1
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Wang Y, Wu R, Zhao S, Quan Z, Su Y, Huo C. Air promoted annulation of thiophenols with alkynes leading to benzothiophenes. Org Biomol Chem 2018; 16:1667-1671. [DOI: 10.1039/c8ob00010g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Air promoted intermolecular annulation of thiophenols with alkynes, leading to complex benzothiophenes, is reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yajun Wang
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Northwest Normal University
- Gansu 730070
- China
| | - Rui Wu
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Northwest Normal University
- Gansu 730070
- China
| | - Shijun Zhao
- College of Foreign Languages
- Lanzhou University of Technology
- Gansu 730050
- China
| | - Zhengjun Quan
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Northwest Normal University
- Gansu 730070
- China
| | - Yingpeng Su
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Northwest Normal University
- Gansu 730070
- China
| | - Congde Huo
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Northwest Normal University
- Gansu 730070
- China
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2
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Melo T, Domingues P, Ferreira R, Milic I, Fedorova M, Santos SM, Segundo MA, Domingues MRM. Recent Advances on Mass Spectrometry Analysis of Nitrated Phospholipids. Anal Chem 2016; 88:2622-9. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.5b03407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tânia Melo
- Mass Spectrometry Centre, Department of Chemistry & QOPNA, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Pedro Domingues
- Mass Spectrometry Centre, Department of Chemistry & QOPNA, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Rita Ferreira
- Mass Spectrometry Centre, Department of Chemistry & QOPNA, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Ivana Milic
- Institute
of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry and Mineralogy, Universität Leipzig, 04109 Leipzig, Germany
- Center
for Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Universität Leipzig, 04109 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Maria Fedorova
- Institute
of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry and Mineralogy, Universität Leipzig, 04109 Leipzig, Germany
- Center
for Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Universität Leipzig, 04109 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Sérgio M. Santos
- Department
of Chemistry and CICECO, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Marcela A. Segundo
- UCIBIO,
REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4099-002 Porto, Portugal
| | - M. Rosário M. Domingues
- Mass Spectrometry Centre, Department of Chemistry & QOPNA, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
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3
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Fazzari M, Khoo N, Woodcock SR, Li L, Freeman BA, Schopfer FJ. Generation and esterification of electrophilic fatty acid nitroalkenes in triacylglycerides. Free Radic Biol Med 2015; 87:113-24. [PMID: 26066303 PMCID: PMC4615386 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2015.05.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2015] [Revised: 05/27/2015] [Accepted: 05/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Electrophilic fatty acid nitroalkenes (NO(2)-FA) are products of nitric oxide and nitrite-mediated unsaturated fatty acid nitration. These electrophilic products induce pleiotropic signaling actions that modulate metabolic and inflammatory responses in cell and animal models. The metabolism of NO(2)-FA includes reduction of the vinyl nitro moiety by prostaglandin reductase-1, mitochondrial β-oxidation, and Michael addition with low molecular weight nucleophilic amino acids. Complex lipid reactions of fatty acid nitroalkenes are not well defined. Herein we report the detection and characterization of NO(2)-FA-containing triacylglycerides (NO(2)-FA-TAG) via mass spectrometry-based methods. In this regard, unsaturated fatty acids of dietary triacylglycerides are targets for nitration reactions during gastric acidification, where NO(2)-FA-TAG can be detected in rat plasma after oral administration of nitro-oleic acid (NO(2)-OA). Furthermore, the characterization and profiling of these species, including the generation of beta oxidation and dehydrogenation products, could be detected in NO(2)-OA-supplemented adipocytes. These data revealed that NO(2)-FA-TAG, formed by either the direct nitration of esterified unsaturated fatty acids or the incorporation of nitrated free fatty acids into triacylglycerides, contribute to the systemic distribution of these reactive electrophilic mediators and may serve as a depot for subsequent mobilization by lipases to in turn impact adipocyte homeostasis and tissue signaling events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Fazzari
- Fondazione Ri.MED, Via Bandiera 11, 90133 Palermo, Italy; Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, 200 Lothrop Street, Pittsburgh, 15261 PA, USA
| | - Nicholas Khoo
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, 200 Lothrop Street, Pittsburgh, 15261 PA, USA
| | - Steven R Woodcock
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, 200 Lothrop Street, Pittsburgh, 15261 PA, USA
| | - Lihua Li
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, 200 Lothrop Street, Pittsburgh, 15261 PA, USA
| | - Bruce A Freeman
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, 200 Lothrop Street, Pittsburgh, 15261 PA, USA.
| | - Francisco J Schopfer
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, 200 Lothrop Street, Pittsburgh, 15261 PA, USA.
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4
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Woodcock SR, Salvatore SR, Bonacci G, Schopfer FJ, Freeman BA. Biomimetic nitration of conjugated linoleic acid: formation and characterization of naturally occurring conjugated nitrodienes. J Org Chem 2013; 79:25-33. [PMID: 24350701 DOI: 10.1021/jo4021562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Nitro-conjugated linoleic acids (NO2-cLA), endogenous nitrodiene lipids which act as inflammatory signaling mediators, were isolated and single isomers purified from the biomimetic acidic nitration products of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA). Structures were elucidated by means of detailed NMR and HPLC-MS/MS spectroscopic analysis and the relative double bond configurations assigned. Additional synthetic methods produced useful quantities and similar isomeric distributions of these unusual and reactive compounds for biological studies and isotopic standards, and the potential conversion of nitro-linoleic to nitro-conjugated linoleic acids was explored via a facile base-catalyzed isomerization. This represents one of the few descriptions of naturally occurring conjugated nitro dienes (in particular, 1-nitro 1,3-diene), an unusual and highly reactive motif with few biological examples extant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven R Woodcock
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh . Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15261, United States
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5
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Ballini R, Araújo N, Gil MV, Román E, Serrano JA. Conjugated nitrodienes. Synthesis and reactivity. Chem Rev 2013; 113:3493-515. [PMID: 23308356 DOI: 10.1021/cr2002195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Ballini
- School of Science and Technology, Chemistry Division, via S. Agostino 1, I-62032 Camerino, Italy
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6
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d’Ischia M, Napolitano A, Manini P, Panzella L. Secondary Targets of Nitrite-Derived Reactive Nitrogen Species: Nitrosation/Nitration Pathways, Antioxidant Defense Mechanisms and Toxicological Implications. Chem Res Toxicol 2011; 24:2071-92. [DOI: 10.1021/tx2003118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Marco d’Ischia
- Department of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Naples Federico II, Complesso Universitario Monte S. Angelo, via Cinthia 4, I-80126 Naples, Italy
| | - Alessandra Napolitano
- Department of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Naples Federico II, Complesso Universitario Monte S. Angelo, via Cinthia 4, I-80126 Naples, Italy
| | - Paola Manini
- Department of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Naples Federico II, Complesso Universitario Monte S. Angelo, via Cinthia 4, I-80126 Naples, Italy
| | - Lucia Panzella
- Department of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Naples Federico II, Complesso Universitario Monte S. Angelo, via Cinthia 4, I-80126 Naples, Italy
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7
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Blanco F, Ferreira AM, López GV, Bonilla L, González M, Cerecetto H, Trostchansky A, Rubbo H. 6-Methylnitroarachidonate: a novel esterified nitroalkene that potently inhibits platelet aggregation and exerts cGMP-mediated vascular relaxation. Free Radic Biol Med 2011; 50:411-8. [PMID: 21145389 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2010.11.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2010] [Revised: 11/15/2010] [Accepted: 11/29/2010] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Nitro-fatty acids represent endogenously occurring products of oxidant-induced nitration reactions. We have previously synthesized a mixture of four isomers of nitroarachidonic acid, a novel anti-inflammatory signaling mediator. In this study, we synthesized and chemically and biologically characterized for the first time an esterified nitroalkene derived from the nitration of methylarachidonate (AAMet): 6-methylnitroarachidonate (6-AAMetNO(2)). Synthesis was performed by reacting AAMet with sodium nitrite under acidic conditions. Analysis by mass spectrometry (positive-ion ESI-MS) showed an [M+H](+) ion of m/z 364, characteristic of AAMetNO(2). Fragmentation of this ion yielded a daughter ion at m/z 317, corresponding to the neutral loss of the nitro group ([M+H-HNO(2)](+)). Furthermore, IR signal at 1378 cm(-1) and NMR data confirmed the structure of a 6-nitro-positional isomer. This novel esterified nitroalkene was capable of promoting vascular protective actions including: (a) the induction of vasorelaxation via endothelium-independent mechanisms, associated with an increase in smooth muscle cell cGMP levels, and (b) a potent dose-dependent inhibition of human platelet aggregation. We postulate that 6-AAMetNO(2) could be a potential drug for the prevention of vascular and inflammatory diseases, and the presence of the methyl group may increase its pharmacological potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabiana Blanco
- Department of Biophysics, Faculty of Chemistry Sciences, Universidad de República, 11800 Montevideo, Uruguay
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8
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Baker PR, Schopfer FJ, O’Donnell VB, Freeman BA. Convergence of nitric oxide and lipid signaling: anti-inflammatory nitro-fatty acids. Free Radic Biol Med 2009; 46:989-1003. [PMID: 19200454 PMCID: PMC2761210 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2008.11.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2008] [Revised: 11/11/2008] [Accepted: 11/21/2008] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The signaling mediators nitric oxide ( NO) and oxidized lipids, once viewed to transduce metabolic and inflammatory information via discrete and independent pathways, are now appreciated as interdependent regulators of immune response and metabolic homeostasis. The interactions between these two classes of mediators result in reciprocal control of mediator synthesis that is strongly influenced by the local chemical environment. The relationship between the two pathways extends beyond coregulation of NO and eicosanoid formation to converge via the nitration of unsaturated fatty acids to yield nitro derivatives (NO(2)-FA). These pluripotent signaling molecules are generated in vivo as an adaptive response to oxidative inflammatory conditions and manifest predominantly anti-inflammatory signaling reactions. These actions of NO(2)-FA are diverse, with these species serving as a potential chemical reserve of NO, reacting with cellular nucleophiles to posttranslationally modify protein structure, function, and localization. In this regard these species act as potent endogenous ligands for peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma. Functional consequences of these signaling mechanisms have been shown in multiple model systems, including the inhibition of platelet and neutrophil functions, induction of heme oxygenase-1, inhibition of LPS-induced cytokine release in monocytes, increased insulin sensitivity and glucose uptake in adipocytes, and relaxation of preconstricted rat aortic segments. These observations have propelled further in vitro and in vivo studies of mechanisms of NO(2)-FA signaling and metabolism, highlighting the therapeutic potential of this class of molecules as anti-inflammatory drug candidates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul R.S. Baker
- University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine Department of Pharmacology & Chemical Biology, E1340 Thomas E. Starzl Biomedical Science Tower, 200 Lothrop St, Pittsburgh, PA 15213
- To whom correspondence should be addressed. ;
| | - Francisco J. Schopfer
- University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine Department of Pharmacology & Chemical Biology, E1340 Thomas E. Starzl Biomedical Science Tower, 200 Lothrop St, Pittsburgh, PA 15213
| | - Valerie B. O’Donnell
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Immunology, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Heath park, Cardiff CF14 4XN, United Kingdom
| | - Bruce A. Freeman
- University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine Department of Pharmacology & Chemical Biology, E1340 Thomas E. Starzl Biomedical Science Tower, 200 Lothrop St, Pittsburgh, PA 15213
- To whom correspondence should be addressed. ;
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9
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Rudolph V, Schopfer FJ, Khoo NKH, Rudolph TK, Cole MP, Woodcock SR, Bonacci G, Groeger AL, Golin-Bisello F, Chen CS, Baker PRS, Freeman BA. Nitro-fatty acid metabolome: saturation, desaturation, beta-oxidation, and protein adduction. J Biol Chem 2008; 284:1461-73. [PMID: 19015269 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m802298200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Nitrated derivatives of fatty acids (NO2-FA) are pluripotent cell-signaling mediators that display anti-inflammatory properties. Current understanding of NO2-FA signal transduction lacks insight into how or if NO2-FA are modified or metabolized upon formation or administration in vivo. Here the disposition and metabolism of nitro-9-cis-octadecenoic (18:1-NO2) acid was investigated in plasma and liver after intravenous injection in mice. High performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis showed that no 18:1-NO2 or metabolites were detected under basal conditions, whereas administered 18:1-NO2 is rapidly adducted to plasma thiol-containing proteins and glutathione. NO2-FA are also metabolized via beta-oxidation, with high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of liver lipid extracts of treated mice revealing nitro-7-cis-hexadecenoic acid, nitro-5-cis-tetradecenoic acid, and nitro-3-cis-dodecenoic acid and corresponding coenzyme A derivatives of 18:1-NO2 as metabolites. Additionally, a significant proportion of 18:1-NO2 and its metabolites are converted to nitroalkane derivatives by saturation of the double bond, and to a lesser extent are desaturated to diene derivatives. There was no evidence of the formation of nitrohydroxyl or conjugated ketone derivatives in organs of interest, metabolites expected upon 18:1-NO2 hydration or nitric oxide (*NO) release. Plasma samples from treated mice had significant extents of protein-adducted 18:1-NO2 detected by exchange to added beta-mercaptoethanol. This, coupled with the observation of 18:1-NO2 release from glutathione-18:1-NO2 adducts, supports that reversible and exchangeable NO2-FA-thiol adducts occur under biological conditions. After administration of [3H]18:1-NO2, 64% of net radiolabel was recovered 90 min later in plasma (0.2%), liver (18%), kidney (2%), adipose tissue (2%), muscle (31%), urine (6%), and other tissue compartments, and may include metabolites not yet identified. In aggregate, these findings show that electrophilic FA nitroalkene derivatives (a) acquire an extended half-life by undergoing reversible and exchangeable electrophilic reactions with nucleophilic targets and (b) are metabolized predominantly via saturation of the double bond and beta-oxidation reactions that terminate at the site of acyl-chain nitration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Volker Rudolph
- Department of Pharmacology & Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15261, USA
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10
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Manini P, Capelli L, Reale S, Arzillo M, Crescenzi O, Napolitano A, Barone V, d’Ischia M. Chemistry of Nitrated Lipids: Remarkable Instability of 9-Nitrolinoleic Acid in Neutral Aqueous Medium and a Novel Nitronitrate Ester Product by Concurrent Autoxidation/Nitric Oxide-Release Pathways. J Org Chem 2008; 73:7517-25. [DOI: 10.1021/jo801364v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Paola Manini
- Department of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Naples Federico II, via Cinthia 4, I-80126 Naples, Italy, Dipartimento di Chimica, Ingegneria Chimica e Materiali, Università degli Studi di L’Aquila, via Vetoio Coppito II, I-67100 Coppito, L’Aquila, “Paolo Corradini” Department of Chemistry and INSTM, University of Naples Federico II, via Cinthia 4, I-80126 Naples, Italy, and Institute for Physico-Chemical Processes (IPCF)-CNR, Via G. Moruzzi 1, I-56124 Pisa, Italy
| | - Luigia Capelli
- Department of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Naples Federico II, via Cinthia 4, I-80126 Naples, Italy, Dipartimento di Chimica, Ingegneria Chimica e Materiali, Università degli Studi di L’Aquila, via Vetoio Coppito II, I-67100 Coppito, L’Aquila, “Paolo Corradini” Department of Chemistry and INSTM, University of Naples Federico II, via Cinthia 4, I-80126 Naples, Italy, and Institute for Physico-Chemical Processes (IPCF)-CNR, Via G. Moruzzi 1, I-56124 Pisa, Italy
| | - Samantha Reale
- Department of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Naples Federico II, via Cinthia 4, I-80126 Naples, Italy, Dipartimento di Chimica, Ingegneria Chimica e Materiali, Università degli Studi di L’Aquila, via Vetoio Coppito II, I-67100 Coppito, L’Aquila, “Paolo Corradini” Department of Chemistry and INSTM, University of Naples Federico II, via Cinthia 4, I-80126 Naples, Italy, and Institute for Physico-Chemical Processes (IPCF)-CNR, Via G. Moruzzi 1, I-56124 Pisa, Italy
| | - Marianna Arzillo
- Department of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Naples Federico II, via Cinthia 4, I-80126 Naples, Italy, Dipartimento di Chimica, Ingegneria Chimica e Materiali, Università degli Studi di L’Aquila, via Vetoio Coppito II, I-67100 Coppito, L’Aquila, “Paolo Corradini” Department of Chemistry and INSTM, University of Naples Federico II, via Cinthia 4, I-80126 Naples, Italy, and Institute for Physico-Chemical Processes (IPCF)-CNR, Via G. Moruzzi 1, I-56124 Pisa, Italy
| | - Orlando Crescenzi
- Department of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Naples Federico II, via Cinthia 4, I-80126 Naples, Italy, Dipartimento di Chimica, Ingegneria Chimica e Materiali, Università degli Studi di L’Aquila, via Vetoio Coppito II, I-67100 Coppito, L’Aquila, “Paolo Corradini” Department of Chemistry and INSTM, University of Naples Federico II, via Cinthia 4, I-80126 Naples, Italy, and Institute for Physico-Chemical Processes (IPCF)-CNR, Via G. Moruzzi 1, I-56124 Pisa, Italy
| | - Alessandra Napolitano
- Department of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Naples Federico II, via Cinthia 4, I-80126 Naples, Italy, Dipartimento di Chimica, Ingegneria Chimica e Materiali, Università degli Studi di L’Aquila, via Vetoio Coppito II, I-67100 Coppito, L’Aquila, “Paolo Corradini” Department of Chemistry and INSTM, University of Naples Federico II, via Cinthia 4, I-80126 Naples, Italy, and Institute for Physico-Chemical Processes (IPCF)-CNR, Via G. Moruzzi 1, I-56124 Pisa, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Barone
- Department of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Naples Federico II, via Cinthia 4, I-80126 Naples, Italy, Dipartimento di Chimica, Ingegneria Chimica e Materiali, Università degli Studi di L’Aquila, via Vetoio Coppito II, I-67100 Coppito, L’Aquila, “Paolo Corradini” Department of Chemistry and INSTM, University of Naples Federico II, via Cinthia 4, I-80126 Naples, Italy, and Institute for Physico-Chemical Processes (IPCF)-CNR, Via G. Moruzzi 1, I-56124 Pisa, Italy
| | - Marco d’Ischia
- Department of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Naples Federico II, via Cinthia 4, I-80126 Naples, Italy, Dipartimento di Chimica, Ingegneria Chimica e Materiali, Università degli Studi di L’Aquila, via Vetoio Coppito II, I-67100 Coppito, L’Aquila, “Paolo Corradini” Department of Chemistry and INSTM, University of Naples Federico II, via Cinthia 4, I-80126 Naples, Italy, and Institute for Physico-Chemical Processes (IPCF)-CNR, Via G. Moruzzi 1, I-56124 Pisa, Italy
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Ferreira AM, Trostchansky A, Ferrari M, Souza JM, Rubbo H. Nitroalkenes: synthesis, characterization, and effects on macrophage activation. Methods Enzymol 2008; 441:33-51. [PMID: 18554528 DOI: 10.1016/s0076-6879(08)01203-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Nitroalkenes derivatives of free as well as esterified unsaturated fatty acids are present in human plasma and tissue, representing novel pluripotent cell signaling mediators. Lipid nitration occurs in response to pro-inflammatory stimuli as an adaptative mechanism to downregulate inflammatory responses. This chapter first discusses the generation of nitroalkenes during macrophage activation following chemical and biological characterization. In particular, it describes procedures for (a) synthesizing and characterizing esterified (cholesteryl-nitrolinoleate, CLNO2) as well as free (nitroarachidonate, AANO2) nitroalkenes, (b) determining nitration of cholesteryl linoleic acid during macrophage activation by inflammatory stimuli, (c) examining the modulatory effects of nitroalkenes on the expression of inducible enzymes by activated macrophages, and (d) discussing the signaling pathways involved in nitroalkene-mediated anti-inflammatory actions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana María Ferreira
- Department of Immunology, Facultadas de Ciencias y Química, Universidad de la República, Uruguay
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12
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Manini P, Camera E, Picardo M, Napolitano A, d’Ischia M. Biomimetic nitration of the linoleic acid metabolite 13-hydroxyoctadecadienoic acid: isolation and spectral characterization of novel chain-rearranged epoxy nitro derivatives. Chem Phys Lipids 2008; 151:51-61. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chemphyslip.2007.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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13
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Villacorta L, Zhang J, Garcia-Barrio MT, Chen XL, Freeman BA, Chen YE, Cui T. Nitro-linoleic acid inhibits vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation via the Keap1/Nrf2 signaling pathway. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2007; 293:H770-6. [PMID: 17468336 PMCID: PMC2170893 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.00261.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Nitroalkenes, the nitration products of unsaturated fatty acids formed via NO-dependent oxidative reactions, have been demonstrated to exert strong biological actions in endothelial cells and monocytes/macrophages; however, little is known about their effects on vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). The present study examined the role of nitro-linoleic acid (LNO(2)) in the regulation of VSMC proliferation. We observed that LNO(2) inhibited VSMC proliferation in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, LNO(2) induced growth arrest of VSMCs in the G(1)/S phase of the cell cycle with an upregulation of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p27(kip1). Furthermore, LNO(2) triggered nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) nuclear translocation and activation of the antioxidant-responsive element-driven transcriptional activity via impairing Kelch-like ECH-associating protein 1 (Keap1)-mediated negative control of Nrf2 activity in VSMCs. LNO(2) upregulated the expression of Nrf2 protein levels, but not mRNA levels, in VSMCs. A forced activation of Nrf2 led to an upregulation of p27(kip1) and growth inhibition of VSMCs. In contrast, knock down of Nrf2 using an Nrf2 siRNA approach reversed the LNO(2)-induced upregulation of p27(kip1) and inhibition of cellular proliferation in VSMCs. These studies provide the first evidence that nitroalkene LNO(2) inhibits VSMC proliferation through activation of the Keap1/Nrf2 signaling pathway, suggesting an important role of nitroalkenes in vascular biology.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Cell Proliferation/drug effects
- Cells, Cultured
- Cyclin-Dependent Kinase Inhibitor p27/metabolism
- Dose-Response Relationship, Drug
- Intracellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins
- Kelch-Like ECH-Associated Protein 1
- Linoleic Acids/administration & dosage
- Male
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/cytology
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/drug effects
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/physiology
- Myocytes, Smooth Muscle/cytology
- Myocytes, Smooth Muscle/drug effects
- Myocytes, Smooth Muscle/physiology
- NF-E2-Related Factor 2/metabolism
- Nitro Compounds/administration & dosage
- Proteins/metabolism
- Rats
- Rats, Sprague-Dawley
- Signal Transduction/drug effects
- Signal Transduction/physiology
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Villacorta
- Department of Internal Medicine, Cardiovascular Center, University of Michigan Medical Center, 1150 W. Medical Center Drive, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
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14
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de Oliveira CPMS, Simplicio FI, de Lima VMR, Yuahasi K, Lopasso FP, Alves VAF, Abdalla DSP, Carrilho FJ, Laurindo FRM, de Oliveira MG. Oral administration of S-nitroso-N-acetylcysteine prevents the onset of non alcoholic fatty liver disease in rats. World J Gastroenterol 2006; 12:1905-11. [PMID: 16609997 PMCID: PMC4087516 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v12.i12.1905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM: To evaluate the potential of S-nitroso-N-acetylcysteine (SNAC) in inhibition of lipid peroxidation and the effect of oral SNAC administration in the prevention of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) in an animal model.
METHODS: NAFLD was induced in Wistar male rats by choline-deficient diet for 4 wk. SNAC-treated animals (n=6) (1.4 mg/kg/day of SNAC, orally) were compared to 2 control groups: one (n=6) received PBS solution and the other (n=6) received NAC solution (7 mg/kg/d). Histological variables were semiquantitated with respect to macro and microvacuolar fat changes, its zonal distribution, foci of necrosis, portal and perivenular fibrosis, and inflammatory infiltrate with zonal distribution. LOOHs from samples of liver homogenates were quantified by HPLC. Nitrate levels in plasma of portal vein were assessed by chemiluminescence. Aqueous low-density lipoprotein (LDL) suspensions (200 µg protein/mL) were incubated with CuCl2 (300 µmol/L) in the absence and presence of SNAC (300 µmol/L) for 15 h at 37 °C. Extent of LDL oxidation was assessed by fluorimetry. Linoleic acid (LA) (18.8 µmol/L) oxidation was induced by soybean lipoxygenase (SLO) (0.056 µmol/L) at 37 °C in the presence and absence of N-acetylcysteine (NAC) and SNAC (56 and 560 µmol/L) and monitored at 234 nm.
RESULTS: Animals in the control group developed moderate macro and microvesicular fatty changes in periportal area. SNAC-treated animals displayed only discrete histological alterations with absence of fatty changes and did not develop liver steatosis. The absence of NAFLD in the SNAC-treated group was positively correlated with a decrease in the concentration of LOOH in liver homogenate, compared to the control group (0.7±0.2 nmol/mg vs 3.2±0.4 nmol/mg protein, respectively, P<0.05), while serum levels of aminotransferases were unaltered. The ability of SNAC in preventing lipid peroxidation was confirmed in in vitro experiments using LA and LDL as model substrates.
CONCLUSION: Oral administration of SNAC prevents the onset of NAFLD in Wistar rats fed with choline-deficient diet. This effect is correlated with the ability of SNAC to block the propagation of lipid peroxidation in vitro and in vitro.
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15
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Manini P, Briganti S, Fabbri C, Picardo M, Napolitano A, d'Ischia M. Free radical oxidation of 15-(S)-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid with the Fenton reagent: characterization of an epoxy-alcohol and cytotoxic 4-hydroxy-2E-nonenal from the heptatrienyl radical pathway. Chem Phys Lipids 2006; 142:14-22. [PMID: 16581048 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemphyslip.2006.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2005] [Revised: 02/17/2006] [Accepted: 02/21/2006] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The oxidation of (5Z,8Z,11Z,13E,15S)-15-hydroxy-5,8,11,13-eicosatetraenoic acid (15-(S)-HETE, 1a) with the Fenton reagent (Fe2+/EDTA/H2O2) was investigated. In phosphate buffer, pH 7.4, the reaction proceeded with 75% substrate consumption after 1 h to give a mixture of products, one of which was identified as (2E,4S)-4-hydroxy-2-nonenal (3a, 18% yield). Methylation of the mixture with diazomethane allowed isolation of another main product which could be identified as methyl (5Z,8Z,13E)-11,12-trans-epoxy-15-hydroxy-5,8,13-eicosatrienoate (2a methyl ester, 8% yield). A similar oxidation carried out on (15-(2)H)-15-HETE (1b) indicated complete retention of the label in 2b methyl ester and 3b, consistent with an oxidation pathway involving as the primary event H-atom abstraction at C-10. Overall, these results support the recently proposed role of 1a as a potential precursor of the cytotoxic gamma-hydroxyalkenal 3a and disclose a hitherto unrecognized interconnection between 1a and the epoxy-alcohol 2a, previously implicated only in the metabolic transformations of the 15-hydroperoxy derivative of arachidonic acid.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Manini
- Department of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cinthia 4, I-80126 Naples, Italy
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16
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Manini P, Camera E, Picardo M, Napolitano A, d'Ischia M. Free radical oxidation of coriolic acid (13-(S)-hydroxy-9Z,11E-octadecadienoic acid). Chem Phys Lipids 2005; 134:161-71. [PMID: 15784234 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemphyslip.2005.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2004] [Revised: 01/12/2005] [Accepted: 01/12/2005] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The reaction of (13S,9Z,11E)-13-hydroxy-9,11-octadecadienoic acid (1a), one of the major peroxidation products of linoleic acid and an important physiological mediator, with the Fenton reagent (Fe(2+)/EDTA/H(2)O(2)) was investigated. In phosphate buffer, pH 7.4, the reaction proceeded with >80% substrate consumption after 4h to give a defined pattern of products, the major of which were isolated as methyl esters and were subjected to complete spectral characterization. The less polar product was identified as (9Z,11E)-13-oxo-9,11-octadecadienoate (2) methyl ester (40% yield). Based on 2D NMR analysis the other two major products were formulated as (11E)-9,10-epoxy-13-hydroxy-11-octadecenoate (3) methyl ester (15% yield) and (10E)-9-hydroxy-13-oxo-10-octadecenoate (4) methyl ester (10% yield). Mechanistic experiments, including deuterium labeling, were consistent with a free radical oxidation pathway involving as the primary event H-atom abstraction at C-13, as inferred from loss of the original S configuration in the reaction products. Overall, these results provide the first insight into the products formed by oxidation of 1a with the Fenton reagent, and hint at novel formation pathways of the hydroxyepoxide 3 and hydroxyketone 4 of potential (patho)physiological relevance in settings of oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Manini
- Department of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cinthia 4, I-80126 Naples, Italy
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17
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Lima ES, Bonini MG, Augusto O, Barbeiro HV, Souza HP, Abdalla DSP. Nitrated lipids decompose to nitric oxide and lipid radicals and cause vasorelaxation. Free Radic Biol Med 2005; 39:532-9. [PMID: 16043024 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2005.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2004] [Revised: 03/03/2005] [Accepted: 04/05/2005] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Nitric oxide-derived oxidants such as nitrogen dioxide and peroxynitrite have been receiving increasing attention as mediators of nitric oxide toxicity. Indeed, nitrated and nitrosated compounds have been detected in biological fluids and tissues of healthy subjects and in higher yields in patients under inflammatory or infectious conditions as a consequence of nitric oxide overproduction. Among them, nitrated lipids have been detected in vivo. Here, we confirmed and extended previous studies by demonstrating that nitrolinoleate, chlolesteryl nitrolinoleate, and nitrohydroxylinoleate induce vasorelaxation in a concentration-dependent manner while releasing nitric oxide that was characterized by chemiluminescence-and EPR-based methodologies. As we first show here, diffusible nitric oxide production is likely to occur by isomerization of the nitrated lipids to the corresponding nitrite derivatives that decay through homolysis and/or metal ion/ascorbate-assisted reduction. The homolytic mechanism was supported by EPR spin-trapping studies with 3,5-dibromo-4-nitrosobenzenesulfonic acid that trapped a lipid-derived radical during nitrolinoleate decomposition. In addition to provide a mechanism to explain nitric oxide production from nitrated lipids, the results support their role as endogenous sources of nitric oxide that may play a role in endothelium-independent vasorelaxation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emersom S Lima
- Clinical and Toxicological Analysis Department, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
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18
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d'Ischia M. Nitrosation and nitration of bioactive molecules: toward the basis of disease and its prevention. CR CHIM 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.crci.2005.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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19
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Pezzella A, Manini P, Di Donato P, Boni R, Napolitano A, Palumbo A, d'Ischia M. 17β-Estradiol nitration by peroxidase/H2O2/NO2−: a chemical assessment. Bioorg Med Chem 2004; 12:2927-36. [PMID: 15142552 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2004.03.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2004] [Revised: 03/05/2004] [Accepted: 03/16/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Nitration of 17beta-estradiol by H(2)O(2) and nitrite in the presence of various peroxidases, viz. horseradish peroxidase, lactoperoxidase, and peroxidase-containing homogenates from bovine uteri, was systematically investigated to assess on a chemical basis its potential relevance to the mechanisms of impairment of estrogen functions under oxidative/nitrosative stress conditions. In the presence of excess nitrite 17beta-estradiol reacted smoothly to give 2-nitroestradiol (1), 4-nitroestradiol (2), and 2,4-dinitroestradiol (3). With 10-300 microM estradiol, formation yields of 1-3 were 12-55%, but dropped to 1% or less at lower estrogen concentration, for example, 1 microM, or in plasma as the reaction medium. Time course analysis showed that 2 is the prevalent nitration product under conditions of slow generation of nitrating species, suggesting some regioselectivity for estradiol nitration at C-4, whereas 1 prevails with bolus addition of reagents, due to faster degradation of 2. Competition experiments carried out with (15)NO(2)- showed that 2 is about twice more susceptible to nitration than 1 as determined by (15)N NMR analysis of the resulting 3. The biological effects of 1 and 2 were preliminarily tested on in vitro bovine embryo cultures. When 1 and 2 were substituted to the standard 17beta-estradiol in the oocyte maturation, a significant decrease in both cleavage and blastocyst efficiency was observed in the case of 1 but not 2. Overall, these results suggest that estradiol nitration is a potential pathway of hormonal dysfunction and toxicity but would require elevated estrogen levels of questionable physiological relevance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro Pezzella
- Department of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Naples Federico II, Complesso Universitario Monte S. Angelo, Via Cinthia 4, I-80126 Naples, Italy
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20
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Lima ES, Di Mascio P, Abdalla DSP. Cholesteryl nitrolinoleate, a nitrated lipid present in human blood plasma and lipoproteins. J Lipid Res 2003; 44:1660-6. [PMID: 12837858 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.m200467-jlr200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Nitric oxide (*NO) and *NO-derived reactive species (e.g., peroxynitrite anion, nitrogen dioxide radical) react with lipids containing unsaturated fatty acids to generate nitrated species. In the present work, we synthesized, characterized, and detected a nitrated derivative of cholesteryl linoleate (Ch18:2) in human blood plasma and lipoproteins using a high-pressure liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry method. It was synthesized by a reaction of Ch18:2 with nitronium tetrafluoroborate, yielding a species with m/z 711, which is characteristic of the cholesteryl nitrolinoleate (Ch18:2NO2) ammonium adduct. The presence of the nitro group was confirmed by using [15N]nitrite, which gave a product with m/z 712, with the same chromatographic and spectrometric characteristics of those of m/z 711. Furthermore, a C-NO2 structure was also demonstrated in Ch18:2NO2 by infrared analysis (Vmax 1549, 1374 cm-1). A stable product with m/z of 711, showing the same chromatographic characteristics and fragmentation pattern as those of synthesized standard, was found in human blood plasma and lipoproteins of normolipidemic subjects. The presence of this novel nitrogen-containing lipid product in human plasma and lipoproteins could represent a potential indicator of the oxidative/nitrative roles that *NO or its metabolites play during in vivo lipid oxidation, generating a compensatory mechanism of protection in vascular disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emersom S Lima
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas e Toxicológicas, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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21
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Manini P, Napolitano A, Camera E, Caserta T, Picardo M, Palumbo A, d'Ischia M. Ni2+ enhances Fe2+/peroxide-induced oxidation of arachidonic acid and formation of geno/cytotoxic 4-hydroxynonenal: a possible contributory mechanism in nickel toxicity and allergenicity. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 2003; 1621:9-16. [PMID: 12667605 DOI: 10.1016/s0304-4165(03)00010-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Ni(2+), a toxic, carcinogenic and allergenic agent, affected both the kinetic and chemical courses of the Fe(2+)-induced oxidation of arachidonic acid (AA) in 0.05 M phosphate buffer (pH 7.4) and at 37 degrees C. At 10 microM concentration, Ni(2+) decreased the rate of oxidation of peroxide-free AA (200 microM) promoted by 50 microM Fe(2+), as determined by measurement of thiobarbituric acid reactive species (TBARS) and 1H NMR analysis. However, in the presence of low levels of peroxides (e.g. 2%), Ni(2+) exerted a significant stimulatory effect on Fe(2+)-induced AA oxidation and TBARS formation. 1H NMR analysis showed that Ni(2+) (10 microM) enhanced formation of genotoxic alkenals including 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal (4-HNE, GC/MS evidence) by Fe(2+)-promoted degradation of both AA and 15-hydroperoxy-5,8,11,13-eicosatetraenoic acid (15-HPETE) methyl esters. The observed stimulatory effects of Ni(2+) on peroxide breakdown and cytotoxic aldehyde formation provide an attractive explanation to the enhanced sensitization capacity of nickel in inflammatory states compared to normal states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paola Manini
- Department of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cinthia 4, I-80126, Naples, Italy
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22
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Lim DG, Sweeney S, Bloodsworth A, White CR, Chumley PH, Krishna NR, Schopfer F, O'Donnell VB, Eiserich JP, Freeman BA. Nitrolinoleate, a nitric oxide-derived mediator of cell function: synthesis, characterization, and vasomotor activity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2002; 99:15941-6. [PMID: 12444258 PMCID: PMC138544 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.232409599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2002] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Nitric oxide (*NO) and *NO-derived reactive species rapidly react with lipids during both autocatalytic and enzymatic oxidation reactions to yield nitrated derivatives that serve as cell signaling molecules. Herein we report the synthesis, purification, characterization, and bioactivity of nitrolinoleate (LNO2). Nitroselenylation of linoleic acid yielded LNO2 that was purified by solvent extraction, silicic acid chromatography, and reverse-phase HPLC. Structural characterization was performed by IR spectroscopy, 15N-NMR, LC-negative ion electrospray mass spectroscopy (MS), and chemiluminescent nitrogen analysis. Quantitative MS analysis of cell and vessel LNO2 metabolism, using L[15N]O2 as an internal standard, revealed that LNO2 is rapidly metabolized by rat aortic smooth muscle (RASM) monolayers and rat thoracic aorta, resulting in nitrite production and up to 3-fold increases in cGMP (ED50 = 30 microM for RASM, 50 microM for aorta). LNO2 induced endothelium-independent relaxation of preconstricted rat aortic rings, which was unaffected by L(G)-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester addition and inhibited by the guanylate cyclase inhibitor 1H-[1,2,4] oxadiazole[4,3-a]quinoxalin-1-one and the *NO scavenger HbO2. These results reveal that synthetic LNO2, identical to lipid derivatives produced biologically by the reaction of *NO and *NO-derived species with oxidizing unsaturated fatty acids (e.g., linoleate), can transduce vascular signaling actions of *NO.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Aorta, Thoracic
- Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid
- Cyclic GMP/metabolism
- Endothelium, Vascular/physiology
- Enzyme Inhibitors/pharmacology
- Fatty Acids, Unsaturated/metabolism
- Free Radical Scavengers/pharmacology
- Guanylate Cyclase/antagonists & inhibitors
- Inflammation
- Linoleic Acids/chemical synthesis
- Linoleic Acids/metabolism
- Linoleic Acids/pharmacology
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/drug effects
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/metabolism
- NG-Nitroarginine Methyl Ester/pharmacology
- Nitric Oxide/metabolism
- Nitrites/metabolism
- Nitro Compounds/chemical synthesis
- Nitro Compounds/metabolism
- Nitro Compounds/pharmacology
- Oxadiazoles/pharmacology
- Oxidation-Reduction
- Oxyhemoglobins/pharmacology
- Quinoxalines/pharmacology
- Rats
- Spectrometry, Mass, Electrospray Ionization
- Spectrophotometry, Infrared
- Vasodilation/drug effects
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong Gun Lim
- Departments of Anesthesiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Medicine, and UAB Center for Free Radical Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35233, USA
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23
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The acid-promoted reaction of ethyl linoleate with nitrite. New insights from 15N-labelling and peculiar reactivity of a model skipped diene. Tetrahedron 2002. [DOI: 10.1016/s0040-4020(02)00460-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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