Phenolic composition and antioxidant activity of aqueous infusions from Capparis spinosa L. and Crithmum maritimum L. before and after submission to a two-step in vitro digestion model

Effect of prepared herbal mouthwash in maintaining the oral health of school children: A single-blind randomised control trial

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Oral health is a vital indicator of overall well-being, quality of life, and general health, with historical roots in Unani medicine (i.e. preventive measures, oral hygiene, and treatment). This study aims to assess the efficacy and safety of prepared herbal mouthwash in maintaining oral health among school children.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

110 schoolchildren were randomly assigned to the test group (treated with herbal mouthwash -Anacyclus pyrenthrum DC, Punica granutum (pericarp), Capparis spinosa (root bark), and Quercus infectoria Oliv (galls)) and the control group (treated with 0.2 % Chlorhexidine Mouthwash) for 30-days. The response was assessed by DMFT, Salivary pH, Oral hygiene index-simplified (OHI-S), Plaque index (Loe & Silness) (PI), Plaque index simplified (O'Leary et al., 1972) (PI-S), Gingival Index (Löe-Silness) (GI), and Bleeding on probing (BOP) on baseline and 30th day GI and PI were further assessed on 60th, 90th and 120th days to determine the sustainable effect of the intervention.

RESULTS

After treatment, Mean OHI-S, PI, PI-S, GI and BOP significantly reduced on the 30th day from baseline (p ≤ 0.001) in both groups. After discontinuing intervention, both groups showed significantly lower PI and GI scores on the 120th day from baseline. (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

This study revealed that prepared mouthwash is safe and significantly effective in maintaining oral health, and it could be used as an adjunct to mechanical oral hygiene measures.

In Vitro Digestion of Polyphenolic Compounds and the Antioxidant Activity of Acorn Flour and Pasta Enriched with Acorn Flour

Acorn flour is a rich source of nutrients and is beneficial to human health due to, among other things, its low glycemic index and polyphenol content. In order to obtain more accurate data on the levels and activities of the substances tested after ingestion and digestion, it may be beneficial to use a simulated in vitro digestion method. Therefore, the objective of the present study was to elucidate the content of polyphenols, individual phenolic acids, flavonoids and antiradical properties of acorn flour and pasta enriched with acorn flour before and after simulated in vitro gastrointestinal digestion. The results indicate that the total polyphenol content (TPC), flavonoid content and radical scavenging activity exhibited an increasing trend following the initial digestion stage and a decreasing trend following the second stage. Nevertheless, the levels of phenolic acids demonstrated an increase in both digestion phases. The digestion processes of polyphenols in acorn flour differ significantly from those in pasta. In the case of pasta, total polyphenols, phenolic acids and flavonoids, as well as free radical scavenging properties, demonstrated a decreasing trend following each digestion stage.

A Characterization of Biological Activities and Bioactive Phenolics from the Non-Volatile Fraction of the Edible and Medicinal Halophyte Sea Fennel (Crithmum maritimum L.)

Although the biochemical composition and biological properties of the volatile fraction of the halophyte sea fennel (Crithmum maritimum L.) have been largely described, little is known about its polar constituents and bioactivities. Here, a hydromethanolic extract of Crithmum maritimum (L.) leaves was fractionated, and the fractions were evaluated in vitro for antioxidant (using DPPH, ABTS, and FRAP bioassays), anti-inflammatory (inhibition of NO production in RAW 264.7 macrophages), antidiabetic (alpha-glucosidase inhibition), neuroprotective (inhibition of acetylcholinesterase), and skin-protective (tyrosinase and melanogenesis inhibitions) activities. Polar fractions of the extract were rich in phenolics and, correlatively, displayed a strong antioxidant power. Moreover, fractions eluted with MeOH20 and MeOH80 exhibited a marked inhibition of alpha-glucosidase (IC50 = 0.02 and 0.04 mg/mL, respectively), MeOH60 fractions showed a strong capacity to reduce NO production in macrophages (IC50 = 6.4 μg/mL), and MeOH80 and MeOH100 fractions had strong anti-tyrosinase activities (630 mgKAE/gDW). NMR analyses revealed the predominance of chlorogenic acid in MeOH20 fractions, 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid in MeOH40 fractions, and 3-O-rutinoside, 3-O-glucoside, 3-O-galactoside, and 3-O-robinobioside derivatives of quercetin in MeOH60 fractions. These compounds likely account for the strong antidiabetic, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties of sea-fennel polar extract, respectively. Overall, our results make sea fennel a valuable source of medicinal or nutraceutical agents to prevent diabetes, inflammation processes, and oxidative damage.

The process of pollen transformation into bee bread: changes in bioactivity, bioaccessibility, and microbial dynamics

Bee pollen and bee bread go hand in hand with health-promoting functional food consumption. Although many studies report high bioactivities of those products, the biotransformation of pollen into bee bread has not been fully understood. Limited findings are available about polyphenol bioaccessibility and microbiological interactions during the fermentation process. This study evaluated the microbial flora, antioxidant properties, and polyphenol and soluble protein bioaccessibility of pollen and bee bread harvested from the same apiary over a certain timeline. Total phenolic content, antioxidant activity and soluble protein content were reported using an in vitro digestion model involving post-gastric, serum-available, and colon-available fractions. The results obtained with the in vitro digestion model refer to the effect of the harvesting period on greater bioaccessibility of polyphenols in bee bread than in pollen at the same apiary. Lactic acid bacteria and yeast found in the samples were mostly identified as Lactobacillus kunkeei, Leuconostoc pseudomesenteroides, and Candida magnoliae using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). The discrimination between the pollen and bee bread samples collected in the same apiary and at different harvesting periods was also revealed by Principal Component Analysis (PCA). A harvesting time-based approach was applied to the biotransformation process of pollen and bee bread, and insights into microbial dynamics and bioaccessibility were revealed for the first time under the same beehive conditions.

Bioaccessibility of phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity in raw and pickled capers

Capers are excellent sources of phenolic compounds, which possess antioxidant activity and a variety of health benefits. Capers are often not eaten fresh due to their bitterness, instead, they are usually brined and eaten as pickles. For phenolics to display beneficial effects, they should be bioaccessible. This research aimed to investigate the bioaccessibility values of phenolics in raw and pickled capers. Before and after in vitro digestion, total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), ABTS, DPPH, and FRAP antioxidant activities and individual phenolics were determined in raw (RC) and pickled capers (PC). TPC, TFC, and antioxidant activity of capers were not affected by pickling. The bioaccessibility of TPC in RC and PC was 77.8% and 72.9%, respectively. In vitro digestion decreased ABTS, DPPH, and FRAP antioxidant activity values in RC and PC significantly (p < 0.05). Rutin (quercetin-3-O-rutinoside) and kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside were found to be the main phenolic compounds before and after in vitro digestion in all caper samples. After in vitro digestion, rutin content decreased, while kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside content in capers was stable. The results suggest that capers are really good sources of bioaccessible phenolics.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13197-023-05824-x.

Wild and Micropropagated Artemisia eriantha Infusions: In Vitro Digestion Effects on Phenolic Pattern and Antioxidant Activity

This study investigated the in vitro simulated gastrointestinal digestion (GID) effects on wild and micropropagated Apennines Genepì infusions. Wild and micropropagated infusions were compared for their antioxidant activity, phenolic contents, and polyphenolic profiles before and after GID. Before digestion, the wild infusions had higher amounts of phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity than the micropropagated ones. Instead, after digestion, the differences in the total phenolic content (TPC) and antioxidant activity between wild and micropropagated infusions were less pronounced. The changes in the TPC and phenolic profiles revealed the presence of several chemical transformations and rearrangements that resulted in compounds with different reactivity and antioxidant potential. Without enzyme actions, the wild infusion digest undergoes higher modifications than those obtained from the micropropagated ones. The current study offers the first concrete proof of the impact of GID on the polyphenolic chemicals present in infusions of wild and micropropagated Apennines Genepì and their antioxidant properties. Our findings are essential for future in-depth analyses of Apennine Genepì infusions and their potential impacts on human health.

Effect of caper fruit (Capparis spinosa L.) consumption on liver enzymes, lipid profile, fasting plasma glucose, and weight loss. A systematic review and a preliminary meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the overall effect of caper fruit on the modulation of glycemic, lipid profile, liver enzymes, and body mass. Google Scholar, PubMed, and Scopus were explored to collect relevant studies in the last 10 years. RCTs with caper fruit supplementation or consumption in different cohorts of subjects with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), Type-2-Diabetes (T2D), metabolic syndrome, and hyperlipidemia were included in this systematic review with a mean intervention duration from 2 to 12 weeks. The outcomes measured in this meta-analysis were liver enzymes such as aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT), the lipid profile represented by triglycerides, total cholesterol (TC) with LDL and HDL and also, weight, and fasting blood glucose. Five randomized controlled trials, which involved a total of 178 adults, were included. According to the results, caper fruit seems to decrease liver enzymes ALT -12.29 U/L [-24.47, -0.11], AST -2.20 U/L [-4.70, 0.31]. Furthermore, the lipid profile seems to improve with a decrease in triglycerides. -11.89 mg/dL [-33.73, 9.95], LDL -4.80 mg/dL [-16.34, 6.74], HDL 0.72 mg/dL [0.10, 1.34], total cholesterol -7.83 mg/dL [-20.04, 4.38], FPG -17.93 [-42.66, 6.79], weight -1.00 kg [-1.44, -0.56]. Significant modulations were found only for ALT, HDL, and weight. In conclusion, this systematic review and meta-analysis showed the paucity of data available on the topic while showing the potential role of caper fruit as a promising food for improving the liver-lipid profile axis in patients with metabolic syndrome and diabetes. Further studies are required to confirm these results.

Phenolic profile and α-glucosidase inhibitory potential of wampee (Clausena lansium (Lour.) Skeels) peel and pulp: In vitro digestion/in silico evaluations

To investigate the changes in phenolics, flavonoids, and their bio-activities of wampee (Clausena lansium (Lour.) Skeels) during digestion, the peel and pulp were subjected to simulated in vitro digestion, encompassing oral, gastric, small intestine, and large intestine digestion stages. The peel exhibited a total release of 91.93 mg GAE/g DW of phenolics and 61.86 mg RE/g DW of flavonoids, whereas the pulp displayed a release of 27.83 mg GAE/g DW of phenolics and 8.94 mg RE/g DW of flavonoids. Notably, the phenolics and flavonoids were mostly released during the oral digestion stage for peel, while they were mostly released during the small intestine digestion stage for pulp. The results of the targeted flavonoids analysis indicated that rutin and l-epicatechin were the two most widely released compounds in each digestion step. Moreover, myricetin has been identified as the best inhibitor against α-glucosidase, probably because it formed the most H-bonds, 8, with 6 catalytic residues, which was the highest number. Furthermore, the soluble substances released from the peel exhibited significantly higher antioxidant activities and inhibitory activity against α-glucosidase (p < 0.05) compared to those from the pulp. Positive correlations were observed between the total phenolic content or total flavonoid content and the antioxidant activities (r > 0.73 (peel), > 0.61 (pulp)), as well as α-glucosidase inhibitory activity (r <  - 0.48 (peel), < -0.64 (pulp)) of peel and pulp. In conclusion, these findings provide valuable insights into the digestive characteristics and health benefits of both wampee peel and pulp.

Identification of Polyphenols in Sea Fennel (Crithmum maritimum) and Seaside Arrowgrass (Triglochin maritima) Extracts with Antioxidant, ACE-I, DPP-IV and PEP-Inhibitory Capacity

Sea fennel and seaside arrowgrass are two abundant but underutilized halophytes along the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts. This study investigated the antioxidant capacity and the potential antihypertensive (Angiotensin Converting Enzyme I, ACE-I inhibition), hypoglycaemic (Dipeptidyl Peptidase IV, DPP-IV inhibition), and nootropic (Prolyl Endopeptidase, PEP inhibition) activity of their polyphenol extracts. They had a high phenol content (21-24 mEq GA/g), antioxidant capacity evaluated using the ABTS (17-2 mg ascorbic acid/g) and FRAP (170-270 mM Mohr's salt/g) assays, and effective ACE-inhibiting properties (80-90% inhibiting activity at final concentration of 0.5 mg/mL). Additionally, the sea fennel extract displayed high DPP-IV inhibitory capacity (73% at 1 mg/mL), while the seaside arrowgrass extract exhibited potent Prolyl endopeptidase inhibitory capacity (75% at 1 mg/mL). Fractionation by HPLC concentrated the bioactive molecules in two fractions, for which the composition was analyzed by LC-MS/MS. Different chlorogenic acids seemed to play an important role in the bioactivity of sea fennel extract, and different flavonoids, mainly apigenin, luteolin and chrysoeriol, in the bioactivity of the seaside arrowgrass extract. Given their potential health benefits, these extracts could serve as valuable bioactive ingredients and could potentially encourage the cultivation of these species in regions where traditional crops face challenges in growth.

Phenolic characterization of fermented jujube puree by HPLC-MS/MS and their release during in vitro dynamic digestion

Health benefits of fruit products fermented with probiotics are partially attributed to their increased contents of phenolic compounds. In this study, the effect of in vitro dynamic gastrointestinal digestion on the release of phenolic compounds and changes in the antioxidant activity of jujube puree fermented with Streptococcus thermophilus was investigated. Thirteen target phenolic compounds were characterized by high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The recovery of this developed method ranged from 87.41% to 111.03%, and the limits of detection and quantification were low. Fermentation with Streptococcus thermophilus significantly increased the contents of most phenolic compounds in jujube puree. Fermentation reduced the decrease in the contents of most phenolic compounds in jujube puree during gastrointestinal digestion and, as a consequence improved the antioxidant capacity of digested fractions. These findings indicated that fermentation could increase the bioaccessibility of specific phenolics in jujube, as well as the antioxidant activity of this fruit.

Harnessing the Value of Tripolium pannonicum and Crithmum maritimum Halophyte Biomass through Integrated Green Biorefinery

Bioactive extracts are often the target fractions in bioprospecting, and halophyte plants could provide a potential source of feedstock for high-value applications as a part of integrated biorefineries. Tripolium pannonicum (Jacq.) Dobrocz. (sea aster) and Crithmum maritimum L. (sea fennel) are edible plants suggested for biosaline halophyte-based agriculture. After food production and harvesting of fresh leaves for food, the inedible plant fractions could be utilized to produce extracts rich in bioactive phytochemicals to maximize feedstock application and increase the economic feasibility of biomass processing to bioenergy. This study analyzed fresh juice and extracts from screw-pressed sea aster and sea fennel for their different phenolic compounds and pigment concentrations. Antioxidant and enzyme inhibition activities were also tested in vitro. Extracts from sea aster and sea fennel had phenolic contents up to 45.2 mgGAE/gDM and 64.7 mgGAE/gDM, respectively, and exhibited >70% antioxidant activity in several assays. Ethanol extracts also showed >70% inhibition activity against acetylcholinesterase and >50% inhibition of tyrosinase and α-glucosidase. Therefore, these species can be seen as potential feedstocks for further investigations.

Sea Fennel (Crithmum maritimum L.) as an Emerging Crop for the Manufacturing of Innovative Foods and Nutraceuticals

Sea fennel (Crithmum maritimum L.) is a perennial, strongly aromatic herb that has been used since ancient times in cuisine and folk medicine due to its renowned properties. Recently described as a "cash" crop, sea fennel is an ideal candidate for the promotion of halophyte agriculture in the Mediterranean basin due to its acknowledged adaptation to the Mediterranean climate, its resilience to risks/shocks related to climate changes, and its exploitability in food and non-food applications, which generates an alternative source of employment in rural areas. The present review provides insight into the nutritional and functional traits of this new crop as well as its exploitation in innovative food and nutraceutical applications. Various previous studies have fully demonstrated the high biological and nutritional potential of sea fennel, highlighting its high content of bioactive compounds, including polyphenols, carotenoids, ω-3 and ω-6 essential fatty acids, minerals, vitamins, and essential oils. Moreover, in previous studies, this aromatic halophyte showed good potential for application in the manufacturing of high-value foods, including both fermented and unfermented preserves, sauces, powders, and spices, herbal infusions and decoctions, and even edible films, as well as nutraceuticals. Further research efforts are needed to fully disclose the potential of this halophyte in view of its full exploitation by the food and nutraceutical industries.

Soilless Cultivated Halophyte Plants: Volatile, Nutritional, Phytochemical, and Biological Differences

The use of halophyte plants appears as a potential solution for degraded soil, food safety, freshwater scarcity, and coastal area utilization. These plants have been considered an alternative crop soilless agriculture for sustainable use of natural resources. There are few studies carried out with cultivated halophytes using a soilless cultivation system (SCS) that report their nutraceutical value, as well as their benefits on human health. The objective of this study was to evaluate and correlate the nutritional composition, volatile profile, phytochemical content, and biological activities of seven halophyte species cultivated using a SCS (Disphyma crassifolium L., Crithmum maritimum L., Inula crithmoides L., Mesembryanthemum crystallinum L., Mesembryanthemum nodiflorum L., Salicornia ramosissima J. Woods, and Sarcocornia fruticosa (Mill.) A. J. Scott.). Among these species, results showed that S. fruticosa had a higher content in protein (4.44 g/100 g FW), ash (5.70 g/100 g FW), salt (2.80 g/100 g FW), chloride (4.84 g/100 g FW), minerals (Na, K, Fe, Mg, Mn, Zn, Cu), total phenolics (0.33 mg GAE/g FW), and antioxidant activity (8.17 µmol TEAC/g FW). Regarding the phenolic classes, S. fruticosa and M. nodiflorum were predominant in the flavonoids, while M. crystallinum, C. maritimum, and S. ramosissima were in the phenolic acids. Moreover, S. fruticosa, S. ramosissima, M. nodiflorum, M. crystallinum, and I. crithmoides showed ACE-inhibitory activity, an important target control for hypertension. Concerning the volatile profile, C. maritimum, I. crithmoides, and D. crassifolium were abundant in terpenes and esters, while M. nodiflorum, S. fruticosa, and M. crystallinum were richer in alcohols and aldehydes, and S. ramosissima was richer in aldehydes. Considering the environmental and sustainable roles of cultivated halophytes using a SCS, these results indicate that these species could be considered an alternative to conventional table salt, due to their added nutritional and phytochemical composition, with potential contribution for the antioxidant and anti-hypertensive effects.

Conventional vs. Microwave-Assisted Hydrodistillation: Influence on the Chemistry of Sea Fennel Essential Oil and Its By-Products

The main objectives of this study were to investigate the effects of the applied essential oil (EO) isolation method, conventional hydro-distillation (HD), and microwave-assisted hydro-distillation (MHD) on the chemical profile of sea fennel (Crithmum maritimum L.) essential oil and to investigate the main constituents present in the liquid by-products of EOs isolation (hydrolate and residual wastewater). Headspace-solid phase microextraction (HS-SPME) was used to isolate hydrolate components, while gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was used to detect and analyse the chemical constituents of the essential oils and hydrolates. The phenolic composition of the wastewater extracts was analysed by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The EO obtained by MHD had a higher yield of limonene and sabinene. The chemical composition of the hydrolates differed from the EO compositions. The content of terpinen-4-ol in the MHD hydrolate was higher, while several compounds were detected in relatively high proportions only in the HD hydrolate. MHD also resulted in a higher phenolic content of the wastewater, where an increase in the concentration of chlorogenic acid was also observed. It can be concluded that the isolation method had a great influence on the profile of sea fennel EOs, especially on their corresponding hydrolates and residual wastewater extracts. Due to their valuable chemical composition, these by-products can be a cost-effective source of bioactive compounds that have great potential for use in various industries.

Impact of gastrointestinal digestion simulation on brewer's spent grain green extracts and their prebiotic activity

Brewer's spent grain (BSG) is a by-product of the beer industry and a potential source of bioactive compounds. In this study, two methods of extracting bioactive compounds from brewer's spent grain were used - solid-to-liquid conventional extraction (SLE) and solid-to-liquid ohmic heating extraction (OHE) coupled with two ratio combinations of solvents: 60 % and 80 % ethanol:water (v/v). The bioactive potential of the BSG extracts was assessed during the gastrointestinal tract digestion (GID) and the differences in their antioxidant activity, total phenolic content and characterization of the polyphenol profile was measured. The SLE extraction using 60 % ethanol:water (v/v) was the extraction method with higher antioxidant activity (33.88 mg ascorbic acid/g BSG - initial; 16.61 mg ascorbic acid/g BSG - mouth; 15.58 mg ascorbic acid/g BSG - stomach; 17.26 mg ascorbic acid/g BSG - duodenum) and higher content in total phenolics (13.26 mg gallic acid/g BSG - initial; 4.80 mg gallic acid/g BSG - mouth; 4.88 mg gallic acid/g BSG - stomach; 5.00 mg gallic acid/g BSG - duodenum). However, the OHE extraction using 80 % ethanol:water (v/v), had a higher bioaccessibility index (99.77 % for ferulic acid, 72.68 % for 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, 65.37 % for vanillin, 28.99 % for p-coumaric, 22.54 % for catechin) values of polyphenols. All the extracts enhanced (except for SLE for 60 % ethanol:water (v/v) at 2 and 1.5 %, and for 80 % ethanol:water (v/v) at 2 % with Bifidobacterium animalis spp. lactis BB12, where no growth was observed) the growth of the probiotic microorganisms tested (Bifidobacterium animalis B0 - O.D.'s between 0.8240 and 1.7727; Bifidobacterium animalis spp. lactis BB12 - O.D.'s between 0.7219 and 0.8798; Lacticaseibacillus casei 01 - O.D.'s between 0.9121 and 1.0249; and Lactobacillus acidophilus LA-5 - O.D.'s between 0.8595 and 0.9677), demonstrating a potential prebiotic activity of BSG extracts.

The Effect of In Vitro Digestion on Polyphenolic Compounds and Antioxidant Properties of Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) and Sorghum-Enriched Pasta

The phenol content of sorghum is a unique feature among all cereal grains; hence this fact merits the special attention of scientists. It should be remembered that before polyphenols can be used in the body, they are modified within the digestive tract. In order to obtain more accurate data on the level and activity of tested ingredients after ingestion and digestion in the in vivo digestive tract, in vitro simulated digestion may be used. Thus, the aim of this study was to determine the content of polyphenols, flavonoids, and individual phenolic acids, as well as the antiradical properties, of sorghum and sorghum-enriched pasta before and after in vitro simulated gastrointestinal digestion. We observed that the total content of polyphenols decreased after gastric digestion of sorghum, and slightly increased after duodenal digestion. Moreover, the flavonoid content decreased after the first stage of digestion, while antioxidant properties increased after the first stage of digestion and slightly decreased after the second stage. The digestion of polyphenolics in sorghum is completely different to that in pasta-both in varieties with, and without, the addition of sorghum. For pasta, the content of total polyphenols and flavonoids, and free radical scavenging properties, decrease after each stage of digestion.

Exploiting the Crithmum maritimum L. Aqueous Extracts and Essential Oil as Potential Preservatives in Food, Feed, Pharmaceutical and Cosmetic Industries

Chritmum maritimum, sea fennel, is a facultative halophyte used in salads, soups, and sauces, as well as used to prepare medicinal juices and aqueous extracts (AE) to treat several ailments. Its essential oil (EO) is used as a spice and aromatizing. In this work, the nutritional (crude protein, fiber, lipids, and ashes content) and HPLC-PDA phenolic profiles were determined. Furthermore, the antioxidant potential of the infusion and of the decoction, as well as the antibacterial activity of both, the AE and EO, were assessed against food-contaminating bacteria. The composition of the EO was also established. Sea fennel exhibited considerable fiber (34.3 ± 1.92%) and mineral content (23.6 ± 4.8%). AE contains chlorogenic acid as the major phenolic compound, 49.7 ± 0.8 mg/g in the infusion dry extract and (26.8 ± 0.9 mg/g in the decoction dry extract). EO contains high amounts of monoterpene hydrocarbons, namely γ-terpinene and sabinene. In regards to the antioxidant activity, IC₅₀ values for the infusion and decoction were, respectively: 36.5 ± 1.4 μg/mL and 44.7 ± 4.4 μg/mL in the DPPH assay; 37.3 ± 2.6 μg/mL and 38.4 ± 1.8 μg/mL, in the ABTS assay. EO is particularly active against Bacillus cereus and Lactobacillus plantarum. The results support the use of sea fennel AE and EO as a potential alternative preservative ingredient for feeds, foods, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries, due to the antioxidant activity of infusion and decoction, and antibacterial properties of essential oil.

Chemical Profiling of Sea Fennel (Crithmum maritimum L., Apiaceae) Essential Oils and Their Isolation Residual Waste-Waters

Sea fennel (Crithmum maritimum L.) is a wild-growing halophyte used in cuisine, traditional medicine or cosmetic products for its beneficial nutritive value and pleasant sensory characteristics. This study aimed to investigate sea fennel essential oils (EOs) from different parts of the plant (flowers, leaves and stems) and the corresponding hydrodistillation by-products (residual water) to validate their potential use and application in different industries. EOs were analyzed by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS), while the phenolic profile of the residual water was analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and spectrophotometric methods. The EO analysis confirmed the presence of 14 compounds, dominated by sabinene (from 42.55 to 51.47%) and limonene (from 36.28 to 43.58%), while among the 12 detected phenolics, chlorogenic acid and its isomers (cryptochlorogenic and neochlorogenic acid) were found in the highest concentrations. Total phenolic, flavonoid and tannin contents were concentrated in the order flowers > leaves > stems. Although the sea fennel samples showed differences in chemical profiles, overall they were rich in bioactive compounds with relatively high amounts of key compounds with already proved good biological properties, especially in waste-water, indicating great potential for re-use in accordance with green processing technology trends.

Alginate and β-lactoglobulin matrix as wall materials for encapsulation of polyphenols to improve efficiency and stability

The present study aimed at developing novel encapsulate materials of calcium-alginate and β-lactoglobulin complex for polyphenols using the jet-flow nozzle vibration method. Encapsulated microbeads were characterized using SEM, FTIR, DSC, and MSI. The encapsulation efficiency of the microbeads varied depending upon the coating material in the range of 74.17–84.87%. Calcium-alginate-β-lactoglobulin microbeads (CABM) exhibited a smooth surface and uniform shape with an average particle size of 1053.73 nm. CABM also showed better thermal and storage stabilities as compared to calcium alginate microbeads. The CABM resulted in excellent target release of polyphenols (84%) in the intestine, which was more than 3-fold the bio-accessibility offered by free polyphenol powder. Further study on individual phenolic acids after simulated in-vitro digestion (SIVD), photo-oxidative and osmotic stress revealed that CABM significantly retained a higher amount of polyphenols and exhibited improved antioxidant capacity after SIVD environment, and may have high industrial application for nutraceutical production.

Oral Pharmacokinetics of Hydroxycinnamic Acids: An Updated Review

Hydroxycinnamic acids (HCAs) such as caffeic acid (CA), chlorogenic acid (CGA), coumaric acid (COA) isomers, ferulic acid (FA) and rosmarinic acid (RA) are natural phenolic acids with widespread distribution in vegetal foods and well-documented pharmacological activities. However, the low bioavailability of HCAs impairs their administration by the oral route. The present review addresses new findings and important factors/obstacles for their oral administration, which were unexplored in the reviews published a decade ago concerning the bioavailability of phenolic acids. Based on this, the article aims to perform an updated review of the water solubility and gastrointestinal stability of HCAs, as well as describe their oral absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion (ADME) processes by in vitro, ex vivo, in situ and in vivo methods.

Effect of the Production Parameters and In Vitro Digestion on the Content of Polyphenolic Compounds, Phenolic Acids, and Antiradical Properties of Innovative Snacks Enriched with Wild Garlic (Allium ursinum L.) Leaves

A new type of corn snack has been created containing additions of wild garlic (Allium ursinum L.). This medicinal and dietary plant has a long tradition of use in folk medicine. However, studies on wild garlic composition and activity are fairly recent and scarce. This research aimed to investigate the influence of the screw speed and A. ursinum amounts on the antiradical properties as well as the content of polyphenolic compounds and individual phenolic acids of innovative snacks enriched with wild garlic leaves. The highest radical scavenging activity and content of polyphenols and phenolic acids were found in the snacks enriched with 4% wild garlic produced using screw speed 120 rpm. The obtained findings demonstrated that snacks enriched with wild garlic are a rich source of polyphenolic compounds. Since the concentration of such compounds is affected by many factors, e.g., plant material, presence of other compounds, and digestion, the second aim of this study was to determine radical scavenging activity, the content of polyphenols, and individual phenolic acids of snacks after in vitro simulated gastrointestinal digestion. Using an in vitro two-stage model, authors noted a significant difference between the concentration of polyphenolic compounds and the polyphenol content of the plant material before digestion.

In Vitro Bioaccessibility and Antioxidant Activity of Phenolic Compounds in Coffee-Fortified Yogurt

Yogurt is considered one of the most popular and healthy dairy products, and has been exploited as a delivery matrix for phenolic compounds. In this study, coffee powder was added to yogurt as a functional ingredient to produce coffee-fortified yogurt. Total phenolic compounds, antioxidant activity and individual hydroxycinnamic acids have been identified and quantified through mass spectrometry. The results from coffee-fortified yogurt were compared with fermented coffee and plain yogurt. Coffee-fortified yogurt had higher total phenolic content and antioxidant activity compared to plain yogurt. However, the total phenolic compounds found in coffee-fortified yogurt represented only 38.9% of the original content in coffee. Caffeoylquinic acids were the most abundant phenolic compounds in coffee. Fermented coffee and coffee-fortified yogurt displayed lower amounts of individual phenolic compounds with respect to coffee (69.8% and 52.4% of recovery, respectively). A protective effect of the yogurt matrix on total and individual coffee phenolic compounds has been observed after in vitro digestion, resulting in a higher bioaccessibility in comparison with digested fermented coffee. Moreover, coffee-fortified yogurt showed the highest antioxidant values after digestion. These findings clearly demonstrate that coffee-fortified yogurt can be considered a significant source of bioaccessible hydroxycinnamic acids, besides its health benefits as a fermented dairy product.

Biochemical, pharmacological, and toxicological attributes of caper (Capparis ovata) flowering buds and berries pickles

Capparis ovata is a natural plant that grows widely in Turkey and its flowering buds and berry pickle are used in traditional medicine. Thus, the current study was expanded to evaluate the biochemical, pharmacological, and toxicological aspects of the Capparis ovata water extract (COWE). To determine the biochemical properties of COWE, mineral and fatty acid content, elemental analysis, flavonoid/phenolic content, radical-scavenging capacity, and pesticide analysis were performed. Furthermore, to find out whether it had anti-inflammatory properties, reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) luciferase activity tests were conducted. Whole-genome transcriptomic profiling was carried out at a dose level of 500 mg/kg COWE to understand its pharmacological effect. Transaminases in serum were tested, and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) was done using a custom design array that included the stress and molecular toxicology pathway to establish its toxicological qualities. As a result of the evaluations, it was observed that COWE has a high mineral and unsaturated fatty acid content, flavonoid/phenolic content, and radical-scavenging ability. It significantly inhibited NF-κB transcriptional activity as well as inflammatory cytokine expression in T-lymphoblast cells. Whole-genome transcriptomic profiling depicted that COWE modulates immune responses by upregulating natural killer cell activation, cellular response to type I interferon, B-cell proliferation and differentiation, and Janus kinase-signal transducer and activator of transcription (JAK-STAT) pathways. Molecular Toxicology Pathfinder RT² Profiler PCR array analysis revealed that COWE at or lower dose of 500 mg/kg/day did not cause a comparatively adverse effect. According to the findings, COWE is a rich source of nutrients and can be used as an adjunct therapy for various inflammatory diseases.

Impact of Circular Brewer’s Spent Grain Flour after In Vitro Gastrointestinal Digestion on Human Gut Microbiota

Brewer’s spent grain (BSG) solid residues are constituted by dietary fibre, protein, sugars, and polyphenols, which can have potential effects on human health. In this study, for the first time, the flours obtained from solid residues of solid-liquid extraction (SLE) and ohmic heating extraction (OHE) were applied throughout the gastrointestinal digestion simulation (GID), in order to evaluate their prebiotic potential and in vitro human gut microbiota fermentation. The results showed that the digestion of BSG flours obtained by the different methods lead to an increase throughout the GID of total phenolic compounds (SLE: from 2.27 to 7.20 mg gallic acid/g BSG—60% ethanol:water (v/v); OHE: 2.23 to 8.36 mg gallic acid/g BSG—80% ethanol:water (v/v)) and consequently an increase in antioxidant activity (ABTS—SLE: from 6.26 to 13.07 mg ascorbic acid/g BSG—80% ethanol:water (v/v); OHE: 4.60 to 10.60 mg ascorbic acid/g BSG—80% ethanol:water (v/v)—ORAC—SLE: 3.31 to 14.94 mg Trolox/g BSG—80% ethanol:water (v/v); OHE: from 2.13 to 17.37 mg Trolox/g BSG—60% ethanol:water (v/v)). The main phenolic compounds identified included representative molecules such as vanillic and ferulic acids, vanillin and catechin, among others being identified and quantified in all GID phases. These samples also induced the growth of probiotic bacteria and promoted the positive modulation of beneficial strains (such as Bifidobacterium spp. and Lactobacillus spp.) present in human faeces. Moreover, the fermentation by human faeces microbiota also allowed the production of short chain fatty acids (acetic, propionic, and butyric). Furthermore, previous identified polyphenols were also identified during fecal fermentation. This study demonstrates that BSG flours obtained from the solid residues of SLE and OHE extractions promoted a positive modulation of gut microbiota and related metabolism and antioxidant environment associated to the released phenolic compounds.

Microbiological safety and stability of novel green sauces made with sea fennel (Crithmum maritimum L.)

Due to consumers' demand for ready-to-eat foods, in the last decades production of sauces has shifted from home-made to commercial practice. Besides to palatability and nutritional value, safety and stability are key issues of industrial sauces. The present study was aimed at evaluating the microbiological stability and safety of industrial-scale prototypes of two novel green sauces made with sea fennel (Crithmum maritimum L.) as the main ingredient. To this end, accelerated shelf-life and microbial challenge tests were performed to assess: (i) the microbiological shelf-stability of the two sauces stabilized by heat treatments commonly applied at industrial scale to inactivate vegetative cells of spoilage microorganisms and pathogens in vegetable preserves (F₈₅⁷=2min or F₉₅⁷=5min); and (ii) the inhibition of Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus cereus in the sauce with pH = ∼ 4.6 and a_w < 0.92, subjected to mild pasteurization (F₇₅⁷=1or2min). The results overall collected through the accelerated shelf-life tests clearly demonstrated the microbiological shelf-stability during one month of storage at thermal abuse conditions of both the novel sauces assayed; moreover, the microbial challenge tests revealed that both mild heat treatments assayed were able to inactivate S. aureus; in addition, an inhibition of the growth of B. cereus was seen during storage at 37 °C. Results from this study are expected to be useful both from a scientific and technological standpoint, enabling efficient risk-based development of novel acidified food products.

Hydrothermal Treatment Effect on Antioxidant Activity and Polyphenols Concentration and Profile of Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera) in an In Vitro Simulated Gastrointestinal Digestion Model

Brussels sprouts are a source of polyphenolic compounds. However, their concentration is affected by many factors depending on the plant material, hydrothermal treatment methods and digestion in the gastrointestinal tract. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of hydrothermal treatment on the antioxidant activity, concentration and profile of polyphenols of Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera in an in vitro simulated gastrointestinal digestion model. The study showed a significant effect of the type of hydrothermal treatment on total polyphenol concentration, polyphenolic acid profile, flavonoid content and antioxidant activity. Traditional boiling in water was the least effective type of hydrothermal treatment with respect to bioactive components of Brussels sprouts. Sous-vide was the most effective hydrothermal treatment in terms of retention of polyphenolic compounds and high antioxidant activity, thus providing a better alternative to steam cooking. Using an in vitro model, a significant difference was demonstrated between the concentration of bioavailable polyphenolic compounds and the polyphenol content of the plant material before digestion. The influence of the type of hydrothermal treatment used on the concentration of bioavailable polyphenolic compounds was maintained in relation to material not subjected to in vitro digestion (except for antioxidant activity).

Metabolomic Fingerprinting and Molecular Characterization of the Rock Samphire Germplasm Collection from the Balkan Botanic Garden of Kroussia, Northern Greece

The traditionally edible aerial parts of rock samphire (Crithmum maritimum L.) could be a valuable functional food or feed ingredient due to their high antioxidant capacity, ascorbic acid content, and rich content in secondary metabolites such as phenolics and flavonoids. The first objective of this study was to evaluate eighteen genotypes derived from different regions of Greece regarding the phytochemical contents of their soluble extracts in total phenolics, total flavonoids, and individual polyphenols as determined by LC-MS analysis, as well as ascorbic acid content and their antioxidant capacity as determined by different assays, including ABTS (2,2-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid), DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging activity), and FRAP (ferric reducing antioxidant power) assays. The second objective of the study was the molecular characterization of native Greek C. maritimum genotypes. Great variation among genotypes was observed in terms of the antioxidant capacity, ascorbic acid content, and phenolic compounds (total phenolic content and total flavonoid content), as well as in caffeolquinic acids and flavonoids. The principal component analysis highlighted genotypes with a higher potential in antioxidants and polyphenolics. The most promising genotypes were G9 from Kefalonia, followed by G4 from Ikaria, where both clearly exhibited a similar response with high values of evaluated traits. The molecular characterization of genotypes revealed low variability and low to moderate genetic diversity between populations. Our data indicated that the rock samphire germplasm collection from the Balkan Botanic Garden of Kroussia could serve as an important source of documented genetic material and, thus, it is suggested for further investigation to provide insight regarding cultivation and agro-processing aspects, artificial selection, or plant breeding aimed at developing C. maritimum genotypes of high-bioactive value.

Effect of Saline-Nutrient Solution on Yield, Quality, and Shelf-Life of Sea Fennel (Crithmum maritimum L.) Plants

In this study, the effect of salinity (150 mM NaCl) compared to a control (9 mM NaCl) on growth, quality and shelf-life of fresh-cut sea fennel was evaluated. For that, sea fennel plants were cultivated in a hydroponic floating system and the sea fennel leaves were stored for 12 days at 5 °C. At harvest, leaves from plants grown in salinity had a lower content of NO3−, K+ and Ca2+ and an increased Cl− and Na+ concentration when compared to the control. There was a positive effect in the aerial part with increased fresh weight due to salt stress, but a reduction in the root biomass. During storage, weight loss and colour changes were not significant while leaves’ firmness was higher for control and increased during storage, probably due to lignification. Microbial growth (psychrophiles, yeast and moulds and enterobacteria) was higher at harvest for control and increased during storage, with no differences between treatments after 12 days at 5 °C. Sensory quality was similar for both treatments but leaves from NaCl treatment had a salty taste that was easily detected by panelists. These results show that saline-nutrient solution applied in hydroponics is a suitable system for sea fennel growth. It gives a slightly salty but high-quality product, acceptable as a “ready-to-eat” vegetable.

Anti-Inflammatory Properties, Bioaccessibility and Intestinal Absorption of Sea Fennel (Crithmum maritimum) Extract Encapsulated in Soy Phosphatidylcholine Liposomes

A sea fennel (Crithmum maritimum) aqueous extract was prepared and loaded into soybean phosphatidylcholine liposomes. Both the free extract (FE), and the empty (L) and loaded (L-FE) liposomes were shown to be non-cytotoxic to THP-1 and Caco-2 cells. The anti-inflammatory effect was tested on THP-1 cells differentiated into macrophages. FE showed anti-inflammatory activity, revealed by the induced secretion of IL-10 cytokines in macrophages that were subsequently stimulated with LPS. Also, a decrease in TNF-α production by L was observed, evidencing that liposomes reduced the pro-inflammatory mediators' secretion. The liposomes (L) showed protective anti-inflammatory activity and also were able to downregulate the inflammation. Furthermore, L-FE were also found to downregulate the inflammation response, as they were able to decrease TNF-α secretion in macrophages previously exposed to LPS. The simulated in vitro gastrointestinal digestion (GID) of FE diminished the chlorogenic acid content (the main polyphenolic compound of the extract) by 40%, while in L-FE, the amount of this phenolic compound increased with respect to the undigested liposomes. The amount of bioaccessible chlorogenic, however, was similar for FE and L-FE. The percentage of chlorogenic acid absorbed through a Caco-2 cell monolayer after 3 h of incubation, was significantly similar for the extract and the liposomes (~1.5%), without finding significant differences once the extract and liposomes were digested.

Phenolic profile of jujube fruit subjected to gut microbiota fermentation and its antioxidant potential against ethyl carbamate-induced oxidative damage

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the composition of bioactive substances and the antioxidant effects of jujube fruit under gut microbiota fermentation (GMF), and the inhibitory effect on cytotoxicity caused by ethyl carbamate (EC).

METHODS

Changes in the contents of flavonoids, polyphenols, total sugars, and reducing sugars of jujube fruit after GMF (0, 2, 6, 12, 24, and 48 h) were determined. The oxidation resistance of fermented jujube fruits (from 0 to 48 h fermentation) was evaluated using in vitro 2,2'-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulphonate) (ABTS) and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assays. Inhibitory effects of 48 h-fermented jujube fruit at various concentrations (0.25, 0.50, 1.00, and 2.00 mg/mL) on EC-treated toxicity and DNA damage of Caco-2 cells were estimated using 3-(4,5-dimethyl-2-thiazolyl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) and nuclear staining assays, respectively. Effects of different concentrations of jujube fruit on EC-treated Caco-2 cells' intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), glutathione (GSH) levels, and mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) were also evaluated.

RESULTS

Jujube fruit has rich bioactive components after GMF and shows strong antioxidant capacity. Fermented jujube fruit can inhibit the cytotoxicity and DNA damage of Caco-2 cells caused by EC and reduce intracellular ROS generation, as well as restoring GSH and MMP.

CONCLUSIONS

Fermented jujube fruit extracts produced by GMF still contain biologically active substances which retain biological activity and antioxidation capabilities.

Biotreatment efficiency, hydrolytic potential and bacterial community dynamics in an immobilized cell bioreactor treating caper processing wastewater under highly saline conditions

Although caper processing wastewaters (CPW) are characterized by high organic content and salt concentration, no attempt has been made to treat these effluents. In this study, an immobilized cell bioreactor efficiently treated CPW even at hypersaline conditions (100 g/L salinity). Nitrogen was mainly assimilated during biotreatment, as nitrification was inhibited at elevated salinities. The hydrolytic potential was assessed by determining glucanase, xylanase, glucosidase, lipase and protease activities, which were negatively affected above 20 g/L salinity as the consequence of the inhibition of non-halotolerant microbiota. Succession of non-halotolerant taxa by the slightly halotolerant bacteria Defluviimonas, Amaricoccus, Arenibacter, Formosa and Muricauda, and then by the moderately/extremely halotolerant genera Halomonas, Roseovarius and Idiomarina occurred over salinity increase. Diversity indices were reduced during transition from moderately saline to hypersaline conditions. A distinct network was formed at hypersaline conditions, consisting of the halotolerant genera Halomonas, Idiomarina, Saliterribacillus and Gracilibacillus.

Use of Sea Fennel as a Natural Ingredient of Edible Films for Extending the Shelf Life of Fresh Fish Burgers

The growing interest from consumers toward healthy and nutritious products and their benefits for health has increased the consumption of whole and processed fish. One of the main problems of fish is the short shelf life, especially when it is processed as in the case of burgers. The use of edible coating is an interesting strategy to extend the quality and safety of the product, reducing the need for artificial preservatives. This study evaluated the use of chitosan-based edible film formulated with sea fennel plant and sea fennel extracts. The analyses showed than the use of edible film extended the shelf life of fish burgers regardless of the incorporation of sea fennel mainly associated to the gas barrier properties and selective permeability of the film applied to the fish surface. The incorporation of sea fennel in the films did not produce any antimicrobial enhancement, although sea fennel (mostly extract) produced a better pH and enhanced the antioxidant properties and lipid oxidation of fish burgers. However, sensory analyses showed than fish burgers coated with sea fennel film plant had better acceptability than those with sea fennel extracts, probably due to the better odour and colour of the whole plant during storage. The study showed that the use of sea fennel plant at 12.5% extended the shelf life of fish burgers using a safe and clean label strategy.

Influence of In Vitro Digestion on Composition, Bioaccessibility and Antioxidant Activity of Food Polyphenols-A Non-Systematic Review

There is increased interest in following a healthy lifestyle and consuming a substantial portion of secondary plant metabolites, such as polyphenols, due to their benefits for the human body. Food products enriched with various forms of fruits and vegetables are sources of pro-health components. Nevertheless, in many cases, the level of their activities is changed in in vivo conditions. The changes are strictly connected with processes in the digestive system that transfigure the structure of the active compounds and simultaneously keep or modify their biological activities. Much attention has focused on their bioavailability, a prerequisite for further physiological functions. As human studies are time consuming, costly and restricted by ethical concerns, in vitro models for investigating the effects of digestion on these compounds have been developed to predict their release from the food matrix, as well as their bioaccessibility. Most typically, models simulate digestion in the oral cavity, the stomach, the small intestine and, occasionally, the large intestine. The presented review aims to discuss the impact of in vitro digestion on the composition, bioaccessibility and antioxidant activity of food polyphenols. Additionally, we consider the influence of pH on antioxidant changes in the aforementioned substances.

Encapsulation of ellagic acid from pomegranate peels in microalgae optimized by response surface methodology and an investigation of its controlled released under simulated gastrointestinal studies

Ellagic acid (EA), a naturally occurring bioactive phenolic compound largely found in pomegranate, exhibits significant health benefits due to its antioxidant, antimutagenic, and even anticancerogenic properties. The present work aimed to microencapsulate EA extracted from pomegranate peels. To improve the stability of EA, microencapsulation was applied with Spirulina as a coating material. For this purpose, ethanolic extracts obtained from pomegranate peels were used for microencapsulation. Response surface methodology combined with a three-level, three-variable Box-Behnken design (BBD) was applied to obtain optimum microencapsulation. The microparticles obtained under the optimized encapsulation conditions were further characterized by FT-IR and SEM. The results confirmed the encapsulation of EA in Spirulina cells. Then, the optimum microparticles were used in an in vitro release study. The results of the in vitro digestion with simulated gastrointestinal fluids could help to determine the content and biological activity of EA. In this study, the effect of encapsulation on the release properties of EA during simulated gastrointestinal digestion was also evaluated. HPLC-DAD analysis and the Folin-Ciocalteu and ABTS methods were helpful for characterization of EA in the simulated fluids. The release profile of EA indicated that in simulated intestinal fluid, the release was faster than that in gastric fluid. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: This study describes the microencapsulation of ethanolic extracts of pomegranate peel (PP) in Spirulina. This application has been performed to improve the stability and bioavailability of EA in the extracts. Optimum microencapsulation was obtained by response surface methodology with BBD. After the characterization of the obtained optimum Spirulina/EA mixture by FT-IR and SEM, an in vitro release study was conducted for stability research. The results will guide other researchers working on the determination of the content and biological activity of EA and on optimizing the microencapsulation process.

Polyphenol Compounds and Biological Activity of Caper (Capparis spinosa L.) Flowers Buds

The aim of the study was to analyze potential health-promoting components of caper flower buds (Capparis spinosa L.) at six stages of development in two cultivars. Polyphenol compounds (flavonols, hydroxycinnamic acids, flavan-3-ols) were identified by Liquid Chromatography- quadrupole Time-of-Flight -Mass Spectrofotometer/Mass Spectrofotometer (LC-qTOF-MS/MS) and quantified by Ultra Performance Liquid Chromatography-Photodiode Array-Fluorescence Detector (UPLC-PDA-FL). Moreover, antioxidant properties (ABTS+•, FRAP, and ORAC), anti-diabetic potential (α-amylase and α-glucosidase), and anti-aging activity (acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE)) of the buds were examined. Total phenolic compounds in the investigated caper varied from 10,720 to 3256 mg/100 g dry weight (DW), and depended on a genotype and growing stage of caper flowers. Among six different growing stages, the one named 'nonpareilles' was characterized by significantly higher content of polyphenols than the remaining five stages. The flavonols in caper flowers represented a mixture of different glycosylated quercetin, kaempferol, myricetin, and isorhamnetin derivatives, accounting for 38%-67%, 15%-36%, 4%-7%, and 0.8%-3%, respectively, of total flavonols,. Their contents strongly depended on the growth stage. 'Nonpareilles' and 'surfines' were richer in flavonols than 'fines' and 'gruesas'. Of the six investigated growth stages, 'nonpareilles' accumulated the greatest amounts of bioactive compounds that correlated with antioxidant and anti-diabetic properties, and were more potent BuChE than AChE inhibitors.

Characterization of Aroma-Active Compounds, Phenolics, and Antioxidant Properties in Fresh and Fermented Capers (Capparis spinosa) by GC-MS-Olfactometry and LC-DAD-ESI-MS/MS

Caper (Capparis spinosa) is an important food ingredient whose fresh parts, particularly the flower buds, are consumed as a starter with olives, cheese, and nuts, or are used as a component in other foods. It is one of the most popular species of aromatic plants grown in the Mediterranean zone. Fermentation makes the caper edible and affects the overall aroma as well as sensory and nutritional characteristics. This study aimed to evaluate the changes in aroma, aroma-active, and phenolic compounds of caper as affected by fermentation. Purge and trap method was used for the extraction of the aroma compounds, while gas chromatography-mass spectrometry olfactometry and Liquid chromatography coupled to diode array detection and electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (LC-DAD-ESI-MS/MS) were employed for the detection of aroma-active compounds and phenolics, respectively. The results showed that the total amount of aroma compounds decreased drastically (62,616 to 21,471 µg/kg) in fermented sample. Twelve and 10 aroma-active compounds were detected in fresh and fermented caper buds, respectively, for the first time by the application of aroma extract dilution analysis. Among these compounds, methyl isothiocyanate (flavor dilution [FD] factor = 512) in fresh caper and acetic acid (FD factor = 128) in the fermented caper had the highest FD factor. With regard to the phenolic compounds, a total of 16 components were identified in fresh and fermented capers. As observed in aroma compounds, the total phenolic concentration decreased as a result of fermentation. Two phenolic compounds being kaempferol-3-O-glucosyl-rhamnosyl-glucoside and isorhamnetin hexoside were newly identified in caper. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Capparis spinosa is one of the most popular sources of different secondary metabolites of interest to consumers. The results of the present study showed that the fermentation process of the capers is highly influential on the neutral composition of the sample. The total concentrations of aroma and phenolic compounds were reduced by 66% and 78%, respectively, in response to fermentation process.

Nutraceutical Value of Pantelleria Capers (Capparis spinosa L.)

Unopened flower buds of Capparis spinosa L. (capers), generally used in the Mediterranean area as food flavoring, are known to be a good source of bioactive compounds. The aim of this work was to evaluate the nutraceutical value of salt-fermented capers collected from different areas of Pantelleria Island (Italy), testing their methylglyoxal and glyoxal trapping capacity and antioxidant activity by 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl hydrazyl (DPPH), [2,2-azinobis(3-ethylben- zothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)] diammonium salt (ABTS), and oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) assays. Hydrophilic extracts were also characterized by high-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization/mass spectrometry. Among 24 detected compounds, several flavonol derivatives and glucosinolates were identified. The levels of kaempferol and quercetin derivatives varied considerably among the five accessions considered (6.46 to 267.93 and 22.39 to 367.14 mg kaempferol and quercetin equivalent /g fresh weight, respectively), with kaempferol derivatives more representative than quercetin ones. Person's coefficient indicated a high correlation between total phenolic content and anti-DPPH radical capacity (R² = 0.665), as well as between total flavonoid content and antioxidant capacity (by ORAC assay; R² = 0.888) and between total flavonoid content and glyoxal and methylglyoxal trapping capacity (R² = 0.918). Results indicate that capers from Pantelleria Island represent a rich source of bioactive compounds with potential nutraceutical relevance. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The findings of this study highlight the health benefits of Pantelleria capers consumption due to their composition in antioxidants and their biological properties (antiradical and alpha-dicarbonyls trapping) correlated with the development of a high number of chronic-degenerative diseases. These results are also important for the agricultural and commercial sectors involved in the production of capers from Pantelleria, which received the Protected Geographical Indications recognition.

Encapsulation of antioxidant sea fennel (Crithmum maritimum) aqueous and ethanolic extracts in freeze-dried soy phosphatidylcholine liposomes

Soy phosphatidylcholine liposomes encapsulating increasing concentrations of two sea fennel extracts (aqueous and ethanolic) prepared by ultrasonication were freeze-dried, using glycerol as lyoprotectant. Particle properties, water dispersibility, colour, thermal properties and antioxidant capacity (radical scavenging capacity, ferric ion reducing power, Folin-reactive substances) of the liposomal preparations were determined. The freeze-drying process caused an overall increase in particle size and polydispersity index, while the zeta-potential became more electronegative. Both sea fennel extracts were rich in chlorogenic acid (42.61 and 58.48 mg/g for the aqueous and ethanolic extracts, respectively) and showed great antioxidant activity. Vitamin C was identified in the aqueous extract, whereas rutin and rosmarinic acid in the ethanolic one. The entrapment efficiency, determined in the liposomes prepared at the highest extract concentration, was 65.6% and 49.1% for the aqueous extract and the ethanolic extract, respectively. The liposomal antioxidant activity and total phenolic content followed a linear increasing tendency as a result of increasing the extract concentration, irrespective of the type of extract. Higher antioxidant activity was found in the liposomes loaded with the ethanolic extract, in a clear relationship to the greater amount of highly antioxidant phenolic compounds extracted, and also to their lower entrapment efficiency, which caused a greater amount of extract to remain outside the liposome. Both extracts were suitable for producing liposomes with antioxidant properties which could be dried and used to design functional foods.

Investigating the Phospholipid Effect on the Bioaccessibility of Rosmarinic Acid-Phospholipid Complex through a Dynamic Gastrointestinal in Vitro Model

Phyto-phospholipid complexes have been developed as a common way of improving the oral bioavailability of poorly absorbable phyto-pharmaceuticals; however, the complexation with phospholipids can induce positive or negative effects on the bioaccessibility of such plant-derived active ingredients in different parts of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT). The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of phospholipid complexation on the bioaccessibility of a rosmarinic acid-phospholipid complex (RA-PLC) using the TNO dynamic intestinal model-1 (TIM-1). Preparation of RA-PLC was confirmed using X-ray diffraction, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, partition coefficient measurement, and Caco-2 monolayer permeation test. Bioaccessibility parameters in different GIT compartments were investigated. Complexation by phospholipids reduced the bioaccessibility of RA in jejunum compartment, while maintaining the ileum bioaccessibility. The overall bioaccessibility of RA-PLC was lower than the unformulated drug, suggesting that the improved oral absorption from a previous animal study could be considered as a net result of decreased bioaccessibility overwhelmed by enhanced intestinal permeability. This study provides insights into the effects of phospholipid on the bioaccessibility of hydrophilic compounds, and analyzes them based on the relationship between bioaccessibility, membrane permeability, and bioavailability. Additionally, TIM-1 shows promise in the evaluation of dosage forms containing materials with complicated effects on bioaccessibility.

Phenolic profile and antioxidant activity of Jasonia glutinosa herbal tea. Influence of simulated gastrointestinal in vitro digestion

In order to value J. glutinosa DC (rock tea), we characterised its phenolic profile and antioxidant activity. The study was performed in aqueous extracts before and after a simulated in vitro digestion to obtain data regarding phenolics bioavailability. Methanolic extracts were also analysed for comparison purposes. Phytochemical profiles were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography with mass spectrometric detection, whereas total phenolic content (TPC) and antioxidant assays were performed by conventional spectrophotometric methods. The most abundant compounds were dicaffeoylquinic acids, representing more than 90% of phenolics in tea infusions. Statistically significant differences were observed for all parameters except for TPC in methanol and aqueous extracts. Both phenolics amount and antioxidant activities were lower after the in vitro digestion of the infusions. However, although phenolics were lost during the simulated digestion, rock tea is still a good source of bioactive compounds with potential applications in the pharmaceutical or nutraceutical industries.

From Ecology to Biotechnology, Study of the Defense Strategies of Algae and Halophytes (from Trapani Saltworks, NW Sicily) with a Focus on Antioxidants and Antimicrobial Properties

This study aimed at the characterization of the antioxidant power of polyphenol extracts (PE) obtained from the algae Cystoseira foeniculacea (CYS) (Phaeophyta) and from the halophyte Halocnemum strobilaceum (HAL), growing in the solar saltworks of western Sicily (Italy), and at the evaluation of their anti-microfouling properties, in order to correlate these activities to defense strategies in extreme environmental conditions. The antioxidant properties were assessed in the PE based on the total antioxidant activity test and the reducing power test; the anti-microfouling properties of the two PE were evaluated by measuring the growth inhibition of marine fish and shellfish pathogen bacteria as well as marine surface fouling bacteria and microalgae exposed to the fractions. Similar polyphenol content (CYS 5.88 ± 0.75 and HAL 6.03 ± 0.25 mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE) g-1 dried weight, DW) and similar reducing power percentage (93.91 ± 4.34 and 90.03 ± 6.19) were recorded for both species, even if they exhibited a different total antioxidant power (measured by the percentage of inhibition of the radical 2,2 diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl DPPH), with CYS (79.30) more active than HAL (59.90). Both PE showed anti-microfouling properties, being inhibitors of adhesion and growth of marine fish and shellfish pathogen bacteria (V. aestuarianus, V. carchariae, V. harveyi, P. elyakovii, H. aquamarina) and fouling bacteria (V. natriegens, V. proteolyticus, P. iirgensii, R. litoralis) with minimum inhibitory concentrations comparable to the commercial antifouling products used as a positive control (SEA-NINE™ 211N). Only CYS was a significant inhibitor of the microalgae strains tested, being able to reduce E. gayraliae and C. closterium growth (MIC 10 µg·mL-1) and the adhesion of all three strains tested (E. gayraliae, C. closterium and P. purpureum), suggesting its promise for use as an antifouling (AF) product.

In vitro digestion and domestic cooking improved the total antioxidant activity and carbohydrate-digestive enzymes inhibitory potential of selected edible mushrooms

This study aimed to investigate the effect of in vitro digestion on the antioxidant activity and carbohydrate-digestive enzymes inhibitory potential of five edible mushrooms after subjected to four domestic cooking; namely, boiling, microwaving, steaming and pressure-cooking. The water extracts of raw (uncooked), cooked and in vitro digested mushrooms were compared for their water-soluble phenolic content (WPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), radical scavenging activity (TEAC and DPPH), anti-α-amylase and anti-α-glucosidase activities. Among the raw samples, Lentinula edodes possessed the highest antioxidant activities (FRAP, TEAC, DPPH) and WPC while Pleurotus sajor-caju displayed the highest TFC, anti-α-amylase and anti-α-glucosidase activities. The antioxidant and carbohydrate-digestive enzyme inhibitory activities significantly varied according to mushroom species and cooking methods applied. Short duration of microwaving (Agaricus bisporus and Flammulina velutipes), boiling (Auricularia polytricha) and pressure cooking (L. edodes and P. sajor-caju) yielded the best antioxidant and carbohydrate-digestive enzymes inhibition values in the mushroom extracts. TFC was positively correlated with the antioxidant activities and anti-α-glucosidase activity in the mushroom extracts. In vitro digestion significantly improved the total antioxidant and anti-α-glucosidase activities but decreased the anti-α-amylase activity in the cooked mushroom extracts. Principle component analysis showed that in vitro digestion and the cooking process accounted for respective 48.9% and 19.7% of variation in the observed activities. Domestic cooking and in vitro digestion could potentiate the total antioxidant and carbohydrate-digestive enzymes inhibitory activities in the selected water extract of edible mushrooms.

Influence of the in vitro gastrointestinal digestion on the antioxidant activity of Artemisia gorgonum Webb and Hyptis pectinata (L.) Poit. infusions from Cape Verde

The phenolic profile and antioxidant activity of Cape Verde's Artemisia gorgonum Webb and Hyptis pectinata (L.) Poit. infusions before and after in vitro simulation of the gastrointestinal digestion were determined. The LC-UV/DAD fingerprinting analysis allowed the identification of 3-O-caffeoylquinic acid, chlorogenic acid, 3,5 dicaffeoylquinic acid, 4,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid and other caffeoylquinic acids derivatives on A. gorgonum infusion, and of caffeoylquinic acid and quercetin derivatives on H. pectinata infusion. Despite some decrease in the chromatographic area of several peaks, no relevant qualitative alterations on the chromatographic profile were observed between the digested and undigested herbal infusions. Results obtained showed a decrease on the antioxidant capacity of both tested herbal infusions after the in vitro digestion. This decrease was more pronounced for H. pectinata than for A. gorgonum and was also more pronounced regarding the radical scavenging capacity than regarding the reducing capacity. After complete digestion the superoxide anion and the DPPH-radical scavenging capacities decreased ≈ 43 and 75% for H. pectinata and ≈ 31 and 70% for A. gorgonum. Despite the observed differences before and after simulated gastrointestinal digestion, both infusions still had antioxidant activity at the end of this process. Thus, the antioxidant potential of A. gorgonum and H. pectinata infusions from Cape Verde, prepared as traditionally used, seems to be kept in some extend throughout the digestive system.