzed by the oxygen-evolving complex (OEC) of photosystem II. To split water, the OEC cycles through a sequence of oxidation states (S _i, i = 0-4), the structural mechanism of which is not fully understood under physiological conditions. We monitored the OEC in visible-light-driven water-splitting action by using in situ, aqueous-environment surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS). In the unexplored low-frequency region of SERS, we found dynamic vibrational signatures of water binding and splitting. Specific snapshots in the dynamic SERS correspond to intermediate states in the catalytic cycle, as determined by density functional theory and isotopologue comparisons. We assign the previously ambiguous protonation configuration of the S₀-S₃ states and propose a structural mechanism of the OEC's catalytic cycle. The findings address unresolved questions about photosynthetic water splitting and introduce spatially resolved, low-frequency SERS as a chemically sensitive tool for interrogating homogeneous catalysis in operando.

Optimizing Crystal Size of Photosystem II by Macroseeding: Toward Neutron Protein Crystallography

Photosystem II (PSII) catalyzes the photo-oxidation of water to molecular oxygen and protons. The water splitting reaction occurs inside the oxygen-evolving complex (OEC) via a Mn₄CaO₅ cluster. To elucidate the reaction mechanism, detailed structural information for each intermediate state of the OEC is required. Despite the current high-resolution crystal structure of PSII at 1.85 Å and other efforts to follow the structural changes of the Mn₄CaO₅ cluster using X-ray free electron laser (XFEL) crystallography in addition to spectroscopic methods, many details about the reaction mechanism and conformational changes in the catalytic site during water oxidation still remain elusive. In this study, we present a rarely found successful application of the conventional macroseeding method to a large membrane protein like the dimeric PSII core complex (dPSIIcc). Combining microseeding with macroseeding crystallization techniques allowed us to reproducibly grow large dPSIIcc crystals with a size of ~3 mm. These large crystals will help improve the data collected from spectroscopic methods like polarized extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) and single crystal electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) techniques and are a prerequisite for determining a three-dimensional structure using neutron diffraction.

Electrocatalytic Water Oxidation by a Homogeneous Copper Catalyst Disfavors Single-Site Mechanisms

Deployment of solar fuels derived from water requires robust oxygen-evolving catalysts made from earth abundant materials. Copper has recently received much attention in this regard. Mechanistic parallels between Cu and single-site Ru/Ir/Mn water oxidation catalysts, including intermediacy of terminal Cu oxo/oxyl species, are prevalent in the literature; however, intermediacy of late transition metal oxo species would be remarkable given the high d-electron count would fill antibonding orbitals, making these species high in energy. This may suggest alternate pathways are at work in copper-based water oxidation. This report characterizes a dinuclear copper water oxidation catalyst, {[(L)Cu(II)]₂-(μ-OH)₂}(OTf)₂ (L = Me₂TMPA = bis((6-methyl-2-pyridyl)methyl)(2-pyridylmethyl)amine) in which water oxidation proceeds with high Faradaic efficiency (>90%) and moderate rates (33 s^-1 at ∼1 V overpotential, pH 12.5). A large kinetic isotope effect (k_H/k_D = 20) suggests proton coupled electron transfer in the initial oxidation as the rate-determining step. This species partially dissociates in aqueous solution at pH 12.5 to generate a mononuclear {[(L)Cu(II)(OH)]}⁺ adduct (K_eq = 0.0041). Calculations that reproduce the experimental findings reveal that oxidation of either the mononuclear or dinuclear species results in a common dinuclear intermediate, {[LCu(III)]₂-(μ-O)₂}²⁺, which avoids formation of terminal Cu(IV)═O/Cu(III)-O^• intermediates. Calculations further reveal that both intermolecular water nucleophilic attack and redox isomerization of {[LCu(III)]₂-(μ-O)₂}²⁺ are energetically accessible pathways for O-O bond formation. The consequences of these findings are discussed in relation to differences in water oxidation pathways between Cu catalysts and catalysts based on Ru, Ir, and Mn.

Theoretical study of the EPR spectrum of the S3TyrZ• metalloradical intermediate state of the O2-evolving complex of photosystem II

The intermediates trapped during the transitions between the consecutive S-states of the oxygen-evolving complex (OEC) of photosystem II (PSII) contain the free radical TyrZ^• interacting magnetically with the Mn-cluster (Mn₄Ca). In this paper, we present a theoretical study of the EPR spectrum of the S₃TyrZ^• metalloradical intermediate state, which has been recently detected in MeOH-containing PSII preparations. For this analysis, we use two different approximations: the first, simpler one, is the point-dipole approach, where the two interacting spins are the S = 1/2 of TyrZ^• and the ground spin state of S = 3 of the OEC being in the S₃ state. The second approximation is based on previous proposals indicating that the ground spin state (S _G = 3) of the S₃ state arises from an antiferromagnetic exchange coupling between the S = 9/2 of the Mn(IV)₃CaO₄ and the S = 3/2 of the external Mn(IV) of the OEC. Under the above assumption, the second approximation involves three interacting spins, denoted S _A(Mn(IV)₃Ca) = 9/2, S _B(Mn(IV)) = 3/2 and S _C(TyrZ^•) = 1/2. Accordingly, the tyrosine radical is exposed to dipolar interactions with both fragments of the OEC, while an antiferromagnetic exchange coupling within the "3 + 1" structural motif of the OEC is also considered. By application of the first-point-dipole approach, the inter-spin distance that simulates the experimental spectrum is not consistent with the theoretical models that were recently reported for the OEC in the S₃ state. Instead, the recent models are consistent with the results of the analysis that is performed by using the second, more detailed, approach.

Homogeneous Cobalt/Vanadium Complexes as Precursors for Functionalized Mixed Oxides in Visible-Light-Driven Water Oxidation

The heterometallic complexes (NH₄ )₂ [Co(H₂ O)₆ ]₂ [V₁₀ O₂₈ ]⋅4 H₂ O (1) and (NH₄ )₂ [Co(H₂ O)₅ (β-HAla)]₂ [V₁₀ O₂₈ ]⋅4 H₂ O (2) have been synthesized and used for the preparation of mixed oxides as catalysts for water oxidation. Thermal decomposition of 1 and 2 at relatively low temperatures (<500 °C) leads to the formation of the solid mixed oxides CoV₂ O₆ /V₂ O₅ (3) and Co₂ V₂ O₇ /V₂ O₅ (4). The complexes (1, 2) and heterogeneous materials (3, 4) act as catalysts for photoinduced water oxidation. A modification of the thermal decomposition procedure allowed the deposition of mixed metal oxides (MMO) on a mesoporous TiO₂ film. The electrodes containing Co/V MMOs in TiO₂ films were used for electrocatalytic water oxidation and showed good stability and sustained anodic currents of about 5 mA cm^-2 at 1.72 V versus relative hydrogen electrode (RHE). This method of functionalizing TiO₂ films with MMOs at relatively low temperatures (<500 °C) can be used to produce other oxides with different functionality for applications in, for example, artificial photosynthesis.

Characteristics and reactivity of ruthenium–oxo complexes

In this perspective, we have surveyed the synthetic procedure, characteristics, and reactivity of high-valent ruthenium–oxo complexes.

A computational study of the mechanism for water oxidation by (bpc)(bpy)Ru(II)OH2

A mechanistic study on the catalytic cycle water oxidation with 1 [(bpc)(bpy)RuIIOH2]+ (Hbpc = 2,2′-bipyridine-6-carboxylic acid, bpy = 2,2′-bipyridine) is described in this paper. Stepwise oxidation via proton-coupled electron transfer gives 3 [(bpc)(bpy)RuIVO]+. An active 4 [(bpc)(bpy)RuVO]2+, which is involved in the OO bond formation is generated from further 1e− oxidation of 3. Another different possible reaction at 4 was investigated and new destructive paths involving overoxidation of the metal were identified. The most viable path for OO bond formation via a water nucleophilic attack at the oxo of 4 is found to be the rate-determining step in this water oxidation catalytic cycle, and the hydro-peroxo 6 [(bpc)(bpy)RuIIIOOH]+ is generated accompanied with a proton transfer. The super-oxo 7side-on [(bpc)(bpy)RuIVOO]+ and 8side-on [(bpc)(bpy)RuVOO]2+, both low spin species, are generated by further oxidations of 6. Through an intersystem crossing they can transform to their high spin states, 9end-on [(bpc)(bpy)RuIVOO]+ and 12end-on [(bpc)(bpy)RuVOO]2+, respectively. Following a dissociative pathway O2 is readily generated from both 9end-on and 12end-on.

Where does the water go? A computational study on the reactivity of a ruthenium(V) oxo complex (bpc)(bpy)Ru(V)O

Two possible reactive sites (the oxo site and the Ru site) for water on a high-valent ruthenium(V) oxo complex were examined. Our results suggest that the reaction on the ruthenium (via a seven coordinate intermediate) has both a lower barrier and a product with a lower free energy than the product of addition at the oxo.

The Structure of Photosystem II and the Mechanism of Water Oxidation in Photosynthesis

Oxygenic photosynthesis forms the basis of aerobic life on earth by converting light energy into biologically useful chemical energy and by splitting water to generate molecular oxygen. The water-splitting and oxygen-evolving reaction is catalyzed by photosystem II (PSII), a huge, multisubunit membrane-protein complex located in the thylakoid membranes of organisms ranging from cyanobacteria to higher plants. The structure of PSII has been analyzed at 1.9-Å resolution by X-ray crystallography, revealing a clear picture of the Mn4CaO5 cluster, the catalytic center for water oxidation. This article provides an overview of the overall structure of PSII followed by detailed descriptions of the specific structure of the Mn4CaO5 cluster and its surrounding protein environment. Based on the geometric organization of the Mn4CaO5 cluster revealed by the crystallographic analysis, in combination with the results of a vast number of experimental studies involving spectroscopic and other techniques as well as various theoretical studies, the article also discusses possible mechanisms for water splitting that are currently under consideration.

Water oxidation catalysed by a mononuclear CoII polypyridine complex; possible reaction intermediates and the role of the chloride ligand

Catalytic water oxidation using mononuclear Co^II complex with a chloride ligand has been investigated. Spectroscopic measurements show that the chloride ligand is an integral component of the catalytic process.

Light-dependent production of dioxygen in photosynthesis

Oxygen, that supports all aerobic life, is abundant in the atmosphere because of its constant regeneration by photosynthetic water oxidation, which is catalyzed by a Mn₄CaO₅ cluster in photosystem II (PS II), a multi subunit membrane protein complex. X-ray and other spectroscopy studies of the electronic and geometric structure of the Mn₄CaO₅ cluster as it advances through the intermediate states have been important for understanding the mechanism of water oxidation. The results and interpretations, especially from X-ray spectroscopy studies, regarding the geometric and electronic structure and the changes as the system proceeds through the catalytic cycle will be summarized in this review. This review will also include newer methodologies in time-resolved X-ray diffraction and spectroscopy that have become available since the commissioning of the X-ray free electron laser (XFEL) and are being applied to study the oxygen-evolving complex (OEC). The femtosecond X-ray pulses of the XFEL allows us to outrun X-ray damage at room temperature, and the time-evolution of the photo-induced reaction can be probed using a visible laser-pump followed by the X-ray-probe pulse. XFELs can be used to simultaneously determine the light-induced protein dynamics using crystallography and the local chemistry that occurs at the catalytic center using X-ray spectroscopy under functional conditions. Membrane inlet mass spectrometry has been important for providing direct information about the exchange of substrate water molecules, which has a direct bearing on the mechanism of water oxidation. Moreover, it has been indispensable for the time-resolved X-ray diffraction and spectroscopy studies and will be briefly reviewed in this chapter. Given the role of PS II in maintaining life in the biosphere and the future vision of a renewable energy economy, understanding the structure and mechanism of the photosynthetic water oxidation catalyst is an important goal for the future.

Taking snapshots of photosynthetic water oxidation using femtosecond X-ray diffraction and spectroscopy

The dioxygen we breathe is formed by light-induced oxidation of water in photosystem II. O2 formation takes place at a catalytic manganese cluster within milliseconds after the photosystem II reaction centre is excited by three single-turnover flashes. Here we present combined X-ray emission spectra and diffraction data of 2-flash (2F) and 3-flash (3F) photosystem II samples, and of a transient 3F' state (250 μs after the third flash), collected under functional conditions using an X-ray free electron laser. The spectra show that the initial O-O bond formation, coupled to Mn reduction, does not yet occur within 250 μs after the third flash. Diffraction data of all states studied exhibit an anomalous scattering signal from Mn but show no significant structural changes at the present resolution of 4.5 Å. This study represents the initial frames in a molecular movie of the structural changes during the catalytic reaction in photosystem II.

Serial time-resolved crystallography of photosystem II using a femtosecond X-ray laser

Photosynthesis, a process catalysed by plants, algae and cyanobacteria converts sunlight to energy thus sustaining all higher life on Earth. Two large membrane protein complexes, photosystem I and II (PSI and PSII), act in series to catalyse the light-driven reactions in photosynthesis. PSII catalyses the light-driven water splitting process, which maintains the Earth's oxygenic atmosphere. In this process, the oxygen-evolving complex (OEC) of PSII cycles through five states, S0 to S4, in which four electrons are sequentially extracted from the OEC in four light-driven charge-separation events. Here we describe time resolved experiments on PSII nano/microcrystals from Thermosynechococcus elongatus performed with the recently developed technique of serial femtosecond crystallography. Structures have been determined from PSII in the dark S1 state and after double laser excitation (putative S3 state) at 5 and 5.5 Å resolution, respectively. The results provide evidence that PSII undergoes significant conformational changes at the electron acceptor side and at the Mn4CaO5 core of the OEC. These include an elongation of the metal cluster, accompanied by changes in the protein environment, which could allow for binding of the second substrate water molecule between the more distant protruding Mn (referred to as the 'dangler' Mn) and the Mn3CaOx cubane in the S2 to S3 transition, as predicted by spectroscopic and computational studies. This work shows the great potential for time-resolved serial femtosecond crystallography for investigation of catalytic processes in biomolecules.

Towards accurate structural characterization of metal centres in protein crystals: the structures of Ni and Cu T(6) bovine insulin derivatives

Using synchrotron radiation (SR), the crystal structures of T6 bovine insulin complexed with Ni(2+) and Cu(2+) were solved to 1.50 and 1.45 Å resolution, respectively. The level of detail around the metal centres in these structures was highly limited, and the coordination of water in Cu site II of the copper insulin derivative was deteriorated as a consequence of radiation damage. To provide more detail, X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) was used to improve the information level about metal coordination in each derivative. The nickel derivative contains hexacoordinated Ni(2+) with trigonal symmetry, whereas the copper derivative contains tetragonally distorted hexacoordinated Cu(2+) as a result of the Jahn-Teller effect, with a significantly longer coordination distance for one of the three water molecules in the coordination sphere. That the copper centre is of type II was further confirmed by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR). The coordination distances were refined from EXAFS with standard deviations within 0.01 Å. The insulin derivative containing Cu(2+) is sensitive towards photoreduction when exposed to SR. During the reduction of Cu(2+) to Cu(+), the coordination geometry of copper changes towards lower coordination numbers. Primary damage, i.e. photoreduction, was followed directly by XANES as a function of radiation dose, while secondary damage in the form of structural changes around the Cu atoms after exposure to different radiation doses was studied by crystallography using a laboratory diffractometer. Protection against photoreduction and subsequent radiation damage was carried out by solid embedment of Cu insulin in a saccharose matrix. At 100 K the photoreduction was suppressed by ∼15%, and it was suppressed by a further ∼30% on cooling the samples to 20 K.

L-Edge X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy of Dilute Systems Relevant to Metalloproteins Using an X-ray Free-Electron Laser

L-edge spectroscopy of 3d transition metals provides important electronic structure information and has been used in many fields. However, the use of this method for studying dilute aqueous systems, such as metalloenzymes, has not been prevalent because of severe radiation damage and the lack of suitable detection systems. Here we present spectra from a dilute Mn aqueous solution using a high-transmission zone-plate spectrometer at the Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS). The spectrometer has been optimized for discriminating the Mn L-edge signal from the overwhelming O K-edge background that arises from water and protein itself, and the ultrashort LCLS X-ray pulses can outrun X-ray induced damage. We show that the deviations of the partial-fluorescence yield-detected spectra from the true absorption can be well modeled using the state-dependence of the fluorescence yield, and discuss implications for the application of our concept to biological samples.

Global calcium transducer P-type Ca²⁺-ATPases open new avenues for agriculture by regulating stress signalling

Food security is in danger under the continuous growing threat of various stresses including climate change and global warming, which ultimately leads to a reduction in crop yields. Calcium plays a very important role in many signal transduction pathways including stress signalling. Different extracellular stimuli trigger increases in cytosolic calcium, which is detrimental to plants. To cope with such stresses, plants need to develop efficient efflux mechanisms to maintain ionic homeostasis. The Ca(2+)-ATPases are members of the P-type ATPase superfamily, which perform many fundamental processes in organisms by actively transporting ions across cellular membranes. In recent years, many studies have revealed that, as well as efflux mechanisms, Ca(2+)-ATPases also play critical roles in sensing calcium fluctuations and relaying downstream signals by activating definitive targets, thus modulating corresponding metabolic pathways. As calcium-activated calmodulin (CaM) is reported to play vital roles in stress tolerance, the presence of a unique CaM-binding site in type IIB Ca(2+)-ATPases indicates their potential role in biotic as well as abiotic stress tolerance. The key roles of Ca(2+)-ATPases in transport systems and stress signalling in cellular homeostasis are addressed in this review. A complete understanding of plant defence mechanisms under stress will allow bioengineering of improved crop plants, which will be crucial for food security currently observed worldwide in the context of global climate changes. Overall, this article covers classification, evolution, structural aspects of Ca(2+)-ATPases, and their emerging roles in plant stress signalling.

Kinetic modeling of the X-ray-induced damage to a metalloprotein

It is well-known that biological samples undergo X-ray-induced degradation. One of the fastest occurring X-ray-induced processes involves redox modifications (reduction or oxidation) of redox-active cofactors in proteins. Here we analyze room-temperature data on the photoreduction of Mn ions in the oxygen-evolving complex (OEC) of photosystem II, one of the most radiation damage-sensitive proteins and a key constituent of natural photosynthesis in plants, green algae, and cyanobacteria. Time-resolved X-ray emission spectroscopy with wavelength-dispersive detection was used to collect data on the progression of X-ray-induced damage. A kinetic model was developed to fit experimental results, and the rate constant for the reduction of OEC Mn(III) and Mn(IV) ions by solvated electrons was determined. From this model, the possible kinetics of X-ray-induced damage at a variety of experimental conditions, such as different rates of dose deposition as well as different excitation wavelengths, can be inferred. We observed a trend of increasing dosage threshold prior to the onset of X-ray-induced damage with increasing rates of dose deposition. This trend suggests that experimentation with higher rates of dose deposition is beneficial for measurements of biological samples sensitive to radiation damage, particularly at pink beam and X-ray free electron laser sources.

Structural changes of the oxygen-evolving complex in photosystem II during the catalytic cycle

The oxygen-evolving complex (OEC) in the membrane-bound protein complex photosystem II (PSII) catalyzes the water oxidation reaction that takes place in oxygenic photosynthetic organisms. We investigated the structural changes of the Mn4CaO5 cluster in the OEC during the S state transitions using x-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS). Overall structural changes of the Mn4CaO5 cluster, based on the manganese ligand and Mn-Mn distances obtained from this study, were incorporated into the geometry of the Mn4CaO5 cluster in the OEC obtained from a polarized XAS model and the 1.9-Å high resolution crystal structure. Additionally, we compared the S1 state XAS of the dimeric and monomeric form of PSII from Thermosynechococcus elongatus and spinach PSII. Although the basic structures of the OEC are the same for T. elongatus PSII and spinach PSII, minor electronic structural differences that affect the manganese K-edge XAS between T. elongatus PSII and spinach PSII are found and may originate from differences in the second sphere ligand atom geometry.

Entangled quantum electronic wavefunctions of the Mn₄CaO₅ cluster in photosystem II

It is a long-standing goal to understand the reaction mechanisms of catalytic metalloenzymes at an entangled many-electron level, but this is hampered by the exponential complexity of quantum mechanics. Here, by exploiting the special structure of physical quantum states and using the density matrix renormalization group, we compute near-exact many-electron wavefunctions of the Mn4CaO5 cluster of photosystem II, with more than 1 × 10(18) quantum degrees of freedom. This is the first treatment of photosystem II beyond the single-electron picture of density functional theory. Our calculations support recent modifications to the structure determined by X-ray crystallography. We further identify multiple low-lying energy surfaces associated with the structural distortion seen using X-ray crystallography, highlighting multistate reactivity in the chemistry of the cluster. Direct determination of Mn spin-projections from our wavefunctions suggests that current candidates that have been recently distinguished using parameterized spin models should be reassessed. Through entanglement maps, we reveal rich information contained in the wavefunctions on bonding changes in the cycle.

The physiological roles and metabolism of ascorbate in chloroplasts

Ascorbate is a multifunctional metabolite in plants. It is essential for growth control, involving cell division and cell wall synthesis and also involved in redox signaling, in the modulation of gene expression and regulation of enzymatic activities. Ascorbate also fulfills crucial roles in scavenging reactive oxygen species, both enzymatically and nonenzymatically, a well-established phenomenon in the chloroplasts stroma. We give an overview on these important physiological functions and would like to give emphasis to less well-known roles of ascorbate, in the thylakoid lumen, where it also plays multiple roles. It is essential for photoprotection as a cofactor for violaxanthin de-epoxidase, a key enzyme in the formation of nonphotochemical quenching. Lumenal ascorbate has recently also been shown to act as an alternative electron donor of photosystem II once the oxygen-evolving complex is inactivated and to protect the photosynthetic machinery by slowing down donor-side induced photoinactivation; it is yet to be established if ascorbate has a similar role in the case of other stress effects, such as high light and UV-B stress. In bundle sheath cells, deficient in oxygen evolution, ascorbate provides electrons to photosystem II, thereby poising cyclic electron transport around photosystem I. It has also been shown that, by supporting linear electron transport through photosystem II in sulfur-deprived Chlamydomonas reinhardtii cells, in which oxygen evolution is largely inhibited, externally added ascorbate enhances hydrogen production. For fulfilling its multiple roles, Asc has to be transported into the thylakoid lumen and efficiently regenerated; however, very little is known yet about these processes.

Simultaneous femtosecond X-ray spectroscopy and diffraction of photosystem II at room temperature

Intense femtosecond x-ray pulses produced at the Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS) were used for simultaneous x-ray diffraction (XRD) and x-ray emission spectroscopy (XES) of microcrystals of photosystem II (PS II) at room temperature. This method probes the overall protein structure and the electronic structure of the Mn4CaO5 cluster in the oxygen-evolving complex of PS II. XRD data are presented from both the dark state (S1) and the first illuminated state (S2) of PS II. Our simultaneous XRD-XES study shows that the PS II crystals are intact during our measurements at the LCLS, not only with respect to the structure of PS II, but also with regard to the electronic structure of the highly radiation-sensitive Mn4CaO5 cluster, opening new directions for future dynamics studies.