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Grönlund K, Nissinen VH, Rytöluoto I, Mosallaei M, Mikkonen J, Korpijärvi K, Auvinen P, Suvanto M, Saarinen JJ, Jänis J. Direct Mass Spectrometric Analysis of Brominated Flame Retardants in Synthetic Polymers. ACS OMEGA 2024; 9:33011-33021. [PMID: 39100298 PMCID: PMC11292827 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.4c04059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2024] [Revised: 06/20/2024] [Accepted: 07/11/2024] [Indexed: 08/06/2024]
Abstract
Brominated flame retardants (BFRs) are persistent organic pollutants that pose a major threat to the environment. In this study, a direct insertion probe (DIP) coupled with atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI) quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (QTOF-MS) was used to characterize additives, especially BFRs, from solid polymer samples with minimal sample preparation. A temperature-programmed DIP analysis, from 150 to 450 °C within 10 min, was utilized to achieve temporal separation of analytes based on their boiling or degradation temperatures, thereby facilitating their easier identification within a single run. Studied BFRs showed different behaviors during the analysis: decabromodiphenyl ether and tetrabromobisphenol A were found to be stable within the studied temperature range, while hexabromocyclododecane already started to debrominate. Our study showed that the DIP-APCI-MS method suited well for the direct qualitative identification of BFRs from polymer matrices. Furthermore, by optimizing the sampling procedure with cryogenic grinding, even quantitative analysis could be performed. The DIP measurements also provided important information about the composition of polymer matrices, including the identification of the comonomers present. Overall, DIP-APCI QTOF-MS was found to be an excellent tool for the compositional analysis of plastic samples. Developing rapid and reliable analysis methods can pave the way for more efficient plastic recycling and the safer use of plastic recyclates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krista Grönlund
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistokatu 7, 80130 Joensuu, Finland
| | - Ville H. Nissinen
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistokatu 7, 80130 Joensuu, Finland
| | - Ilkka Rytöluoto
- VTT
Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd., Visiokatu 4, 33101 Tampere, Finland
| | - Milad Mosallaei
- VTT
Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd., Visiokatu 4, 33101 Tampere, Finland
| | - Joonas Mikkonen
- VTT
Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd., Visiokatu 4, 33101 Tampere, Finland
| | - Kirsi Korpijärvi
- VTT
Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd., Koivurannantie 1, 40400 Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Paavo Auvinen
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistokatu 7, 80130 Joensuu, Finland
| | - Mika Suvanto
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistokatu 7, 80130 Joensuu, Finland
| | - Jarkko J. Saarinen
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistokatu 7, 80130 Joensuu, Finland
| | - Janne Jänis
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistokatu 7, 80130 Joensuu, Finland
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Leung G, McKinney MA, Yaylayan V, Bayen S. Abiotic degradations of legacy and novel flame retardants in environmental and food matrices - a review. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2024; 41:811-832. [PMID: 38805263 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2024.2354496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2024] [Accepted: 05/08/2024] [Indexed: 05/29/2024]
Abstract
Flame retardants (FRs) are commonly added to commercial products to achieve flammability resistance. Since most of them are not chemically bonded to the materials, they could be leached to the environment during the production and disposal cycle. These FRs were categorised based on their chemical nature, including brominated, organophosphorus-, mineral- and nitrogen-based. This review summarised the abiotic degradation reactions of these four classes of FRs, with a focus on thermal and photodegradation reactions in environmental and food matrices. Only 24 papers have reported related information on abiotic degradation reactions that could be useful for predicting possible degradation pathways, and most focused on brominated FRs. Most studies also investigated the thermal degradation of FRs under high temperatures (>400 °C), which exceeds the normal cooking temperature at 100-300 °C. For photodegradation, studies have used up to five times the energy typically used in UV radiation during food processing. It is recommended that future studies investigate the fate of these FRs in foods under more realistic processing conditions, to provide a more comprehensive picture of the estimated consumption of FRs and their degradation products from foods, and facilitate a better risk assessment of the use of these novel FRs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Leung
- Department of Food Science and Agricultural Chemistry, McGill University, Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue, Canada
| | - Melissa A McKinney
- Department of Natural Resource Sciences, McGill University, Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue, Canada
| | - Varoujan Yaylayan
- Department of Food Science and Agricultural Chemistry, McGill University, Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue, Canada
| | - Stéphane Bayen
- Department of Food Science and Agricultural Chemistry, McGill University, Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue, Canada
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Schrenk D, Bignami M, Bodin L, Chipman JK, del Mazo J, Grasl‐Kraupp B, Hogstrand C, (Ron) Hoogenboom L, Leblanc J, Nebbia CS, Nielsen E, Ntzani E, Petersen A, Sand S, Schwerdtle T, Wallace H, Benford D, Fürst P, Hart A, Rose M, Schroeder H, Vrijheid M, Ioannidou S, Nikolič M, Bordajandi LR, Vleminckx C. Update of the risk assessment of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in food. EFSA J 2024; 22:e8497. [PMID: 38269035 PMCID: PMC10807361 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2024.8497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2024] Open
Abstract
The European Commission asked EFSA to update its 2011 risk assessment on polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in food, focusing on 10 congeners: BDE-28, -47, -49, -99, -100, -138, -153, -154, -183 and ‑209. The CONTAM Panel concluded that the neurodevelopmental effects on behaviour and reproductive/developmental effects are the critical effects in rodent studies. For four congeners (BDE-47, -99, -153, -209) the Panel derived Reference Points, i.e. benchmark doses and corresponding lower 95% confidence limits (BMDLs), for endpoint-specific benchmark responses. Since repeated exposure to PBDEs results in accumulation of these chemicals in the body, the Panel estimated the body burden at the BMDL in rodents, and the chronic intake that would lead to the same body burden in humans. For the remaining six congeners no studies were available to identify Reference Points. The Panel concluded that there is scientific basis for inclusion of all 10 congeners in a common assessment group and performed a combined risk assessment. The Panel concluded that the combined margin of exposure (MOET) approach was the most appropriate risk metric and applied a tiered approach to the risk characterisation. Over 84,000 analytical results for the 10 congeners in food were used to estimate the exposure across dietary surveys and age groups of the European population. The most important contributors to the chronic dietary Lower Bound exposure to PBDEs were meat and meat products and fish and seafood. Taking into account the uncertainties affecting the assessment, the Panel concluded that it is likely that current dietary exposure to PBDEs in the European population raises a health concern.
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Klimm A, Vetter W. Hydroxylated transformation products obtained after UV irradiation of the current-use brominated flame retardants hexabromobenzene, pentabromotoluene, and pentabromoethylbenzene. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:118556-118566. [PMID: 37917263 PMCID: PMC10697972 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-30566-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Accepted: 10/16/2023] [Indexed: 11/04/2023]
Abstract
Hexabromobenzene (HBB), pentabromotoluene (PBT), and pentabromoethylbenzene (PBEB) are current-use brominated flame retardants (cuBFRs) which have been repeatedly detected in environmental samples. Since information on hydroxylated transformation products (OH-TPs) was scarcely available, the three polybrominated compounds were UV irradiated for 10 min in benzotrifluoride. Fractionation on silica gel enabled the separate collection and identification of OH-TPs. For more insights, aliquots of the separated OH-TPs were UV irradiated for another 50 min (60 min total UV irradiation time). The present investigation of polar UV irradiation products of HBB, PBT, and PBEB was successful in each case. Altogether, eight bromophenols were detected in the case of HBB (three Br3-, four Br4-, and one Br5-isomer), and nine OH-TPs were observed in the case of PBT/PBEB (six Br3- and three Br4-congeners). In either case, Br➔OH exchange was more relevant than H➔OH exchange. Also, such exchange was most relevant in meta- and ortho-positions. As a further point, and in agreement with other studies, the transformation rate decreased with decreasing degree of bromination. UV irradiation of HBB additionally resulted in the formation of tri- and tetrabrominated dihydroxylated compounds (brominated diphenols) that were subsequently identified. These dihydroxylated transformation products were found to be more stable than OH-TPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Klimm
- University of Hohenheim, Institute of Food Chemistry (170b), Garbenstraße 28, D-70599, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Walter Vetter
- University of Hohenheim, Institute of Food Chemistry (170b), Garbenstraße 28, D-70599, Stuttgart, Germany.
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Synthesis and evaluation of hydroxy- and dihydroxy brominated benzenes, methyl- and ethylbenzenes: potential metabolites of current-use brominated flame retardants. J Chromatogr A 2022; 1673:463109. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2022.463109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2022] [Revised: 04/28/2022] [Accepted: 04/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Zhang YQ, Tang CX, Dong Y, Wu CC, Bao LJ, Zeng EY. Effects of cooking on oral bioaccessibility of PBDEs, MeO-PBDEs, and OH-PBDEs in fish (tilapia) and chicken egg. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 748:142310. [PMID: 33113684 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2020] [Revised: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 09/07/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Human health concerns are rising with polybrominated diphenyl ethers' (PBDEs) analogues, methoxylated and hydroxylated PBDEs (MeO-PBDEs and OH-PBDEs), due to their occurrences in foods and greater potential toxicological effects than PBDEs. While the oral bioaccessibilities (BA%) of PBDEs in foods are available, such information on MeO-PBDEs and OH-PBDEs, and the effects of cooking on them have not been adequately addressed. The present study was conducted with fish and chicken egg as typical foods to assess the bioaccessibility (BA%) of PBDEs, MeO-PBDEs, and OH-PBDEs using the colon extended physiologically based extraction test and examine the effects of cooking processes (boiling, frying, and steaming) on them. The results showed that thermal degradation or transformation of the target compounds did not occur during boiling and frying of fish. The BA% of individual PBDEs, MeO-PBDEs, and OH-PBDEs were 20-51% for boiled fish, 11-20% for pan-fried fish, 15-77% for steamed egg, and 42-68% for pan-fried egg. Cooking decreased the BA% of all target compounds in fish due to protein denaturation. However, the BA% of OH-PBDEs in pan-fried egg were greater than those in steamed egg. In addition, the substituent groups of CH3O- and OH- did not pose any effects on the BA% of BDE-47 in fish, but OH-group decreased its BA% in egg. These findings suggested that MeO-PBDEs and OH-PBDEs exhibited the similar oral BA% in fish to PBDEs, but the underlying mechanism for the effects of cooking on BA% of OH-PBDEs in egg needs to be further investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Qi Zhang
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China
| | - Chun-Xue Tang
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China
| | - Ying Dong
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China
| | - Chen-Chou Wu
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China
| | - Lian-Jun Bao
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China.
| | - Eddy Y Zeng
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China; Research Center of Low Carbon Economy for Guangzhou Region, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
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Cruz R, Mendes E, Maulvault AL, Marques A, Casal S, Cunha SC. Bioaccessibility of polybrominated diphenyl ethers and their methoxylated metabolites in cooked seafood after using a multi-compartment in vitro digestion model. CHEMOSPHERE 2020; 252:126462. [PMID: 32197177 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.126462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2020] [Revised: 03/08/2020] [Accepted: 03/09/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) comprise a major class of brominated flame retardants and are well-known endocrine disruptors. The dietary route, through contaminated seafood consumption, is a main contributor to human exposure. Hence, the aim of this work was to provide thorough information on the dietary pathway of PBDEs and their methoxylated metabolites (MeO-PBDEs) after consumption of contaminated cooked seafood. The analyses were performed by gas chromatography (tandem) mass spectrometry using environmental-friendly extractive methods validated for fish and samples from several digestion segments with limits of detection at the pictogram level (per gram or milliliter of sample). Selected fish species were artificially contaminated and cooked using common household practices (steamed, grilled and microwaved), resulting in considerable loss of pollutants (up to 32% loss), with significant differences between cooking methods and species. Finally, an in vitro method that simulates four human adult digestion steps (oral, gastric digestion, small and large intestinal digestion) was applied to raw and cooked fish. Bioaccessibility of PBDEs and MeO-PBDEs in small intestinal was low (below 24%), pointing to a heavy impact in gut microbiota. Nevertheless, gut microbiota was able to reduce the amounts of targeted contaminants (up to 82%) in the large intestine. The results achieved herein are of great value to predict both amounts and nature of PBDEs and MeO-PBDEs that seafood consumers may be exposed after the ingestion of contaminated food as to ascertain more accurately the impact on human and environmental health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebeca Cruz
- LAQV/REQUIMTE, Laboratório de Bromatologia e Hidrologia, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal
| | - Eulália Mendes
- LAQV/REQUIMTE, Laboratório de Bromatologia e Hidrologia, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal
| | - Ana Luísa Maulvault
- IPMA, Divisão de Aquacultura e Valorização, Instituto Português do Mar e da Atmosfera, I.P., Avenida de Brasília, 1449-006, Lisboa, Portugal; CIIMAR, Universidade do Porto, Rua dos Bragas 289, 4050-123, Porto, Portugal
| | - António Marques
- IPMA, Divisão de Aquacultura e Valorização, Instituto Português do Mar e da Atmosfera, I.P., Avenida de Brasília, 1449-006, Lisboa, Portugal; CIIMAR, Universidade do Porto, Rua dos Bragas 289, 4050-123, Porto, Portugal
| | - Susana Casal
- LAQV/REQUIMTE, Laboratório de Bromatologia e Hidrologia, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal; EPIUnit - Instituto de Saúde Pública, Universidade do Porto, Rua das Taipas 135, 4050-600, Porto, Portugal
| | - Sara C Cunha
- LAQV/REQUIMTE, Laboratório de Bromatologia e Hidrologia, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal.
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8
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Klimm A, Brenner D, Lok B, Sprengel J, Krätschmer K, Vetter W. Photolytic Transformation Products of Decabromodiphenyl Ethane (DBDPE). ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:6302-6309. [PMID: 31063365 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b01231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
The photolytic transformation of decabromodiphenyl ethane-a current-use brominated flame retardant and major substitute of the structurally related decabromodiphenyl ether-was investigated in different solvents (toluene, dichloromethane, chlorobenzene, and benzyl alcohol). The transformation rate followed pseudo first order kinetics, with increasing half-life ( t1/2) in the order of toluene ( t1/2 = 4.6 min), chlorobenzene ( t1/2 = 14.0 min), dichloromethane ( t1/2 = 27.9 min), and benzyl alcohol ( t1/2 ≈ 60 min). Formation and amount of transformation products varied depending on the solvent used. A detailed study of the hydrodebromination products allowed us to tentatively assign all three possible nonaBDPEs (BDPE 207, 208, and in benzyl alcohol only BDPE 206) and three predominant octaBDPE congeners (BDPE 197, 201, and 202). Next to the reported BDPEs, formation of several oxygen containing transformation products (OxyTPs), dominated by octabrominated OxyTP, was verified by GC-Orbitrap-HRMS analysis. Use of HPLC and Florisil column enabled the separation of OxyTPs and BDPEs, and the polybrominated OxyTPs were most likely tricyclic compounds with almost planar structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Klimm
- Institute of Food Chemistry , University of Hohenheim , Garbenstraße 28 , D-70599 Stuttgart , Germany
| | - Daniela Brenner
- Institute of Food Chemistry , University of Hohenheim , Garbenstraße 28 , D-70599 Stuttgart , Germany
| | - Bianca Lok
- Institute of Food Chemistry , University of Hohenheim , Garbenstraße 28 , D-70599 Stuttgart , Germany
| | - Jannik Sprengel
- Institute of Food Chemistry , University of Hohenheim , Garbenstraße 28 , D-70599 Stuttgart , Germany
| | - Kerstin Krätschmer
- Institute of Food Chemistry , University of Hohenheim , Garbenstraße 28 , D-70599 Stuttgart , Germany
- European Union Reference Laboratory (EU-RL) for Halogenated POPs in Feed and Food , D-79114 Freiburg , Germany
| | - Walter Vetter
- Institute of Food Chemistry , University of Hohenheim , Garbenstraße 28 , D-70599 Stuttgart , Germany
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9
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Thorough study of persistent organic pollutants and halogenated natural products in sperm whale blubber through preparative sample cleanup followed by fractionation with countercurrent chromatography. J Chromatogr A 2018; 1565:114-123. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2018.06.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2018] [Revised: 06/11/2018] [Accepted: 06/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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10
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Mi XB, Su Y, Bao LJ, Tao S, Zeng EY. Significance of Cooking Oil to Bioaccessibility of Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes (DDTs) and Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs) in Raw and Cooked Fish: Implications for Human Health Risk. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2017; 65:3268-3275. [PMID: 28382825 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.7b00505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The present study examined the bioacessibility of DDTs and PBDEs in cooked fish (yellow grouper; Epinephelus awoara) with and without heating using the colon extended physiologically based extraction test. The bioaccessibility of DDTs and PBDEs increased from 60 and 26% in raw fish to 83 and 63%, respectively, after the addition of oil to raw fish. However, they decreased from 83 to 66% and from 63 to 40%, respectively, when oil-added fish were cooked. Human health risk assessment based on bioaccessible concentrations of DDTs and PBDEs in fish showed that the maximum allowable daily fish consumption rates decreased from 25, 59, and 86 g day-1 to 22, 53, and 77 g day-1 for children, youths, and adults, respectively, after fish were cooked with oil. These findings indicated that the significance of cooking oil to the bioaccessibility of DDTs and PBDEs in food should be considered in assessments of human health risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiu-Bo Mi
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences , Guangzhou 510640, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences , Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yang Su
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences , Guangzhou 510640, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences , Beijing 100049, China
| | - Lian-Jun Bao
- School of Environment, Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Environmental Exposure and Health, and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, Jinan University , Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Shu Tao
- Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Science, Peking University , Beijing 100871, China
| | - Eddy Y Zeng
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences , Guangzhou 510640, China
- School of Environment, Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Environmental Exposure and Health, and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, Jinan University , Guangzhou 510632, China
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Krauß S, Hammann S, Vetter W. Phytyl Fatty Acid Esters in the Pulp of Bell Pepper (Capsicum annuum). JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2016; 64:6306-6311. [PMID: 27458658 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.6b02645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Phytyl fatty acid esters (PFAE) are esters of fatty acids with the isoprenoid alcohol phytol (3,7R,11R,15-tetramethylhexadec-2E-enol). In this study, PFAE were identified and quantified in bell pepper using gas chromatography with mass spectrometry (GC-MS). All red (n = 14) and yellow (n = 6) samples contained six or seven PFAE at 0.9-11.2 mg/100 g fresh weight. By contrast, PFAE were not detected in green bell pepper samples (n = 3). PFAE might eventually be a source for bioavailable phytol, which can be transformed into phytanic acid by humans. Phytanic acid cannot be properly degraded by patients who suffer from Refsum's disease (tolerable daily intake (TDI) ≤ 10 mg of phytanic acid). The phytol moiety of the PFAE (0.4-5.4 mg/100 g fresh weight) would contribute up to ∼50% to the TDI with the consumption of only one portion of bell pepper fruit pulp.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Krauß
- Institute of Food Chemistry (170b), University of Hohenheim , Garbenstrasse 28, D-70599 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Simon Hammann
- Institute of Food Chemistry (170b), University of Hohenheim , Garbenstrasse 28, D-70599 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Walter Vetter
- Institute of Food Chemistry (170b), University of Hohenheim , Garbenstrasse 28, D-70599 Stuttgart, Germany
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12
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Gallistl C, Vetter W. Synthesis, liquid chromatographic fractionation and partial characterization of polybrominated dibenzofuran congeners. J Chromatogr A 2016; 1442:62-72. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2016.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2015] [Revised: 03/03/2016] [Accepted: 03/07/2016] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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13
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Vetter W, Gall V, Skírnisson K. Polyhalogenated compounds (PCBs, chlordanes, HCB and BFRs) in four polar bears (Ursus maritimus) that swam malnourished from East Greenland to Iceland. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2015; 533:290-296. [PMID: 26172596 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2015] [Revised: 07/02/2015] [Accepted: 07/03/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Levels of organohalogen compounds (PCBs, chlordane, PBB 153, PBDEs, HCB) were determined in adipose tissue, liver, kidney and muscle of four polar bears which swam and/or drifted to Iceland in extremely malnourished condition. Since the colonization in the 9th century polar bears have been repeatedly observed in Iceland. However, in recent years three of the animals have clearly left their natural habitat in poor condition in May or June, i.e. at the end of the major feeding season. The fourth bear is believed to have drifted with melting ice to North-Eastern Iceland in mid-winter. The concentrations of the POPs were within the range or higher than the typical concentrations measured in polar bears from the East Greenland population. In addition to the targeted compounds, we tentatively detected Dechlorane 602 and its potential hydrodechlorinated Cl11-metabolite in all samples. Moreover, a polychlorinated compound which partly co-eluted with PCB 209 was detected in all liver samples but not in adipose tissue, kidney or muscle. The mass spectrum of the potential metabolite did not allow determining its structure. Polar bears are good swimmers and can reach Iceland from the ice edge of East Greenland within a few days. Potential reasons for the swims are briefly discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walter Vetter
- University of Hohenheim, Institute of Food Chemistry, Garbenstr. 28, D-70593 Stuttgart, Germany.
| | - Vanessa Gall
- University of Hohenheim, Institute of Food Chemistry, Garbenstr. 28, D-70593 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Karl Skírnisson
- University of Iceland, Keldur, Institute for Experimental Pathology, IS-112 Reykjavík, Iceland
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Vetter W, Bendig P, Blumenstein M, Hägele F, Behnisch PA, Brouwer A. Formation of polybrominated dibenzofurans (PBDFs) after heating of a salmon sample spiked with decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-209). ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2015; 22:14530-14536. [PMID: 25043594 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-014-3267-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2014] [Accepted: 06/26/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Fish is a major source for the intake of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). However, fish is scarcely consumed without being cooked, and previous studies showed that the heating of salmon fillet contaminated with BDE-209 for longer periods of time was accompanied with the partial transformation of this brominated flame retardant. In this study, we heated salmon fillet spiked with BDE-209 and verified that this process was linked with the formation of polybrominated dibenzofurans (PBDFs) in the fish. Each minute of heating 1 g salmon fillet spiked with 200 ng BDE-209 generated about 0.5 ‰ PBDFs relative to the initial amount of the pre-dioxin BDE-209. This result of the chemical analysis by gas chromatography with mass spectrometry (GC/MS) was verified by means of an effect-directed bio-assay (DR CALUX). While unheated salmon with BDE-209 and heated salmon without BDE-209 were tested nontoxic, the bioanalytical response of fish linearly increased upon heating. We also found that PBDF formation did neither occur with BDE-47 nor when BDE-209 was heated in edible oil instead of salmon fillet. Due to the formation of PBDFs in this process, the consumption of heated, BDE-209 contaminated fish may add to the uptake of dioxin-like compounds with our diet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walter Vetter
- Institute of Food Chemistry, University of Hohenheim, 70593, Stuttgart, Germany.
| | - Paul Bendig
- Institute of Food Chemistry, University of Hohenheim, 70593, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Marina Blumenstein
- Institute of Food Chemistry, University of Hohenheim, 70593, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Florian Hägele
- Institute of Food Chemistry, University of Hohenheim, 70593, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Peter A Behnisch
- BioDetection Systems BV (BDS), Science Park 406, 1098 XH, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Abraham Brouwer
- BioDetection Systems BV (BDS), Science Park 406, 1098 XH, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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15
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Widespread occurrence of polyhalogenated compounds in fat from kitchen hoods. Anal Bioanal Chem 2013; 405:7485-96. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-013-7194-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2013] [Revised: 06/14/2013] [Accepted: 06/28/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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16
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Bendig P, Hägele F, Blumenstein M, Schmidt J, Vetter W. Fate of polybrominated diphenyl ethers during cooking of fish in a new model cooking apparatus and a household microwave. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2013; 61:6728-6733. [PMID: 23772916 DOI: 10.1021/jf4013696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Fish is a major source of human exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). Because fish is mainly consumed after cooking, this measure may alter the pattern and amounts of PBDEs that are finally consumed. To investigate this issue, we developed a model cooking apparatus consisting of a small glass bowl and a beaker glass with an exhaust fitted with a polyurethane foam filter connected to a water jet pump. In this model cooking apparatus, fish (1 g) and/or sunflower oil (0.2/0.4 g) spiked with three PBDE congeners was cooked for 30 min. Small amounts of the semi-volatile PBDEs were evaporated from the fish (BDE-47 < BDE-15), while the non-volatile BDE-209 was partly transformed. Additional experiments in a household microwave provided similar results, except that no transformation was observed for BDE-209. The model cooking apparatus proved to be well-suited to study the fate of polyhalogenated compounds in fish during cooking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Bendig
- Institute of Food Chemistry, University of Hohenheim , Garbenstrasse 28, D-70599 Stuttgart, Germany
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