Conjugated Thiophene-Containing Polymer Zwitterions: Direct Synthesis and Thin Film Electronic Properties

Interface Engineering for Highly Efficient Organic Solar Cells

Organic solar cells (OSCs) have made dramatic advancements during the past decades owing to the innovative material design and device structure optimization, with power conversion efficiencies surpassing 19% and 20% for single-junction and tandem devices, respectively. Interface engineering, by modifying interface properties between different layers for OSCs, has become a vital part to promote the device efficiency. It is essential to elucidate the intrinsic working mechanism of interface layers, as well as the related physical and chemical processes that manipulate device performance and long-term stability. In this article, the advances in interface engineering aimed to pursue high-performance OSCs are reviewed. The specific functions and corresponding design principles of interface layers are summarized first. Then, the anode interface layer, cathode interface layer in single-junction OSCs, and interconnecting layer of tandem devices are discussed in separate categories, and the interface engineering-related improvements on device efficiency and stability are analyzed. Finally, the challenges and prospects associated with application of interface engineering are discussed with the emphasis on large-area, high-performance, and low-cost device manufacturing.

The Hydrolytic Activity of Copper(II) Complexes with 1,4,7-Triazacyclononane Derivatives for the Hydrolysis of Phosphate Diesters

A set of substituted 1,4,7-triazacyclononane ligands was synthesised, including a wide series of novel derivatives bearing a thiazole or thiophene side group, with the potential to incorporate these derivatives into a polymeric material; some previously known/studied ligands were also synthesised for comparative purposes. The corresponding copper(II) complexes were prepared, and their ability to mediate the hydrolysis of phosphate ester bonds was studied via UV-Vis spectrophotometry, using bis(p-nitrophenyl)phosphate as a model substrate. Some of the prepared complexes showed a considerable enhancement of the phosphate ester hydrolysis in comparison with previously studied systems, which makes them some of the most effective complexes ever tested for this purpose. Therefore, these novel, potentially bifunctional systems could provide the possibility of creating new coating materials for medicinal devices that could prevent biofilm formation.

Chemically revised conducting polymers with inflammation resistance for intimate bioelectronic electrocoupling

Conducting polymers offer attractive mixed ionic-electronic conductivity, tunable interfacial barrier with metal, tissue matchable softness, and versatile chemical functionalization, making them robust to bridge the gap between brain tissue and electronic circuits. This review focuses on chemically revised conducting polymers, combined with their superior and controllable electrochemical performance, to fabricate long-term bioelectronic implants, addressing chronic immune responses, weak neuron attraction, and long-term electrocommunication instability challenges. Moreover, the promising progress of zwitterionic conducting polymers in bioelectronic implants (≥4 weeks stable implantation) is highlighted, followed by a comment on their current evolution toward selective neural coupling and reimplantable function. Finally, a critical forward look at the future of zwitterionic conducting polymers for in vivo bioelectronic devices is provided.

Facile synthesis of water-dispersible poly(3-hexylthiophene) nanoparticles with high yield and excellent colloidal stability

There has been growing interest in water-processable conjugated polymers for biocompatible devices. However, some broadly used conjugated polymers like poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) are hydrophobic and they cannot be processed in water. We herein report a facile yet highly efficient assembly method to prepare water-dispersible pyridine-containing P3HT (Py-P3HT) nanoparticles (NPs) with a high yield (>80%) and a fine size below 100 nm. It is based on the fast nanoprecipitation of Py-P3HT stabilized by hydrophilic poly(acrylic acid) (PAA). Py-P3HT can form spherical NPs at a concentration up to 0.2 mg/mL with a diameter of ∼75 nm at a very low concentration of PAA, e.g., 0.01-0.1 mg/mL, as surface ligands. Those negatively charged Py-P3HT NPs can bind with metal cations and further support the growth of noble metal NPs like Ag and Au. Our self-assembly methodology potentially opens new doors to process and directly use hydrophobic conjugated polymers in a much broader context.

A novel naphthalene diimide-based conjugated polymer as an electron transport material for non-fullerene organic solar cells

The only aliphatic amino side chains at the N-position of naphthalene diimide endow novel electron transport materials with good film-forming and interface modification properties, which improves the device efficiency and stability.

Gold-carbonaceous materials based heterostructures for gas sensing applications

The carbon nanostructures such as carbon nanotubes and graphene decorated with gold nanoparticles exhibit promising gas sensing applications with enhanced sensitivity.

Tunable Protein/Cell Binding and Interaction with Neurite Outgrowth of Low-Impedance Zwitterionic PEDOTs

Zwitterionic poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) is an effective electronic material for bioelectronics because it exhibits efficient electrical trade-off and diminishes immune response. To promote the use of zwitterionic PEDOTs in bioelectronic devices, especially for cell alignment control and close electrocoupling, features such as tunable interaction of PEDOTs with proteins/cells and spatially modulating cell behavior are required. However, there is a lack of reliable methods to assemble zwitterionic EDOTs with other functionalized EDOT materials, having different polarities and oxidation potentials, to prepare PEDOTs with the aforementioned surface properties. In this study, we have developed a surfactant-assisted electropolymerization to assemble phosphorylcholine (PC)-functionalized EDOT with other functionalized EDOTs. By adjusting compositions, the interaction of PEDOT copolymers with proteins/cells can be finely tuned; the composition adjustment has an ignorable influence on the impedance of the copolymers. We also demonstrate that the cell-repulsive force generated from PC can spatially guide the neurite outgrowth to form a neuron network at single-cell resolution and greatly enhance the neurite outgrowth by 179%, which is significantly more distinctive than the reported topography effect. We expect that the derived tunable protein/cell interaction and the PC-induced repulsive guidance for the neurite outgrowth can make low-impedance zwitterionic PEDOTs more useful in bioelectronics.

Polyampholytic graft copolymers based on polydehydroalanine (PDha) – synthesis, solution behavior and application as dispersants for carbon nanotubes

We herein introduce a versatile platform of graft copolymers featuring a polyampholytic backbone and side chains of varying length and polarity using post-polymerization modification of polydehydroalanine (PDha).

Effect of Spacer Length and Solvent on the Concentration-Driven Aggregation of Cationic Hydrogen-Bonding Donor Polythiophenes

Aggregation of cationic isothiouronium polythiophenes with alkoxy-spacers of different lengths at the 3-position of the thiophene ring was studied in solvents of different polarities. Hydrogen-bonding capacity was assessed by steady-state absorption and fluorescence spectroscopy, whereas the aggregation in aqueous solutions was studied by electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy, using paramagnetic probes of different polarities. The two polymers displayed similar features in respect to conformation, effect of cosolvents on aggregation, unstructured absorption-fluorescence spectra, Stokes shifts when aggregated, solvatochromic effect, and self-quenching concentration. However, these polymers also showed different specific interactions with water, Stokes shifts in water, effect of the solvent on the extent of dominant state of the S1 level, and also different inner cavities and hydrophobic-hydrophilic surface area in aqueous solution aggregates. Water maximized the difference between the polymers concerning the effect of specific increases in concentration, whereas the presence of 1,4-dioxane generated almost identical effects on both polymers.

Zwitter-Ionic Polymer Applied as Electron Transportation Layer for Improving the Performance of Polymer Solar Cells

A zwitter-ionic polymer poly (sulfobetaine methacrylate) (denoted by PSBMA) was employed as an electron transportation layer (ETL) in polymer solar cells (PSCs) based on poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT):[6,6]-phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester (PC61BM). PSBMA is highly soluble in trifluoroethanol, showing an orthogonal solubility to the solvent of the active layer in the preparation of multilayered PSCs. Upon introduction of PSBMA, the short circuit current and as a consequence the power conversion efficiency of the corresponding PSCs are dramatically improved, which can be because of the relatively high polarity of PSBMA compared with the other ETLs. This study demonstrated that zwitter-ionic polymer should be a competitive potential candidate of ETLs in PSCs.

Effect of alkoxy-spacer length and solvent on diluted solutions of cationic isothiouronium polythiophenes

We present a study on two cationic isothiouronium polythiophenes with alkoxy chains of different length in the 3-position of the thiophene ring. The compounds were characterized using experimental and theoretical techniques.

Conjugated Polymer Zwitterions: Efficient Interlayer Materials in Organic Electronics

Conjugated polymer zwitterions (CPZs) are neutral, hydrophilic, polymer semiconductors. The pendent zwitterions, viewed as side chain dipoles, impart solubility in polar solvents for solution processing, and open opportunities as interfacial components of optoelectronic devices, for example, between metal electrodes and organic semiconductor active layers. Such interlayers are crucial for defining the performance of organic electronic devices, e.g., field-effect transistors (OFETs), light-emitting diodes (OLEDs), and photovoltaics (OPVs), all of which consist of multilayer structures. The interlayers reduce the Schottky barrier height and thus improve charge injection in OFETs and OLEDs. In OPVs, the interlayers serve to increase the built-in electric potential difference (V_bi) across the active layer, ensuring efficient extraction of photogenerated charge carriers. In general, polar and even charged electronically active polymers have gained recognition for their ability to modify metal/semiconductor interfaces to the benefit of organic electronics. While conjugated polyelectrolytes (CPEs) as interlayer materials are well-documented, open questions remain about the role of mobile counterions in CPE-containing devices. CPZs possess the processing advantages of CPEs, but as neutral molecules lack any potential complications associated with counterions. The electronic implications of CPZs on metal electrodes stem from the orientation of the zwitterion dipole moment in close proximity to the metal surface, and the resultant surface-induced polarization. This generates an interfacial dipole (Δ) at the CPZ/metal interface, altering the work function of the electrode, as confirmed by ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (UPS), and improving device performance. An ideal cathode interlayer would reduce electrode work function, have orthogonal processability to the active layer, exhibit good film forming properties (i.e., wettability/uniformity), prevent exciton quenching, possess optimal electron affinity that neither limits the work function reduction nor impedes the charge extraction, transport electrons selectively, and exhibit long-term stability. Our recent discoveries show that CPZs achieve many of these attributes, and are poised for further expansion and development in the interfacial science of organic electronics. This Account reviews a recent collaboration that began with the synthesis of CPZs and a study of their structural and electronic properties on metals, then extended to their application as interlayer materials for OPVs. We discuss CPZ structure-property relationships based on several material platforms, ranging from homopolymers to copolymers, and from materials with intrinsic p-type conjugated backbones to those with intrinsic n-type conjugated backbones. We discuss key components of such interlayers, including (i) the origin of work function reduction of CPZ interlayers on metals; (ii) the role of the frontier molecular orbital energy levels and their trade-offs in optimizing electronic and device properties; and (iii) the role of polymer conductivity type and the magnitude of charge carrier mobility. Our motivation is to present our prior use and current understanding of CPZs as interlayer materials in organic electronics, and describe outstanding issues and future potential directions.

Electropolymerized Polythiophenes Bearing Pendant Nitroxide Radicals

We report a facile way to synthesize polythiophenes carrying pendant 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidinyl-1-oxyl (TEMPO) radicals, here called PTATs, by electropolymerization in boron trifluoride diethyl etherate (BFEE). The spacing between the TEMPO radical and the polythiophene backbone is varied by an alkyl spacer (n = 2, 4, 6), and the electronic and electrochemical properties are examined using UV-vis spectroscopy, cyclic voltammetry, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. Film morphologies are also studied via scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM), which show that the longer octyl chain placed between thiophene and TEMPO effectively suppresses aggregation. The highest conductivity and electroactivity are observed for n = 4 and n = 6, respectively. Such morphology differences provide an opportunity to better understand the charge transport and energy storage properties in electronic materials.

Alternative alcohol-soluble conjugated small molecule electrolytes for high-efficiency inverted polymer solar cells

Alcohol-soluble small molecule conjugated electrolytes are utilized as both hole and electron transport interlayers simultaneously in inverted polymer solar cells.

Dye-sensitized nanoarrays with discotic liquid crystals as interlayer for high-efficiency inverted polymer solar cells

The well-aligned and highly uniform one-dimensional ZnO with organic dyes core/shell (ZNs) and ZnO with dyes and liquid crystals core/double-shells nanoarrays (ZNLs) with controllable lengths were fabricated as electron transport layers (ETLs) in inverted polymer solar cells (PSCs). Ditetrabutylammonium cis-bis(isothiocyanato)bis(2,2'-bipyridyl-4,4'-dicarboxylato) ruthenium(II) dye (N719) was presented to reduce the surface defects of ZnO nanoarrays (NAs). In addition, the shell modification could decrease the electron injection barrier between ZnO and active layer, thereby facilitating electron injection effectively and forming a direct electron transport channel into the cathode. Due to the orientation of nanoarrays and the self-organization of 3,6,7,10,11-pentakis(hexyloxy)-2-hydroxytriphenylene liquid crystals (LCs) in liquid crystalline mesophase and isotropic phase transition, the components of active layer would be driven rearrange and infiltrate among the interspaces of nanoarrays more orderly. The increased interfacial contact between cathode and active layer would benefit charge generation, transportation and collection. On the basis of these advantages, it was found the N719 shell and N719/LCs double-shells modifications of ZnO NAs could boost the photovoltaic performance of PSCs with the best power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 7.3% and 8.0%, respectively.

Surface grafting of vinyl-functionalized poly(fluorene)s via thiol-ene click chemistry

Thiol-ene chemistry is used for the surface grafting of vinyl-functionalized poly(fluorene) derivatives onto substrates containing free surface thiol groups. The grafting reaction proceeds in a matter of minutes under UV irradiation without photoinitiator, and the resulting surface-bound, solvent-impervious conjugated polymers retain their characteristic optoelectronic properties. End-chain grafted poly(fluorene)s reach greater surface densities than their side-chain grafted counterparts and show less blue-shifting of photoluminescence upon grafting, suggesting that chain end-grafted conjugated polymers experience less disruption of their extended conjugation and adopt a more brush-like surface conformation. Surface grafted poly(fluorene)s showed facile photopatterning, and thin film transistors with semiconducting polymers directly grafted to the dielectric layer showed performances directly comparable to conventional self-assembled layers of performance-improving alkylsilanes.

Rapid, facile synthesis of conjugated polymer zwitterions in ionic liquids

Ionic liquids (ILs) were utilized for the rapid air-stable Suzuki polymerization of polar zwitterionic thiophene monomers, precluding the need for volatile organic solvents, phosphine ligands and phase transfer catalysts typically used in conjugated polymer synthesis.

Conjugated polymeric zwitterions as efficient interlayers in organic solar cells

Conjugated polymeric zwitterions, when utilized as interlayer materials in bulk heterojunction organic solar cells, lead to significantly enhanced power conversion efficiencies. The electrostatic model of self-aligning dipolar side groups in the vicinity of the metal surface rationalizes the effects of reduced cathode work function, a key factor behind the observed enhanced efficiency.