1
|
Reichel LS, Traeger A. Stimuli-Responsive Non-viral Nanoparticles for Gene Delivery. Handb Exp Pharmacol 2024; 284:27-43. [PMID: 37644142 DOI: 10.1007/164_2023_694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
Considering nucleic acids as the language of life and the genome as the instruction manual of cells, their targeted modulation promises great opportunities in treating and healing diseases. In addition to viral gene transfer, the overwhelming power of non-viral mRNA-based vaccines is driving the development of novel gene transporters. Thereby, various nucleic acids such as DNA (pDNA) or RNA (mRNA, siRNA, miRNA, gRNA, or ASOs) need to be delivered, requiring a transporter due to their high molar mass and negative charge in contrast to classical agents. This chapter presents the specific biological hurdles for using nucleic acids and shows how new materials can overcome these.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Liên S Reichel
- Institute of Organic and Macromolecular Chemistry (IOMC), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
- Jena Center for Soft Matter (JCSM), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Anja Traeger
- Institute of Organic and Macromolecular Chemistry (IOMC), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany.
- Jena Center for Soft Matter (JCSM), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Campeiro JD, Dam WA, Hayashi MAF, van den Born J. Crotamine/siRNA Nanocomplexes for Functional Downregulation of Syndecan-1 in Renal Proximal Tubular Epithelial Cells. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:1576. [PMID: 37376025 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15061576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Revised: 05/09/2023] [Accepted: 05/16/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Proteinuria drives progressive tubulointerstitial fibrosis in native and transplanted kidneys, mainly through the activation of proximal tubular epithelial cells (PTECs). During proteinuria, PTEC syndecan-1 functions as a docking platform for properdin-mediated alternative complement activation. Non-viral gene delivery vectors to target PTEC syndecan-1 could be useful to slow down alternative complement activation. In this work, we characterize a PTEC-specific non-viral delivery vector composed of the cell-penetrating peptide crotamine complexed with a syndecan-1 targeting siRNA. Cell biological characterization was performed in the human PTEC HK2 cell line, using confocal microscopy, qRT-PCR, and flow cytometry. PTEC targeting in vivo was carried out in healthy mice. Crotamine/siRNA nanocomplexes are positively charged, about 100 nm in size, resistant to nuclease degradation, and showed in vitro and in vivo specificity and internalization into PTECs. The efficient suppression of syndecan-1 expression in PTECs mediated by these nanocomplexes significantly reduced properdin binding (p < 0.001), as well as the subsequent complement activation by the alternative complement pathway (p < 0.001), as observed in either normal or activated tubular conditions. To conclude, crotamine/siRNA-mediated downregulation of PTEC syndecan-1 reduced the activation of the alternative complement pathway. Therefore, we suggest that the present strategy opens new venues for targeted proximal tubular gene therapy in renal diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joana D'Arc Campeiro
- Department Nephrology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Hanzeplein 1, De Brug, 4th Floor, AA53, 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina (EPM), Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), Rua 3 de Maio 100, Ed. INFAR, 3rd Floor, São Paulo 04044-020, Brazil
| | - Wendy A Dam
- Department Nephrology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Hanzeplein 1, De Brug, 4th Floor, AA53, 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Mirian A F Hayashi
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina (EPM), Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), Rua 3 de Maio 100, Ed. INFAR, 3rd Floor, São Paulo 04044-020, Brazil
| | - Jacob van den Born
- Department Nephrology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Hanzeplein 1, De Brug, 4th Floor, AA53, 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Klemm P, Solomun JI, Rodewald M, Kuchenbrod MT, Hänsch VG, Richter F, Popp J, Hertweck C, Hoeppener S, Bonduelle C, Lecommandoux S, Traeger A, Schubert S. Efficient Gene Delivery of Tailored Amphiphilic Polypeptides by Polyplex Surfing. Biomacromolecules 2022; 23:4718-4733. [PMID: 36269943 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.2c00919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Within this study, an amphiphilic and potentially biodegradable polypeptide library based on poly[(4-aminobutyl)-l-glutamine-stat-hexyl-l-glutamine] [P(AB-l-Gln-stat-Hex-l-Gln)] was investigated for gene delivery. The influence of varying proportions of aliphatic and cationic side chains affecting the physicochemical properties of the polypeptides on transfection efficiency was investigated. A composition of 40 mol% Hex-l-Gln and 60 mol % AB-l-Gln (P3) was identified as best performer over polypeptides with higher proportions of protonatable monomers. Detailed studies of the transfection mechanism revealed the strongest interaction of P3 with cell membranes, promoting efficient endocytic cell uptake and high endosomal release. Spectrally, time-, and z-resolved fluorescence microscopy further revealed the crucial role of filopodia surfing in polyplex-cell interaction and particle internalization in lamellipodia regions, followed by rapid particle transport into cells. This study demonstrates the great potential of polypeptides for gene delivery. The amphiphilic character improves performance over cationic homopolypeptides, and the potential biodegradability is advantageous toward other synthetic polymeric delivery systems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paul Klemm
- Laboratory of Organic and Macromolecular Chemistry (IOMC), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Humboldtstrasse 10, 07743 Jena, Germany.,Jena Center for Soft Matter (JCSM), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Philosophenweg 7, 07743 Jena, Germany
| | - Jana I Solomun
- Laboratory of Organic and Macromolecular Chemistry (IOMC), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Humboldtstrasse 10, 07743 Jena, Germany.,Jena Center for Soft Matter (JCSM), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Philosophenweg 7, 07743 Jena, Germany
| | - Marko Rodewald
- Leibniz Institute for Photonic Technology Jena, Member of Leibniz Health Technologies, Albert-Einstein-Strasse 9, 07745 Jena, Germany.,Institute of Physical Chemistry and Abbe Center of Photonics, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Lessingstrasse 10, 07743 Jena, Germany.,Jena Center for Soft Matter (JCSM), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Philosophenweg 7, 07743 Jena, Germany
| | - Maren T Kuchenbrod
- Laboratory of Organic and Macromolecular Chemistry (IOMC), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Humboldtstrasse 10, 07743 Jena, Germany.,Jena Center for Soft Matter (JCSM), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Philosophenweg 7, 07743 Jena, Germany
| | - Veit G Hänsch
- Department of Biomolecular Chemistry, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, Hans Knöll Institute, Beutenbergstrasse 11a, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Friederike Richter
- Laboratory of Organic and Macromolecular Chemistry (IOMC), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Humboldtstrasse 10, 07743 Jena, Germany.,Jena Center for Soft Matter (JCSM), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Philosophenweg 7, 07743 Jena, Germany
| | - Jürgen Popp
- Leibniz Institute for Photonic Technology Jena, Member of Leibniz Health Technologies, Albert-Einstein-Strasse 9, 07745 Jena, Germany.,Institute of Physical Chemistry and Abbe Center of Photonics, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Lessingstrasse 10, 07743 Jena, Germany.,Jena Center for Soft Matter (JCSM), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Philosophenweg 7, 07743 Jena, Germany
| | - Christian Hertweck
- Department of Biomolecular Chemistry, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, Hans Knöll Institute, Beutenbergstrasse 11a, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Stephanie Hoeppener
- Laboratory of Organic and Macromolecular Chemistry (IOMC), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Humboldtstrasse 10, 07743 Jena, Germany.,Jena Center for Soft Matter (JCSM), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Philosophenweg 7, 07743 Jena, Germany
| | - Colin Bonduelle
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, Bordeaux INP, LCPO, UMR 5629, F-33600 Pessac, France
| | | | - Anja Traeger
- Laboratory of Organic and Macromolecular Chemistry (IOMC), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Humboldtstrasse 10, 07743 Jena, Germany.,Jena Center for Soft Matter (JCSM), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Philosophenweg 7, 07743 Jena, Germany
| | - Stephanie Schubert
- Laboratory of Organic and Macromolecular Chemistry (IOMC), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Humboldtstrasse 10, 07743 Jena, Germany.,Jena Center for Soft Matter (JCSM), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Philosophenweg 7, 07743 Jena, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Rani V, Prabhu A. CRISPR-Cas9 based non-viral approaches in nanoparticle elicited therapeutic delivery. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jddst.2022.103737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
|
5
|
Holjencin C, Jakymiw A. MicroRNAs and Their Big Therapeutic Impacts: Delivery Strategies for Cancer Intervention. Cells 2022; 11:cells11152332. [PMID: 35954176 PMCID: PMC9367537 DOI: 10.3390/cells11152332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2022] [Revised: 07/25/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Three decades have passed from the initial discovery of a microRNA (miRNA) in Caenorhabditis elegans to our current understanding that miRNAs play essential roles in regulating fundamental physiological processes and that their dysregulation can lead to many human pathologies, including cancer. In effect, restoration of miRNA expression or downregulation of aberrantly expressed miRNAs using miRNA mimics or anti-miRNA inhibitors (anti-miRs/antimiRs), respectively, continues to show therapeutic potential for the treatment of cancer. Although the manipulation of miRNA expression presents a promising therapeutic strategy for cancer treatment, it is predominantly reliant on nucleic acid-based molecules for their application, which introduces an array of hurdles, with respect to in vivo delivery. Because naked nucleic acids are quickly degraded and/or removed from the body, they require delivery vectors that can help overcome the many barriers presented upon their administration into the bloodstream. As such, in this review, we discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the current state-of-the-art delivery systems, encompassing viral- and nonviral-based systems, with a specific focus on nonviral nanotechnology-based miRNA delivery platforms, including lipid-, polymer-, inorganic-, and extracellular vesicle-based delivery strategies. Moreover, we also shed light on peptide carriers as an emerging technology that shows great promise in being a highly efficacious delivery platform for miRNA-based cancer therapeutics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Charles Holjencin
- Department of Oral Health Sciences, James B. Edwards College of Dental Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina (MUSC), Charleston, SC 29425, USA;
| | - Andrew Jakymiw
- Department of Oral Health Sciences, James B. Edwards College of Dental Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina (MUSC), Charleston, SC 29425, USA;
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, Hollings Cancer Center, Medical University of South Carolina (MUSC), Charleston, SC 29425, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-843-792-2551
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Olivieri PH, Jesus MB, Nader HB, Justo GZ, Sousa AA. Cell-surface glycosaminoglycans regulate the cellular uptake of charged polystyrene nanoparticles. NANOSCALE 2022; 14:7350-7363. [PMID: 35535683 DOI: 10.1039/d1nr07279j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Engineered nanoparticles approaching the cell body will first encounter and interact with cell-surface glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) before reaching the plasma membrane and becoming internalized. However, how surface GAGs may regulate the cellular entry of nanoparticles remains poorly understood. Herein, it is shown that the surface GAGs of Chinese hamster ovary cells perform as a charge-based barrier against the cellular internalization of anionic polystyrene nanoparticles (PS NPs). In contrast, cationic PS NPs interact favorably with the surface GAGs and thereby are efficiently internalized. Anionic PS NPs eventually reaching the plasma membrane bind to scavenger receptors and are endocytosed by clathrin-mediated and lipid raft/cholesterol-dependent mechanisms, whereas cationic PS NPs are primarily internalized via clathrin-mediated endocytosis and macropinocytosis. Upon the enzymatic shedding of surface GAGs, the uptake of anionic PS NPs increases while that of cationic PS NPs is dramatically reduced. Interestingly, the diminished uptake of cationic PS NPs is observed only when heparan sulfate, but not chondroitin sulfate, is cleaved from the cell surface. Heparan sulfate therefore serves as anchors/first receptors to facilitate the cellular entry of cationic PS NPs. These findings contribute to advance the basic science of nanoparticle endocytosis while also having important implications for the use of engineered nanocarriers as intracellular drug-delivery systems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paulo H Olivieri
- Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP 04044-020, Brazil.
| | - Marcelo B Jesus
- Department of Biochemistry & Tissue Biology, University of Campinas, Campinas, SP 13083-970, Brazil
| | - Helena B Nader
- Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP 04044-020, Brazil.
| | - Giselle Z Justo
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of São Paulo, Diadema, SP 09972-270, Brazil.
| | - Alioscka A Sousa
- Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP 04044-020, Brazil.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Noureddine A, Paffett ML, Franco S, Chan AE, Pallikkuth S, Lidke K, Serda RE. Endolysosomal Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticle Trafficking along Microtubular Highways. Pharmaceutics 2021; 14:pharmaceutics14010056. [PMID: 35056951 PMCID: PMC8781846 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14010056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2021] [Revised: 12/19/2021] [Accepted: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
This study examines intra- and intercellular trafficking of mesoporous silica nanoparticles along microtubular highways, with an emphasis on intercellular bridges connecting interphase and telophase cells. The study of nanoparticle trafficking within and between cells during all phases of the cell cycle is relevant to payload destination and dilution, and impacts delivery of therapeutic or diagnostic agents. Super-resolution stochastic optical reconstruction and sub-airy unit image acquisition, the latter combined with Huygens deconvolution microscopy, enable single nanoparticle and microtubule resolution. Combined structural and functional data provide enhanced details on biological processes, with an example of mitotic inheritance during cancer cell trivision.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Achraf Noureddine
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA;
| | - Michael L. Paffett
- Fluorescence Microscopy Shared Resource, University of New Mexico Comprehensive Cancer Center, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA;
| | - Stefan Franco
- Internal Medicine, University of New Mexico Health Science Center, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA; (S.F.); (A.E.C.)
| | - Alfonso E. Chan
- Internal Medicine, University of New Mexico Health Science Center, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA; (S.F.); (A.E.C.)
| | - Sandeep Pallikkuth
- Physics and Astronomy, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA; (S.P.); (K.L.)
| | - Keith Lidke
- Physics and Astronomy, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA; (S.P.); (K.L.)
| | - Rita E. Serda
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA;
- Internal Medicine, University of New Mexico Health Science Center, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA; (S.F.); (A.E.C.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-505-272-7698
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Monnery BD. Polycation-Mediated Transfection: Mechanisms of Internalization and Intracellular Trafficking. Biomacromolecules 2021; 22:4060-4083. [PMID: 34498457 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.1c00697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Polyplex-mediated gene transfection is now in its' fourth decade of serious research, but the promise of polyplex-mediated gene therapy has yet to fully materialize. Only approximately one in a million applied plasmids actually expresses. A large part of this is due to an incomplete understanding of the mechanism of polyplex transfection. There is an assumption that internalization must follow a canonical mechanism of receptor mediated endocytosis. Herein, we present arguments that untargeted (and most targeted) polyplexes do not utilize these routes. By incorporating knowledge of syndecan-polyplex interactions, we can show that syndecans are the "target" for polyplexes. Further, it is known that free polycations (which disrupt cell-membranes by acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of phospholipid esters) are necessary for (untargeted) endocytosis. This can be incorporated into the model to produce a novel mechanism of endocytosis, which fits the observed phenomenology. After membrane translocation, polyplex containing vesicles reach the endosome after diffusing through the actin mesh below the cell membrane. From there, they are acidified and trafficked toward the lysosome. Some polyplexes are capable of escaping the endosome and unpacking, while others are not. Herein, it is argued that for some polycations, as acidification proceeds the polyplexes excluding free polycations, which disrupt the endosomal membrane by acid-catalyzed hydrolysis, allowing the polyplex to escape. The polyplex's internal charge ratio is now insufficient for stability and it releases plasmids which diffuse to the nucleus. A small proportion of these plasmids diffuse through the nuclear pore complex (NPC), with aggregation being the major cause of loss. Those plasmids that have diffused through the NPC will also aggregate, and this appears to be the reason such a small proportion of nuclear plasmids express mRNA. Thus, the structural features which promote unpacking in the endosome and allow for endosomal escape can be determined, and better polycations can be designed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bryn D Monnery
- Department of Organic and (Bio)Polymer Chemistry, Hasselt University, Building F, Agoralaan 1, B-3590 Diepenbeek, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Keller-Pinter A, Gyulai-Nagy S, Becsky D, Dux L, Rovo L. Syndecan-4 in Tumor Cell Motility. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13133322. [PMID: 34282767 PMCID: PMC8268284 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13133322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Revised: 06/25/2021] [Accepted: 06/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Cell migration is crucial fReaor metastasis formation and a hallmark of malignancy. The primary cause of high mortality among oncology patients is the ability of cancer cells to metastasize. To form metastasis, primary tumor cells must be intrinsically able to move. The transmembrane, heparan sulfate proteoglycan syndecan-4 (SDC4) exhibits multiple functions in signal transduction by regulating Rac1 GTPase activity and consequently actin remodeling, as well as regulating focal adhesion kinase, protein kinase C-alpha and the level of intracellular calcium. By affecting several signaling pathways and biological processes, SDC4 is involved in cell migration under physiological and pathological conditions as well. In this review, we discuss the SDC4-mediated cell migration focusing on the role of SDC4 in tumor cell movement. Abstract Syndecan-4 (SDC4) is a ubiquitously expressed, transmembrane proteoglycan bearing heparan sulfate chains. SDC4 is involved in numerous inside-out and outside-in signaling processes, such as binding and sequestration of growth factors and extracellular matrix components, regulation of the activity of the small GTPase Rac1, protein kinase C-alpha, the level of intracellular calcium, or the phosphorylation of focal adhesion kinase. The ability of this proteoglycan to link the extracellular matrix and actin cytoskeleton enables SDC4 to contribute to biological functions like cell adhesion and migration, cell proliferation, cytokinesis, cellular polarity, or mechanotransduction. The multiple roles of SDC4 in tumor pathogenesis and progression has already been demonstrated; therefore, the expression and signaling of SDC4 was investigated in several tumor types. SDC4 influences tumor progression by regulating cell proliferation as well as cell migration by affecting cell-matrix adhesion and several signaling pathways. Here, we summarize the general role of SDC4 in cell migration and tumor cell motility.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aniko Keller-Pinter
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, H-6720 Szeged, Hungary; (S.G.-N.); (D.B.); (L.D.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Szuzina Gyulai-Nagy
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, H-6720 Szeged, Hungary; (S.G.-N.); (D.B.); (L.D.)
| | - Daniel Becsky
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, H-6720 Szeged, Hungary; (S.G.-N.); (D.B.); (L.D.)
| | - Laszlo Dux
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, H-6720 Szeged, Hungary; (S.G.-N.); (D.B.); (L.D.)
| | - Laszlo Rovo
- Department of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology and Head-Neck Surgery, University of Szeged, H-6725 Szeged, Hungary;
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Ansari AS, K C R, Jiang X, Uludaǧ H. Investigation of water-insoluble hydrophobic polyethylenimines as RNAi vehicles in chronic myeloid leukemia therapy. J Biomed Mater Res A 2021; 109:2306-2321. [PMID: 33964112 DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.37214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2021] [Revised: 03/19/2021] [Accepted: 04/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The discovery of RNA interference (RNAi) more than two decades ago opened avenues for avant-garde cancer treatments that possess the ability to evade issues hampering current chemotherapeutic strategies, owing to its specific gene sequence-driven mechanism of action. A potent short interfering RNA (siRNA) delivery vehicle designed to overcome physiological barriers is imperative for successful RNAi therapy. For this purpose, this study explored the characteristics and therapeutic efficacy of low-molecular weight (MW) polyethylenimine (PEI) with high cholesterol substitution, yielding water-insoluble polymers, in chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) K562 cells. A strong impact of cholesterol grafting on the physicochemical attributes of the resultant polymers and their corresponding complexes with siRNA was observed, with the siRNA binding capacity of polymers increasing and complex dissociation sensitivity decreasing with increase in cholesterol content of the polymers. The modified polymer complexes were significantly smaller in size and possessed higher cationic charge compared to the parent polymer. The interaction with anionic heparan sulfate preoteoglycans present on the cell surface was significant in cellular uptake of the complexes. The therapeutic efficacy of siRNA/polymer complexes was reflected in their ability to effectively silence the reporter green fluorescent protein gene and endogenous CML oncogene BCR-ABL as well as significantly inhibit colony formation by K562 cells post BCR-ABL silencing. The results of this study demonstrated beneficial effects of high levels of hydrophobic substitution on low MW PEI on their functional performance bestowing them the potential to be potent RNAi agents for CML therapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aysha S Ansari
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Remant K C
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Xiaoyan Jiang
- Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Hasan Uludaǧ
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Medicine, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada.,Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Holjencin CE, Feinberg CR, Hedrick T, Halsey G, Williams RD, Patel PV, Biles E, Cummings JC, Wagner C, Vyavahare N, Jakymiw A. Advancing peptide siRNA-carrier designs through L/D-amino acid stereochemical modifications to enhance gene silencing. MOLECULAR THERAPY-NUCLEIC ACIDS 2021; 24:462-476. [PMID: 33868789 PMCID: PMC8040110 DOI: 10.1016/j.omtn.2021.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2020] [Accepted: 03/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The 599 peptide has been previously shown to effectively deliver small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) to cancer cells, inducing targeted-oncogene silencing, with a consequent inhibition of tumor growth. Although effective, this study was undertaken to advance the 599 peptide siRNA-carrier design through L/D-amino acid stereochemical modifications. Consequently, 599 was modified to generate eight different peptide variants, incorporating either different stereochemical patterns of L/D-amino acids or a specific D-amino acid substitution. Upon analysis of the variants, it was observed that these modifications could, in some instances, increase/decrease the binding, nuclease/serum stability, and complex release of siRNAs, as well as influence the gene-silencing efficiencies of the complex. These modifications were also found to affect cellular uptake and intracellular localization patterns of siRNA cargo, with one particular variant capable of mediating binding of siRNAs to specific cellular projections, identified as filopodia. Interestingly, this variant also exhibited the most enhanced gene silencing in comparison to the parent 599 peptide, thus suggesting a possible connection between filopodia binding and enhanced gene silencing. Together, these data demonstrate the utility of peptide stereochemistry, as well as the importance of a key D-amino acid modification, in advancing the 599 carrier design for the enhancement of gene silencing in cancer cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Charles E Holjencin
- Department of Oral Health Sciences, James B. Edwards College of Dental Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina (MUSC), Charleston, SC 29425, USA
| | - Colton R Feinberg
- Department of Oral Health Sciences, James B. Edwards College of Dental Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina (MUSC), Charleston, SC 29425, USA.,Department of Biology, Swain Family School of Science and Mathematics, The Citadel, Charleston, SC 29409, USA
| | - Travis Hedrick
- Department of Oral Health Sciences, James B. Edwards College of Dental Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina (MUSC), Charleston, SC 29425, USA
| | - Gregory Halsey
- Department of Bioengineering, College of Engineering, Computing and Applied Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
| | - Robert D Williams
- Department of Oral Health Sciences, James B. Edwards College of Dental Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina (MUSC), Charleston, SC 29425, USA
| | - Priya V Patel
- Department of Oral Health Sciences, James B. Edwards College of Dental Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina (MUSC), Charleston, SC 29425, USA
| | - Evan Biles
- Department of Oral Health Sciences, James B. Edwards College of Dental Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina (MUSC), Charleston, SC 29425, USA
| | - James C Cummings
- Department of Oral Health Sciences, James B. Edwards College of Dental Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina (MUSC), Charleston, SC 29425, USA
| | - Chance Wagner
- Department of Oral Health Sciences, James B. Edwards College of Dental Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina (MUSC), Charleston, SC 29425, USA
| | - Naren Vyavahare
- Department of Bioengineering, College of Engineering, Computing and Applied Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
| | - Andrew Jakymiw
- Department of Oral Health Sciences, James B. Edwards College of Dental Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina (MUSC), Charleston, SC 29425, USA.,Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, Hollings Cancer Center, MUSC, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Joshi BS, Zuhorn IS. Heparan sulfate proteoglycan-mediated dynamin-dependent transport of neural stem cell exosomes in an in vitro blood-brain barrier model. Eur J Neurosci 2020; 53:706-719. [PMID: 32939863 PMCID: PMC7891616 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.14974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Revised: 08/10/2020] [Accepted: 09/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Drug delivery to the brain is greatly hampered by the presence of the blood–brain barrier (BBB) which tightly regulates the passage of molecules from blood to brain and vice versa. Nanocarriers, in which drugs can be encapsulated, can move across the blood–brain barrier (BBB) via the process of transcytosis, thus showing promise to improve drug delivery to the brain. Here, we demonstrate the use of natural nanovesicles, that is, exosomes, derived from C17.2 neural stem cells (NSCs) to efficiently carry a protein cargo across an in vitro BBB model consisting of human brain microvascular endothelial cells. We show that the exosomes are primarily taken up in brain endothelial cells via endocytosis, while heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) act as receptors. Taken together, our data support the view that NSC exosomes may act as biological nanocarriers for efficient passage across the BBB. Nanomedicines that target HSPGs may improve their binding to brain endothelial cells and, possibly, show subsequent transcytosis across the BBB.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bhagyashree S Joshi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Inge S Zuhorn
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Ayyadevara VSSA, Roh KH. Calcium enhances polyplex-mediated transfection efficiency of plasmid DNA in Jurkat cells. Drug Deliv 2020; 27:805-815. [PMID: 32489110 PMCID: PMC8216448 DOI: 10.1080/10717544.2020.1770371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Jurkat, an immortalized cell line derived from human leukemic T lymphocytes, has been employed as an excellent surrogate model of human primary T-cells for the advancement of T-cell biology and their applications in medicine. However, presumably due to its T-cell origin, Jurkat cells are very difficult to transfect. Thus, for the genetic modification of Jurkat cells, expensive and time-consuming viral vectors are normally required. Despite many previous efforts, non-viral vectors have not yet overcome the hurdles of low transfection efficiency and/or high toxicity in transfection of Jurkat cells. Here, we report that a simple addition of calcium ions (Ca2+) into culture media at optimal concentrations can enhance the efficiency of the polyplex-mediated transfection using poly(ethylene imine) (PEI) by up to 12-fold when compared to the polyplex-only control. We show that calcium enhances the association between polyplex and Jurkat, which is at least partially responsible for the increase in transmembrane delivery of polyplex and consequential enhancement in expression of transgene. Other cations, Mg2+ or Na+ did not show similar enhancement. Interestingly, addition of Ca2+ was rather detrimental for the transfection of lipoplex on Jurkat cells. Observation of significant enhancement in the transfection of non-viral vectors with a simple and physiologically relevant reagent like Ca2+ in the engineering of hard-to-transfect cells such as Jurkat warrants further investigation on similar strategies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Kyung-Ho Roh
- Biotechnology Science and Engineering, University of Alabama in Huntsville, Huntsville, AL, USA.,Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Alabama in Huntsville, Huntsville, AL, USA
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Ingle NP, Hexum JK, Reineke TM. Polyplexes Are Endocytosed by and Trafficked within Filopodia. Biomacromolecules 2020; 21:1379-1392. [PMID: 32118406 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.9b01610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The improvement of nonviral gene therapies relies to a large extent on understanding many fundamental physical and biological properties of these systems. This includes interactions of synthetic delivery systems with the cell and mechanisms of trafficking delivery vehicles, which remain poorly understood on both the extra- and intracellular levels. In this study, the mechanisms of cellular internalization and trafficking of polymer-based nanoparticle complexes consisting of polycations and nucleic acids, termed polyplexes, have been observed in detail at the cellular level. For the first time evidence has been obtained that filopodia, actin projections that radiate out from the surface of cells, serve as a route for the direct endocytosis of polyplexes. Confocal microscopy images demonstrated that filopodia on HeLa cells detect external polyplexes and extend into the extracellular milieu to internalize these particles. Polyplexes are observed to be internalized into membrane-bound vesicles (i.e., clathrin-coated pits and caveolae) directly within filopodial projections and are subsequently transported along actin to the main cell body for potential delivery of the nucleic acids to the nucleus. The kinetics and speed of polyplex trafficking have also been measured. The polyplex-loaded vesicles were also discovered to traffic between two cells within filopodial bridges. These findings provide novel insight into the early events of cellular contact with polyplexes through filopodial-based interactions in addition to endocytic vesicle trafficking-an important fundamental discovery to enable advancement of nonviral gene editing, nucleic acid therapies, and biomedical materials.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nilesh P Ingle
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Joseph K Hexum
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Theresa M Reineke
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Abstract
Liposomes are one of the most widely investigated carriers for CRISPR/Cas9 delivery. The surface properties of liposomal carriers, including the surface charge, PEGylation, and ligand modification can significantly affect the gene silencing efficiency. Three barriers of systemic CRISPR/Cas9 delivery (long blood circulation, efficient tumor penetration, and efficient cellular uptake/endosomal escape) are analyzed on liposomal carriers with different surface charges, PEGylations, and ligand modifications. Cationic formulations dominate CRISPR/Cas9 delivery and neutral formulations also have good performance while anionic formulations are generally not proper for CRISPR/Cas9 delivery. The PEG dilemma (prolonged blood circulation vs. reduced cellular uptake/endosomal escape) and the side effect of repeated PEGylated formulation (accelerated blood clearance) were discussed. Effects of ligand modification on cationic and neutral formulations were analyzed. Finally, we summarized the achievements in liposomal CRISPR/Cas9 delivery, outlined existing problems, and provided some future perspectives. Liposomes are one of the most widely investigated carriers for CRISPR/Cas9 delivery. The surface properties of liposomal carriers, including the surface charge, PEGylation, and ligand modification can significantly affect the gene silencing efficiency. Three barriers of systemic siRNA delivery (long blood circulation, efficient tumor penetration, and efficient cellular uptake/endosomal escape) are analyzed on liposomal carriers with different surface charges, PEGylations, and ligand modifications. Cationic formulations dominate CRISPR/Cas9 delivery and neutral formulations also have good performance while anionic formulations are generally not proper for CRISPR/Cas9 delivery. The PEG dilemma (prolonged blood circulation vs. reduced cellular uptake/endosomal escape) and the side effect of repeated PEGylated formulation (accelerated blood clearance) were discussed. Effects of ligand modification on cationic and neutral formulations were analyzed. Finally, we summarized the achievements in liposomal CRISPR/Cas9 delivery, outlined existing problems, and provided some future perspectives.
Collapse
|
16
|
Wang K, Liu X, Zhuang J, Liu Y, Xu M, Xie D, Chen J, Zhang X, Wei Y, Zhang Y. Small fluorescent albumin nanoparticles for targeted photothermal therapy via albumin-Binding protein pathways. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2019; 181:696-704. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2019.06.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2019] [Revised: 06/12/2019] [Accepted: 06/13/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
|
17
|
Degors IS, Wang C, Rehman ZU, Zuhorn IS. Carriers Break Barriers in Drug Delivery: Endocytosis and Endosomal Escape of Gene Delivery Vectors. Acc Chem Res 2019; 52:1750-1760. [PMID: 31243966 PMCID: PMC6639780 DOI: 10.1021/acs.accounts.9b00177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 219] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Over the past decades, major efforts were undertaken to develop devices on a nanoscale level for the efficient and nontoxic delivery of molecules to tissues and cells, for the purpose of either diagnosis or treatment of disease. The application of such devices in drug delivery has proven to be beneficial for matters as diverse as drug solubility, drug targeting, controlled drug release, and transport of drugs across cellular barriers. Multiple nanotherapeutics have been approved for clinical treatment, and more products are being evaluated in preclinical and clinical trials. However, many biological barriers hinder the medical application of nanocarriers. There are two main classes of barriers that need to be overcome by drug nanocarriers: extracellular and intracellular barriers, both of which may capture and/or destroy therapeutics before they reach their target site. This Account discusses major biological barriers that are confronted by nanotherapeutics, following their systemic administration, focusing on cellular entry and endosomal escape of gene delivery vectors. The use of pH-responsive materials to overcome the endosomal barrier is addressed. Historically, cell biologists have studied the interaction between cells and pathogens in order to unveil the mechanisms of endocytosis and cell signaling. Meanwhile, it is becoming clear that cells may respond in similar ways to artificial drug delivery systems and, consequently, that knowledge on the cellular response against both pathogens and nanoparticulate systems will aid in the design of improved nanomedicine. A close collaboration between bioengineers and cell biologists will promote this development. At the same time, we have come to realize that tools that we use to study fundamental cellular processes, including metabolic inhibitors of endocytosis and overexpression/downregulation of proteins, may cause changes in cellular physiology. This calls for the implementation of refined methods to study nanocarrier-cell interactions, as is discussed in this Account. Finally, recent papers on the dynamics of cargo release from endosomes by means of live cell imaging have significantly advanced our understanding of the transfection process. They have initiated discussion (among others) on the limited number of endosomal escape events in transfection, and on the endosomal stage at which genetic cargo is most efficiently released. Advancements in imaging techniques, including super-resolution microscopy, in concert with techniques to label endogenous proteins and/or label proteins with synthetic fluorophores, will contribute to a more detailed understanding of nanocarrier-cell dynamics, which is imperative for the development of safe and efficient nanomedicine.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Isabelle
M. S. Degors
- Department
of Biomedical Engineering, University Medical
Center Groningen, University of Groningen, A. Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Cuifeng Wang
- School
of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of
New Drug Design and Evaluation, Sun Yat-sen
University, Guangzhou 510006, P. R. China
| | - Zia Ur Rehman
- Department
of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Kohat University of Sciences and Technology (KUST), Kohat 26000, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
| | - Inge S. Zuhorn
- Department
of Biomedical Engineering, University Medical
Center Groningen, University of Groningen, A. Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Campeiro JD, Dam W, Monte GG, Porta LC, Oliveira LCGD, Nering MB, Viana GM, Carapeto FC, Oliveira EB, van den Born J, Hayashi MAF. Long term safety of targeted internalization of cell penetrating peptide crotamine into renal proximal tubular epithelial cells in vivo. Sci Rep 2019; 9:3312. [PMID: 30824773 PMCID: PMC6397221 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-39842-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2018] [Accepted: 01/21/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Activated proximal tubular epithelial cells (PTECs) play a crucial role in progressive tubulo-interstitial fibrosis in native and transplanted kidneys. Targeting PTECs by non-viral delivery vectors might be useful to influence the expression of important genes and/or proteins in order to slow down renal function loss. However, no clinical therapies that specifically target PTECs are available at present. We earlier showed that a cationic cell penetrating peptide isolated from South American rattlesnake venom, named crotamine, recognizes cell surface heparan sulfate proteoglycans and accumulates in cells. In healthy mice, crotamine accumulates mainly in kidneys after intraperitoneal (ip) injection. Herein we demonstrate for the first time, the overall safety of acute or long-term treatment with daily ip administrated crotamine for kidneys functions. Accumulation of ip injected crotamine in the kidney brush border zone of PTECs, and its presence inside these cells were observed. In addition, significant lower in vitro crotamine binding, uptake and reporter gene transport and expression could be observed in syndecan-1 deficient HK-2 PTECs compared to wild-type cells, indicating that the absence of syndecan-1 impairs crotamine uptake into PTECs. Taken together, our present data show the safety of in vivo long-term treatment with crotamine, and its preferential uptake into PTECs, which are especially rich in HSPGs such as syndecan-1. In addition to the demonstrated in vitro gene delivery mediated by crotamine in HK-2 cells, the potential applicability of crotamine as prototypic non-viral (gene) delivery nanocarrier to modulate PTEC gene and/or protein expression was confirmed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joana Darc Campeiro
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina (EPM), Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Wendy Dam
- Department Nephrology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Gabriela Guilherme Monte
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina (EPM), Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Lucas Carvalho Porta
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina (EPM), Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Marcela Bego Nering
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina (EPM), Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Gustavo Monteiro Viana
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Escola Paulista de Medicina (EPM), Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Fernando Cintra Carapeto
- Departamento de Patologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina (EPM), Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Eduardo Brandt Oliveira
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Universidade de São Paulo (USP-FMRP), Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Jacob van den Born
- Department Nephrology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Mirian A F Hayashi
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina (EPM), Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Mantz A, Pannier AK. Biomaterial substrate modifications that influence cell-material interactions to prime cellular responses to nonviral gene delivery. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2019; 244:100-113. [PMID: 30621454 PMCID: PMC6405826 DOI: 10.1177/1535370218821060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPACT STATEMENT This review summarizes how biomaterial substrate modifications (e.g. chemical modifications like natural coatings, ligands, or functional side groups, and/or physical modifications such as topography or stiffness) can prime the cellular response to nonviral gene delivery (e.g. affecting integrin binding and focal adhesion formation, cytoskeletal remodeling, endocytic mechanisms, and intracellular trafficking), to aid in improving gene delivery for applications where a cell-material interface might exist (e.g. tissue engineering scaffolds, medical implants and devices, sensors and diagnostics, wound dressings).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amy Mantz
- Department of Biological Systems Engineering,
University
of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68583,
USA
| | - Angela K Pannier
- Department of Biological Systems Engineering,
University
of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68583,
USA
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Qadir A, Gao Y, Suryaji P, Tian Y, Lin X, Dang K, Jiang S, Li Y, Miao Z, Qian A. Non-Viral Delivery System and Targeted Bone Disease Therapy. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20030565. [PMID: 30699924 PMCID: PMC6386958 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20030565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2018] [Revised: 01/25/2019] [Accepted: 01/27/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Skeletal systems provide support, movement, and protection to the human body. It can be affected by several life suffering bone disorders such as osteoporosis, osteoarthritis, and bone cancers. It is not an easy job to treat bone disorders because of avascular cartilage regions. Treatment with non-specific drug delivery must utilize high doses of systemic administration, which may result in toxicities in non-skeletal tissues and low therapeutic efficacy. Therefore, in order to overcome such limitations, developments in targeted delivery systems are urgently needed. Although the idea of a general targeted delivery system using bone targeting moieties like bisphosphonates, tetracycline, and calcium phosphates emerged a few decades ago, identification of carrier systems like viral and non-viral vectors is a recent approach. Viral vectors have high transfection efficiency but are limited by inducing immunogenicity and oncogenicity. Although non-viral vectors possess low transfection efficiency they are comparatively safe. A number of non-viral vectors including cationic lipids, cationic polymers, and cationic peptides have been developed and used for targeted delivery of DNA, RNA, and drugs to bone tissues or cells with successful consequences. Here we mainly discuss such various non-viral delivery systems with respect to their mechanisms and applications in the specific targeting of bone tissues or cells. Moreover, we discuss possible therapeutic agents that can be delivered against various bone related disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Abdul Qadir
- Lab for Bone Metabolism, Key Lab for Space Biosciences and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, Shaanxi, China.
- Research Center for Special Medicine and Health Systems Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, Shaanxi, China.
- NPU-UAB Joint Laboratory for Bone Metabolism, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, Shaanxi, China.
| | - Yongguang Gao
- Lab for Bone Metabolism, Key Lab for Space Biosciences and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, Shaanxi, China.
- Research Center for Special Medicine and Health Systems Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, Shaanxi, China.
- NPU-UAB Joint Laboratory for Bone Metabolism, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, Shaanxi, China.
| | - Patil Suryaji
- Lab for Bone Metabolism, Key Lab for Space Biosciences and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, Shaanxi, China.
- Research Center for Special Medicine and Health Systems Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, Shaanxi, China.
- NPU-UAB Joint Laboratory for Bone Metabolism, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, Shaanxi, China.
| | - Ye Tian
- Lab for Bone Metabolism, Key Lab for Space Biosciences and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, Shaanxi, China.
- Research Center for Special Medicine and Health Systems Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, Shaanxi, China.
- NPU-UAB Joint Laboratory for Bone Metabolism, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, Shaanxi, China.
| | - Xiao Lin
- Lab for Bone Metabolism, Key Lab for Space Biosciences and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, Shaanxi, China.
- Research Center for Special Medicine and Health Systems Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, Shaanxi, China.
- NPU-UAB Joint Laboratory for Bone Metabolism, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, Shaanxi, China.
| | - Kai Dang
- Lab for Bone Metabolism, Key Lab for Space Biosciences and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, Shaanxi, China.
- Research Center for Special Medicine and Health Systems Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, Shaanxi, China.
- NPU-UAB Joint Laboratory for Bone Metabolism, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, Shaanxi, China.
| | - Shanfeng Jiang
- Lab for Bone Metabolism, Key Lab for Space Biosciences and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, Shaanxi, China.
- Research Center for Special Medicine and Health Systems Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, Shaanxi, China.
- NPU-UAB Joint Laboratory for Bone Metabolism, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, Shaanxi, China.
| | - Yu Li
- Lab for Bone Metabolism, Key Lab for Space Biosciences and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, Shaanxi, China.
- Research Center for Special Medicine and Health Systems Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, Shaanxi, China.
- NPU-UAB Joint Laboratory for Bone Metabolism, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, Shaanxi, China.
| | - Zhiping Miao
- Lab for Bone Metabolism, Key Lab for Space Biosciences and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, Shaanxi, China.
- Research Center for Special Medicine and Health Systems Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, Shaanxi, China.
- NPU-UAB Joint Laboratory for Bone Metabolism, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, Shaanxi, China.
| | - Airong Qian
- Lab for Bone Metabolism, Key Lab for Space Biosciences and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, Shaanxi, China.
- Research Center for Special Medicine and Health Systems Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, Shaanxi, China.
- NPU-UAB Joint Laboratory for Bone Metabolism, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, Shaanxi, China.
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Zhang S, Wang D, Li Y, Li L, Chen H, Xiong Q, Liu Y, Wang Y. pH- and redox-responsive nanoparticles composed of charge-reversible pullulan-based shells and disulfide-containing poly(ß-amino ester) cores for co-delivery of a gene and chemotherapeutic agent. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2018; 29:325101. [PMID: 29761789 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/aac4b5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
A novel pH- and redox-responsive nanoparticle system was designed based on a charge-reversible pullulan derivative (CAPL) and disulfide-containing poly(β-amino ester) (ssPBAE) for the co-delivery of a gene and chemotherapeutic agent targeting hepatoma. The end-alkene groups of ssPBAE were reacted with diethylenetriamine to form amino-modified ssPBAE (NH-ssPBAE). Methotrexate (MTX), a chemotherapy agent, was then conjugated to NH-ssPBAE via an amide bond to obtain the polymeric prodrug ssPBAE-MTX. ssPBAE-MTX exhibited a good capability for condensing genes, including plasmid DNA (pDNA) and tetramethyl rhodamine-labeled DNA (TAMRA-DNA), and almost completely condensed pDNA at the weight ratio of 5/1 to form spherical nanocomplexes with a uniform size. In a D,L-dithiothreitol solution, the ssPBAE-MTX/pDNA nanocomplexes showed rapid release of pDNA and MTX, indicating their redox-responsive capability. CAPL, a pullulan derivative containing β-carboxylic amide bond, was efficiently coated on the surfaces of ssPBAE-MTX/pDNA nanocomplexes to form polysaccharide shells, thus realizing co-loading of the gene and chemotherapeutic agent. CAPL/ssPBAE-MTX/pDNA nanoparticles displayed an obvious pH-responsive charge reversal ability due to the rupture of the β-carboxylic amide bond under the weakly acidic condition. In human hepatoma HepG2 cells, CAPL/ssPBAE-MTX/TAMRA-DNA nanoparticles were efficiently internalized via endocytosis and successfully escaped from the endo/lysosomes into the cytoplasm, and CAPL/ssPBAE-MTX/pDNA nanoparticles remarkably inhibited the cell growth. In summary, this nanoparticle system based on CAPL and ssPBAE showed great potential for combined gene/chemotherapy on hepatomas.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sipei Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, Tianjin Key Laboratory on Technologies Enabling Development of Clinical Therapeutics and Diagnostics (Theranostics); Research Center of Basic Medical Science; Department of Genetics, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin 300070, People's Republic of China
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
Malcolm DW, Freeberg MAT, Wang Y, Sims KR, Awad HA, Benoit DSW. Diblock Copolymer Hydrophobicity Facilitates Efficient Gene Silencing and Cytocompatible Nanoparticle-Mediated siRNA Delivery to Musculoskeletal Cell Types. Biomacromolecules 2017; 18:3753-3765. [PMID: 28960967 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.7b01349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
pH-responsive diblock copolymers provide tailorable nanoparticle (NP) architecture and chemistry critical for siRNA delivery. Here, diblock polymers varying in first (corona) and second (core) block molecular weight (Mn), corona/core ratio, and core hydrophobicity (%BMA) were synthesized to determine their effect on siRNA delivery in murine tenocytes (mTenocyte) and murine and human mesenchymal stem cells (mMSC and hMSCs, respectively). NP-mediated siRNA uptake, gene silencing, and cytocompatibility were quantified. Uptake is positively correlated with first block Mn in mTenocytes and hMSCs (p ≤ 0.0005). All NP resulted in significant gene silencing that was positively correlated with %BMA (p < 0.05) in all cell types. Cytocompatibility was reduced in mTenocytes compared to MSCs (p < 0.0001). %BMA was positively correlated with cytocompatibility in MSCs (p < 0.05), suggesting stable NP are more cytocompatible. Overall, this study shows that NP-siRNA cytocompatibility is cell type dependent, and hydrophobicity (%BMA) is the critical diblock copolymer property for efficient gene silencing in musculoskeletal cell types.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Kenneth R Sims
- Translational Biomedical Science, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry , Rochester, New York, United States
| | - Hani A Awad
- Department of Orthopedics, University of Rochester Medical Center , Rochester, New York, United States
| | - Danielle S W Benoit
- Department of Orthopedics, University of Rochester Medical Center , Rochester, New York, United States
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Chang PKC, Prestidge CA, Bremmell KE. Interfacial analysis of siRNA complexes with poly-ethylenimine (PEI) or PAMAM dendrimers in gene delivery. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2017; 158:370-378. [PMID: 28719858 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2017.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2017] [Revised: 06/29/2017] [Accepted: 07/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Solution and interfacial analysis has been employed to gain insight into the complexation of siRNA using either G4 PAMAM dendrimers or 25kDa branched poly-ethylenimine (bPEI). The size, charge and shape/structure of the complexing agents were probed using atomic force microscopy (AFM), circular dichroism spectrometry (CD), dynamic light scattering (DLS), and gel electrophoresis (GE). The binding capability of these cationic polymers to the siRNA molecule, subsequently controls the surface/adsorption behaviour of the complexes to a negatively charged surface. G4 PAMAM dendrimers bind to the major groove of the siRNA structure, while bPEI binds to both major and minor groove. PAMAM-siRNA complexes form a thin uniform surface film with adsorption of monomeric particles, whilst bPEI-siRNA complexes adsorb as particles in random orientations at low bPEI concentration and form network structures across the surface at high charge ratio. This is due to their ability to bind to both regions within siRNA. This new understanding of the interfacial behaviour of siRNA complexes correlates with observations of cellular transfection and can be used in the design of optimal transfection agents.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Patrick K C Chang
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia, 5000, Australia
| | - Clive A Prestidge
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia, 5000, Australia
| | - Kristen E Bremmell
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia, 5000, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Schnittert J, Kuninty PR, Bystry TF, Brock R, Storm G, Prakash J. Anti-microRNA targeting using peptide-based nanocomplexes to inhibit differentiation of human pancreatic stellate cells. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2017; 12:1369-1384. [DOI: 10.2217/nnm-2017-0054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Aim: To develop novel peptide-based nanocomplexes (NCs) for delivery of anti-miRNA oligonucleotides to human-derived pancreatic stellate cells (hPSCs), precursors of cancer-associated fibroblasts. Materials & methods: NCs of anti-miRNA oligonucleotides and cell-penetrating peptides (different variants) were formed and characterized. The effects of anti-miR-199a delivery on hPSC differentiation and 3D heterospheroid formation were investigated. Results: Dimeric cell-penetrating peptide based NCs (NC-2) showed 130-fold higher uptake by hPSCs compared with monomer-based NCs (NC-1) and tenfold higher uptake compared with general fibroblasts and different pancreatic tumor cells. Interestingly, delivery of anti-miR-199a inhibited hPSC differentiation into cancer-associated fibroblasts and inhibited the size of 3D heterospheroids comprised of hPSCs and tumor cells. Conclusion: Our NCs present a highly efficient anti-miRNA delivery system to hPSCs to inhibit their protumorigenic activity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jonas Schnittert
- Department of Biomaterials, Science & Technology, Section: Targeted Therapeutics, MIRA Institute for Biomedical Technology & Technical Medicine, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Praneeth R Kuninty
- Department of Biomaterials, Science & Technology, Section: Targeted Therapeutics, MIRA Institute for Biomedical Technology & Technical Medicine, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Tomasz F Bystry
- Department of Biomaterials, Science & Technology, Section: Targeted Therapeutics, MIRA Institute for Biomedical Technology & Technical Medicine, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Roland Brock
- Department of Biochemistry, Radboud Institute for Molecular LifeSciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Gert Storm
- Department of Biomaterials, Science & Technology, Section: Targeted Therapeutics, MIRA Institute for Biomedical Technology & Technical Medicine, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences (UIPS), Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Jai Prakash
- Department of Biomaterials, Science & Technology, Section: Targeted Therapeutics, MIRA Institute for Biomedical Technology & Technical Medicine, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Karimi M, Zangabad PS, Ghasemi A, Amiri M, Bahrami M, Malekzad H, Asl HG, Mahdieh Z, Bozorgomid M, Ghasemi A, Boyuk MRRT, Hamblin MR. Temperature-Responsive Smart Nanocarriers for Delivery Of Therapeutic Agents: Applications and Recent Advances. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2016; 8:21107-33. [PMID: 27349465 PMCID: PMC5003094 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.6b00371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 219] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Smart drug delivery systems (DDSs) have attracted the attention of many scientists, as carriers that can be stimulated by changes in environmental parameters such as temperature, pH, light, electromagnetic fields, mechanical forces, etc. These smart nanocarriers can release their cargo on demand when their target is reached and the stimulus is applied. Using the techniques of nanotechnology, these nanocarriers can be tailored to be target-specific, and exhibit delayed or controlled release of drugs. Temperature-responsive nanocarriers are one of most important groups of smart nanoparticles (NPs) that have been investigated during the past decades. Temperature can either act as an external stimulus when heat is applied from the outside, or can be internal when pathological lesions have a naturally elevated termperature. A low critical solution temperature (LCST) is a special feature of some polymeric materials, and most of the temperature-responsive nanocarriers have been designed based on this feature. In this review, we attempt to summarize recent efforts to prepare innovative temperature-responsive nanocarriers and discuss their novel applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mahdi Karimi
- Department of Medical Nanotechnology, Faculty of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- Advanced Nanobiotechnology and Nanomedicine Research Group (ANNRG), Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, United States
| | - Parham Sahandi Zangabad
- Research Center for Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology (RCPN), Tabriz University of Medical Science (TUOMS), Tabriz, Iran
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Azadi Avenue, 14588 Tehran, Iran
- Advanced Nanobiotechnology and Nanomedicine Research Group (ANNRG), Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Alireza Ghasemi
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Azadi Avenue, 14588 Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Amiri
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Azadi Avenue, 14588 Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohsen Bahrami
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Azadi Avenue, 14588 Tehran, Iran
| | - Hedieh Malekzad
- Advanced Nanobiotechnology and Nanomedicine Research Group (ANNRG), Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- Department of Chemistry, Kharazmi University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hadi Ghahramanzadeh Asl
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Azadi Avenue, 14588 Tehran, Iran
| | - Zahra Mahdieh
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Material Science and Engineering, University of Montana, Missoula, Montana 59812, United States
| | - Mahnaz Bozorgomid
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Central Branch of Islamic Azad University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Amir Ghasemi
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Azadi Avenue, 14588 Tehran, Iran
- Advanced Nanobiotechnology and Nanomedicine Research Group (ANNRG), Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Michael R. Hamblin
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, United States
- Department of Dermatology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
- Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Wang C, de Jong E, Sjollema KA, Zuhorn IS. Entry of PIP3-containing polyplexes into MDCK epithelial cells by local apical-basal polarity reversal. Sci Rep 2016; 6:21436. [PMID: 26899207 PMCID: PMC4761886 DOI: 10.1038/srep21436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2015] [Accepted: 01/22/2016] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The polarized architecture of epithelium presents a barrier to therapeutic drug/gene carriers, which is mainly due to a limited (apical) internalization of the carrier systems. The bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa invades epithelial cells by inducing production of apical phosphatidylinositol-3, 4, 5-triphosphate (PIP3), which results in the recruitment of basolateral receptors to the apical membrane. Since basolateral receptors are known receptors for gene delivery vectors, apical PIP3 may improve the internalization of such vectors into epithelial cells. PIP3 and nucleic acids were complexed by the cationic polymer polyethylenimine (PEI), forming PEI/PIP3 polyplexes. PEI/PIP3 polyplexes showed enhanced internalization compared to PEI polyplexes in polarized MDCK cells, while basolateral receptors were found to redistribute and colocalize with PEI/PIP3 polyplexes at the apical membrane. Following their uptake via endocytosis, PEI/PIP3 polyplexes showed efficient endosomal escape. The effectiveness of the PIP3-containing delivery system to generate a physiological effect was demonstrated by an essentially complete knock down of GFP expression in 30% of GFP-expressing MDCK cells following anti-GFP siRNA delivery. Here, we demonstrate that polyplexes can be successfully modified to mimic epithelial entry mechanisms used by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. These findings encourage the development of pathogen-inspired drug delivery systems to improve drug/gene delivery into and across tissue barriers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cuifeng Wang
- University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Department of Cell Biology, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Edwin de Jong
- University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Department of Cell Biology, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Klaas A. Sjollema
- University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Department of Cell Biology, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Inge S. Zuhorn
- University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Department of Cell Biology, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Martin TM, Plautz SA, Pannier AK. Temporal endogenous gene expression profiles in response to lipid-mediated transfection. J Gene Med 2015; 17:14-32. [PMID: 25663588 DOI: 10.1002/jgm.2821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2014] [Revised: 02/01/2015] [Accepted: 02/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Design of efficient nonviral gene delivery systems is limited as a result of the rudimentary understanding of the specific molecules and processes that facilitate DNA transfer. METHODS Lipoplexes formed with Lipofectamine 2000 (LF2000) and plasmid-encoding green fluorescent protein (GFP) were delivered to the HEK 293T cell line. After treating cells with lipoplexes, HG-U133 Affymetrix microarrays were used to identify endogenous genes differentially expressed between treated and untreated cells (2 h exposure) or between flow-separated transfected cells (GFP+) and treated, untransfected cells (GFP-) at 8, 16 and 24 h after lipoplex treatment. Cell priming studies were conducted using pharmacologic agents to alter endogenous levels of the identified differentially expressed genes to determine effect on transfection levels. RESULTS Relative to untreated cells 2 h after lipoplex treatment, only downregulated genes were identified ≥ 30-fold: ALMS1, ITGB1, FCGR3A, DOCK10 and ZDDHC13. Subsequently, relative to GFP- cells, the GFP+ cell population showed at least a five-fold upregulation of RAP1A and PACSIN3 (8 h) or HSPA6 and RAP1A (16 and 24 h). Pharmacologic studies altering endogenous levels for ALMS1, FCGR3A, and DOCK10 (involved in filopodia protrusions), ITGB1 (integrin signaling), ZDDHC13 (membrane trafficking) and PACSIN3 (proteolytic shedding of membrane receptors) were able to increase or decrease transgene production. CONCLUSIONS RAP1A, PACSIN3 and HSPA6 may help lipoplex-treated cells overcome a transcriptional shutdown due to treatment with lipoplexes and provide new targets for investigating molecular mechanisms of transfection or for enhancing transfection through cell priming or engineering of the nonviral gene delivery system.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Timothy M Martin
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Durham Research Center II, University of Nebraska-Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
28
|
Martin TM, Plautz SA, Pannier AK. Temporal endogenous gene expression profiles in response to polymer-mediated transfection and profile comparison to lipid-mediated transfection. J Gene Med 2015; 17:33-53. [PMID: 25663627 DOI: 10.1002/jgm.2822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2014] [Revised: 02/01/2015] [Accepted: 02/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Design of efficient nonviral gene delivery systems is limited by the rudimentary understanding of specific molecules that facilitate transfection. METHODS Polyplexes using 25-kDa polyethylenimine (PEI) and plasmid-encoding green fluorescent protein (GFP) were delivered to HEK 293T cells. After treating cells with polyplexes, microarrays were used to identify endogenous genes differentially expressed between treated and untreated cells (2 h of exposure) or between flow-separated transfected cells (GFP+) and treated, untransfected cells (GFP-) at 8, 16 and 24 h after lipoplex treatment. Cell priming studies were conducted using pharmacologic agents to alter endogenous levels of the identified differentially expressed genes to determine effect on transfection levels. Differentially expressed genes in polyplex-mediated transfection were compared with those differentially expressed in lipoplex transfection to identify DNA carrier-dependent molecular factors. RESULTS Differentially expressed genes were RGS1, ARHGAP24, PDZD2, SNX24, GSN and IGF2BP1 after 2 h; RAP1A and ACTA1 after 8 h; RAP1A, WDR78 and ACTA1 after 16 h; and RAP1A, SCG5, ATF3, IREB2 and ACTA1 after 24 h. Pharmacologic studies altering endogenous levels for ARHGAP24, GSN, IGF2BP1, PDZD2 and RGS1 were able to increase or decrease transgene production. Comparing differentially expressed genes for polyplexes and lipoplexes, no common genes were identified at the 2-h time point, whereas, after the 8-h time point, RAP1A, ATF3 and HSPA6 were similarly expressed. SCG5 and PGAP1 were only upregulated in polyplex-transfected cells. CONCLUSIONS The identified genes and pharmacologic agents provide targets for improving transfection systems, although polyplex or lipoplex dependencies must be considered.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Timothy M Martin
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Durham Research Center II, University of Nebraska-Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
29
|
Composites of malonic acid diamides and phospholipids — Impact of lipoplex stability on transfection efficiency. J Control Release 2015; 220:295-307. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2015.10.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2015] [Revised: 10/22/2015] [Accepted: 10/24/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
|
30
|
Crowley ST, Rice KG. "Evolving nanoparticle gene delivery vectors for the liver: What has been learned in 30 years". J Control Release 2015; 219:457-470. [PMID: 26439664 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2015.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2015] [Revised: 10/01/2015] [Accepted: 10/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Nonviral gene delivery to the liver has been under evolution for nearly 30years. Early demonstrations established relatively simple nonviral vectors could mediate gene expression in HepG2 cells which understandably led to speculation that these same vectors would be immediately successful at transfecting primary hepatocytes in vivo. However, it was soon recognized that the properties of a nonviral vector resulting in efficient transfection in vitro were uncorrelated with those needed to achieve efficient nonviral transfection in vivo. The discovery of major barriers to liver gene transfer has set the field on a course to design biocompatible vectors that demonstrate increased DNA stability in the circulation with correlating expression in liver. The improved understanding of what limits nonviral vector gene transfer efficiency in vivo has resulted in more sophisticated, low molecular weight vectors that allow systematic optimization of nanoparticle size, charge and ligand presentation. While the field has evolved DNA nanoparticles that are stable in the circulation, target hepatocytes, and deliver DNA to the cytosol, breaching the nucleus remains the last major barrier to a fully successful nonviral gene transfer system for the liver. The lessons learned along the way are fundamentally important to the design of all systemically delivered nanoparticle nonviral gene delivery systems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Samuel T Crowley
- Division of Medicinal and Natural Products Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242,USA
| | - Kevin G Rice
- Division of Medicinal and Natural Products Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242,USA.
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Erdmann N, Wölk C, Schulze I, Janich C, Folz M, Drescher S, Dittrich M, Meister A, Vogel J, Groth T, Dobner B, Langner A. Tris(2-aminoethyl)amine-based α-branched fatty acid amides - Synthesis of lipids and comparative study of transfection efficiency of their lipid formulations. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2015; 96:349-62. [PMID: 26325061 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2015.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2015] [Revised: 08/21/2015] [Accepted: 08/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The synthesis of a new class of cationic lipids, tris(2-aminoethyl)amine-based α-branched fatty acid amides, is described resulting in a series of lipids with specific variations in the lipophilic as well as the hydrophilic part of the lipids. In-vitro structure/transfection relationships were established by application of complexes of these lipids with plasmid DNA (pDNA) to different cell lines. The α-branched fatty acid amide bearing two tetradecyl chains and two lysine molecules (T14diLys) in mixture with the co-lipid 1,2-di-[(9Z)-octadec-9-enoyl]-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine (DOPE) (1/2, n/n) exhibits effective pDNA transfer in three different cell lines, namely Hep-G2, A549, and COS-7. The presence of 10% serum during lipoplex incubation of the cells did not affect the transfection efficiency. Based on that, detailed investigations of the complexation of pDNA with the lipid formulation T14diLys/DOPE 1/2 (n/n) were carried out with respect to particle size and charge using dynamic light scattering (DLS), ζ-potential measurements, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Additionally, the lipoplex uptake was investigated by confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). Overall, lipoplexes prepared from T14diLys/DOPE 1/2 (n/n) offer large potential as lipid-based polynucleotide carriers and further justify advanced examinations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Erdmann
- Institute of Pharmacy, Biochemical Pharmacy, Martin Luther University (MLU) Halle-Wittenberg, Wolfgang-Langenbeck-Str. 4, 06120 Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Christian Wölk
- Institute of Pharmacy, Biochemical Pharmacy, Martin Luther University (MLU) Halle-Wittenberg, Wolfgang-Langenbeck-Str. 4, 06120 Halle (Saale), Germany; Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmaceutics, Philipps University Marburg, Ketzerbach 63, 35037 Marburg, Germany.
| | - Ingo Schulze
- Institute of Pharmacy, Biochemical Pharmacy, Martin Luther University (MLU) Halle-Wittenberg, Wolfgang-Langenbeck-Str. 4, 06120 Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Christopher Janich
- Institute of Pharmacy, Biochemical Pharmacy, Martin Luther University (MLU) Halle-Wittenberg, Wolfgang-Langenbeck-Str. 4, 06120 Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Manuela Folz
- Institute of Pharmacy, Biochemical Pharmacy, Martin Luther University (MLU) Halle-Wittenberg, Wolfgang-Langenbeck-Str. 4, 06120 Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Simon Drescher
- Centre for Innovation Competence - HALOmem, MLU Halle-Wittenberg, Kurt-Mothes-Str. 3, 06120 Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Matthias Dittrich
- Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Am Mühlenberg 1, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Annette Meister
- Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Center for Structure and Dynamics of Proteins (MZP), Weinbergweg 22, 06120 Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Jürgen Vogel
- Institute of Pharmacy, Biomedical Materials Group, MLU Halle-Wittenberg, Heinrich-Damerow-Str. 4, 06120 Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Thomas Groth
- Institute of Pharmacy, Biomedical Materials Group, MLU Halle-Wittenberg, Heinrich-Damerow-Str. 4, 06120 Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Bodo Dobner
- Institute of Pharmacy, Biochemical Pharmacy, Martin Luther University (MLU) Halle-Wittenberg, Wolfgang-Langenbeck-Str. 4, 06120 Halle (Saale), Germany.
| | - Andreas Langner
- Institute of Pharmacy, Biochemical Pharmacy, Martin Luther University (MLU) Halle-Wittenberg, Wolfgang-Langenbeck-Str. 4, 06120 Halle (Saale), Germany
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Zhang Y, Chang S, Sun J, Zhu S, Pu C, Li Y, Zhu Y, Wang Z, Xu RX. Targeted Microbubbles for Ultrasound Mediated Short Hairpin RNA Plasmid Transfection to Inhibit Survivin Gene Expression and Induce Apoptosis of Ovarian Cancer A2780/DDP Cells. Mol Pharm 2015. [PMID: 26212628 DOI: 10.1021/mp500835z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yong Zhang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, China
- National Engineering Research Center of Ultrasound Medicine, Chongqing 400010,China
| | - Shufang Chang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, China
| | - Jiangchuan Sun
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, China
| | - Shenyin Zhu
- Department
of Pharmacy, First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400016, China
| | - Caixiu Pu
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, China
| | - Yaowei Li
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, China
| | - Yi Zhu
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, China
| | - Zhigang Wang
- Institute of Ultrasound Imaging, Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, China
| | - Ronald X. Xu
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, China
- Department
of Biomedical Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Real-time Imaging of Rabies Virus Entry into Living Vero cells. Sci Rep 2015; 5:11753. [PMID: 26148807 PMCID: PMC4493577 DOI: 10.1038/srep11753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2014] [Accepted: 06/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the mechanism of rabies virus (RABV) infection is vital for prevention and therapy of virulent rabies. However, the infection mechanism remains largely uncharacterized due to the limited methods and viral models. Herein, we utilized a powerful single-virus tracking technique to dynamically and globally visualize the infection process of the live attenuated rabies vaccine strain-SRV9 in living Vero cells. Firstly, it was found that the actin-enriched filopodia is in favor of virus reaching to the cell body. Furthermore, by carrying out drug perturbation experiments, we confirmed that RABV internalization into Vero cells proceeds via classical dynamin-dependent clathrin-mediated endocytosis with requirement for intact actin, but caveolae-dependent endocytosis is not involved. Then, our real-time imaging results unambiguously uncover the characteristics of viral internalization and cellular transport dynamics. In addition, our results directly and quantitatively reveal that the intracellular motility of internalized RABV particles is largely microtubule-dependent. Collectively, our work is crucial for understanding the initial steps of RABV infection, and elucidating the mechanisms of post-infection. Significantly, the results provide profound insight into development of novel and effective antiviral targets.
Collapse
|
34
|
Majzoub RN, Chan CL, Ewert KK, Silva BFB, Liang KS, Safinya CR. Fluorescence microscopy colocalization of lipid-nucleic acid nanoparticles with wildtype and mutant Rab5-GFP: A platform for investigating early endosomal events. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2015; 1848:1308-18. [PMID: 25753113 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2015.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2014] [Revised: 02/26/2015] [Accepted: 03/01/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Endosomal entrapment is known to be a major bottleneck to successful cytoplasmic delivery of nucleic acids (NAs) using cationic liposome-NA nanoparticles (NPs). Quantitative measurements of distributions of NPs within early endosomes (EEs) have proven difficult due to the sub-resolution size and short lifetime of wildtype EEs. In this study we used Rab5-GFP, a member of the large family of GTPases which cycles between the plasma membrane and early endosomes, to fluorescently label early endosomes. Using fluorescence microscopy and quantitative image analysis of cells expressing Rab5-GFP, we found that at early time points (t<1h), only a fraction (≈35%) of RGD-tagged NPs (which target cell surface integrins) colocalize with wildtype EEs, independent of the NP's membrane charge density. In comparison, a GTP-hydrolysis deficient mutant, Rab5-Q79L, which extends the size and lifetime of EEs yielding giant early endosomes (GEEs), enabled us to resolve and localize individual NPs found within the GEE lumen. Remarkably, nearly all intracellular NPs are found to be trapped within GEEs implying little or no escape at early time points. The observed small degree of colocalization of NPs and wildtype Rab5 is consistent with recycling of Rab5-GDP to the plasma membrane and not indicative of NP escape from EEs. Taken together, our results show that endosomal escape of PEGylated nanoparticles occurs downstream of EEs i.e., from late endosomes/lysosomes. Our studies also suggest that Rab5-Q79L could be used in a robust imaging assay which allows for direct visualization of NP interactions with the luminal membrane of early endosomes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ramsey N Majzoub
- Department of Physics, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA; Department of Materials, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA; Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Chia-Ling Chan
- Department of Physics, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA; Department of Materials, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA; Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA; Institute of Physics, Academica Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan; National Synchrotron Radiation Research Center, Hsinchu 30076, Taiwan
| | - Kai K Ewert
- Department of Physics, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA; Department of Materials, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA; Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Bruno F B Silva
- Department of Physics, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA; Department of Materials, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA; Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA; Division of Physical Chemistry, Centre for Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Lund University, SE-221 00 Lund, Sweden
| | - Keng S Liang
- National Synchrotron Radiation Research Center, Hsinchu 30076, Taiwan; Department of Electrophysics, National Chiao-Tung University, Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan
| | - Cyrus R Safinya
- Department of Physics, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA; Department of Materials, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA; Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
|
36
|
Low molecular weight poly (2-dimethylamino ethylmethacrylate) polymers with controlled positioned fluorescent labeling: Synthesis, characterization and in vitro interaction with human endothelial cells. Int J Pharm 2015; 478:278-287. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2014.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2014] [Revised: 11/05/2014] [Accepted: 11/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
|
37
|
Biophysical characterization of lectin–glycan interactions for therapeutics, vaccines and targeted drug-delivery. Future Med Chem 2014; 6:2113-29. [DOI: 10.4155/fmc.14.130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Lectin–glycan interactions play a role in biological processes, host–pathogen interactions and in disease. A more detailed understanding of these interactions is not only useful for the elucidation of their biological function but can also be applied in immunology, drug development and delivery and diagnostics. We review some commonly used biophysical techniques for studying lectin–glycan interactions; namely: frontal affinity chromatography, glycan/lectin microarray, surface plasmon resonance, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, isothermal titration calorimetry, fluorescent assays, enzyme linked lectin sorbent assay and saturation transfer difference nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Each method is evaluated on efficiency, cost and throughput. We also consider the advantages and limitations of each technique and provide examples of their application in biology, drug discovery and delivery, immunology, glycoprofiling and biosensing.
Collapse
|
38
|
Entry of a novel marine DNA virus, Singapore grouper iridovirus, into host cells occurs via clathrin-mediated endocytosis and macropinocytosis in a pH-dependent manner. J Virol 2014; 88:13047-63. [PMID: 25165116 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01744-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Iridoviruses are nucleocytoplasmic DNA viruses which cause great economic losses in the aquaculture industry but also show significant threat to global biodiversity. However, a lack of host cells has resulted in poor progress in clarifying iridovirus behavior. We investigated the crucial events during virus entry using a combination of single-virus tracking and biochemical assays, based on the established virus-cell infection model for Singapore grouper iridovirus (SGIV). SGIV infection in host cells was strongly inhibited when cells were pretreated with drugs blocking clathrin-mediated endocytosis, including sucrose and chlorpromazine. Inhibition of key regulators of macropinocytosis, including Na(+)/H(+) exchanger, Rac1 GTPase, p21-activated kinase 1 (PAK1), protein kinase C (PKC), and myosin II, significantly reduced SGIV uptake. Cy5-labeled SGIV particles were observed to colocalize with clathrin and macropinosomes. In contrast, disruption of cellular cholesterol by methyl-β-cyclodextrin and nystatin had no effect on virus infection, suggesting that SGIV entered grouper cells via the clathrin-mediated endocytic pathway and macropinocytosis but not via caveola-dependent endocytosis. Furthermore, inhibitors of endosome acidification such as chloroquine and bafilomycin A1 blocked virus infection, indicating that SGIV entered cells in a pH-dependent manner. In addition, SGIV particles were observed to be transported along both microtubules and actin filaments, and intracellular SGIV motility was remarkably impaired by depolymerization of microtubules or actin filaments. The results of this study for the first time demonstrate that not only the clathrin-dependent pathway but also macropinocytosis are involved in fish DNA enveloped virus entry, thus providing a convenient tactic for exploring the life cycle of DNA viruses. IMPORTANCE Virus entry into host cells is critically important for initiating infections and is usually recognized as an ideal target for the design of antiviral strategies. Iridoviruses are large DNA viruses which cause serious threats to ecological diversity and the aquaculture industry worldwide. However, the current understanding of iridovirus entry is limited and controversial. Singapore grouper iridovirus (SGIV) is a novel marine fish DNA virus which belongs to genus Ranavirus, family Iridoviridae. Here, using single-virus tracking technology in combination with biochemical assays, we investigated the crucial events during SGIV entry and demonstrated that SGIV entered grouper cells via the clathrin-mediated endocytic pathway in a pH-dependent manner but not via caveola-dependent endocytosis. Furthermore, we propose for the first time that macropinocytosis is involved in iridovirus entry. Together, this work not only contributes greatly to understating iridovirus pathogenesis but also provides an ideal model for exploring the behavior of DNA viruses in living cells.
Collapse
|
39
|
Wallbrecher R, Verdurmen WPR, Schmidt S, Bovee-Geurts PH, Broecker F, Reinhardt A, van Kuppevelt TH, Seeberger PH, Brock R. The stoichiometry of peptide-heparan sulfate binding as a determinant of uptake efficiency of cell-penetrating peptides. Cell Mol Life Sci 2014; 71:2717-29. [PMID: 24270856 PMCID: PMC11113137 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-013-1517-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2013] [Revised: 10/18/2013] [Accepted: 11/07/2013] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Binding to negatively charged heparan sulfates (HS) at the cell surface is considered the first step in the internalization of cationic cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs). However, little is known about the relation of the characteristics of the HS-CPP interaction such as affinity, stoichiometry, and clustering with uptake. In this study, we investigated a collection of mutants of a cyclic CPP derived from human lactoferrin with respect to HS binding and uptake. The thermodynamic parameters of HS binding were determined by isothermal titration calorimetry, clustering of HS was investigated by dynamic light scattering, and cellular uptake by flow cytometry and confocal microscopy. Whereas mutations of non-arginine amino acids that are conserved across lactoferrins of different mammalia only had a minor effect on uptake efficiency, changes in the number of arginine residues influenced the uptake significantly. In general, introduction of arginine residues and cyclization improved the HS affinity and the ability to cluster HS. In particular, there was a strong negative correlation between stoichiometry and uptake, indicating that crosslinking of HS is the driving force for the uptake of arginine-rich CPPs. Using glycan microarrays presenting a collection of synthetic HS, we show that a minimal chain length of HS is required for peptide binding.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rike Wallbrecher
- Department of Biochemistry, Nijmegen Centre for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Centre, Geert Grooteplein 28, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Wouter P. R. Verdurmen
- Department of Biochemistry, Nijmegen Centre for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Centre, Geert Grooteplein 28, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Samuel Schmidt
- Department of Biochemistry, Nijmegen Centre for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Centre, Geert Grooteplein 28, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Petra H. Bovee-Geurts
- Department of Biochemistry, Nijmegen Centre for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Centre, Geert Grooteplein 28, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Felix Broecker
- Department of Biomolecular Systems, Max-Planck-Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Am Mühlenberg 1, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität Berlin, Arnimallee 22, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Anika Reinhardt
- Department of Biomolecular Systems, Max-Planck-Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Am Mühlenberg 1, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität Berlin, Arnimallee 22, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Toin H. van Kuppevelt
- Department of Biochemistry, Nijmegen Centre for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Centre, Geert Grooteplein 28, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Peter H. Seeberger
- Department of Biomolecular Systems, Max-Planck-Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Am Mühlenberg 1, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität Berlin, Arnimallee 22, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Roland Brock
- Department of Biochemistry, Nijmegen Centre for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Centre, Geert Grooteplein 28, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
40
|
Sheppard NC, Brinckmann SA, Gartlan KH, Puthia M, Svanborg C, Krashias G, Eisenbarth SC, Flavell RA, Sattentau QJ, Wegmann F. Polyethyleneimine is a potent systemic adjuvant for glycoprotein antigens. Int Immunol 2014; 26:531-8. [PMID: 24844701 DOI: 10.1093/intimm/dxu055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Polyethyleneimine (PEI) is an organic polycation used extensively as a gene and DNA vaccine delivery reagent. Although the DNA targeting activity of PEI is well documented, its immune activating activity is not. We recently reported that PEI has robust mucosal adjuvanticity when administered intranasally with glycoprotein antigens. Here, we show that PEI has strong immune activating activity after systemic delivery. PEI administered subcutaneously with viral glycoprotein (HIV-1 gp140) enhanced antigen-specific serum IgG production in the context of mixed Th1/Th2-type immunity. PEI elicited higher titers of both antigen binding and neutralizing antibodies than alum in mice and rabbits and induced an increased proportion of antibodies reactive with native antigen. In an intraperitoneal model, PEI recruited neutrophils followed by monocytes to the site of administration and enhanced antigen uptake by antigen-presenting cells. The Th bias was modulated by PEI activation of the Nlrp3 inflammasome; however its global adjuvanticity was unchanged in Nlrp3-deficient mice. When coformulated with CpG oligodeoxynucleotides, PEI adjuvant potency was synergistically increased and biased toward a Th1-type immune profile. Taken together, these data support the use of PEI as a versatile systemic adjuvant platform with particular utility for induction of secondary structure-reactive antibodies against glycoprotein antigens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Neil C Sheppard
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX13RE, UK Present address: GlaxoSmithKline, 1250 S Collegeville Road, Collegeville, PA 19426, USA
| | - Sarah A Brinckmann
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX13RE, UK
| | - Kate H Gartlan
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX13RE, UK
| | - Manoj Puthia
- Division of Microbiology, Immunology and Glycobiology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Catharina Svanborg
- Division of Microbiology, Immunology and Glycobiology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - George Krashias
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX13RE, UK
| | | | - Richard A Flavell
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06519-1612, USA
| | - Quentin J Sattentau
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX13RE, UK
| | - Frank Wegmann
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX13RE, UK Present address: Crucell Holland B.V., Archimedesweg 4-6, 2333CN Leiden, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
41
|
Favretto ME, Wallbrecher R, Schmidt S, van de Putte R, Brock R. Glycosaminoglycans in the cellular uptake of drug delivery vectors – Bystanders or active players? J Control Release 2014; 180:81-90. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2014.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2013] [Revised: 02/07/2014] [Accepted: 02/09/2014] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
|
42
|
What is the potential of syndecan-4-targeted novel delivery technologies? Ther Deliv 2014; 4:1479-81. [PMID: 24304244 DOI: 10.4155/tde.13.112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
|
43
|
Barbouri D, Afratis N, Gialeli C, Vynios DH, Theocharis AD, Karamanos NK. Syndecans as modulators and potential pharmacological targets in cancer progression. Front Oncol 2014; 4:4. [PMID: 24551591 PMCID: PMC3910246 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2014.00004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2013] [Accepted: 01/09/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular matrix (ECM) components form a dynamic network of key importance for cell function and properties. Key macromolecules in this interplay are syndecans (SDCs), a family of transmembrane heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs). Specifically, heparan sulfate (HS) chains with their different sulfation pattern have the ability to interact with growth factors and their receptors in tumor microenvironment, promoting the activation of different signaling cascades that regulate tumor cell behavior. The affinity of HS chains with ligands is altered during malignant conditions because of the modification of chain sequence/sulfation pattern. Furthermore, matrix degradation enzymes derived from the tumor itself or the tumor microenvironment, like heparanase and matrix metalloproteinases, ADAM as well as ADAMTS are involved in the cleavage of SDCs ectodomain at the HS and protein core level, respectively. Such released soluble SDCs "shed SDCs" in the ECM interact in an autocrine or paracrine manner with the tumor or/and stromal cells. Shed SDCs, upon binding to several matrix effectors, such as growth factors, chemokines, and cytokines, have the ability to act as competitive inhibitors for membrane proteoglycans, and modulate the inflammatory microenvironment of cancer cells. It is notable that SDCs and their soluble counterparts may affect either the behavior of cancer cells and/or their microenvironment during cancer progression. The importance of these molecules has been highlighted since HSPGs have been proposed as prognostic markers of solid tumors and hematopoietic malignancies. Going a step further down the line, the multi-actions of SDCs in many levels make them appealing as potential pharmacological targets, either by targeting directly the tumor or indirectly the adjacent stroma.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Despoina Barbouri
- Biochemistry, Biochemical Analysis and Matrix Pathobiology Research Group, Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Patras , Patras , Greece
| | - Nikolaos Afratis
- Biochemistry, Biochemical Analysis and Matrix Pathobiology Research Group, Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Patras , Patras , Greece
| | - Chrisostomi Gialeli
- Biochemistry, Biochemical Analysis and Matrix Pathobiology Research Group, Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Patras , Patras , Greece
| | - Demitrios H Vynios
- Biochemistry, Biochemical Analysis and Matrix Pathobiology Research Group, Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Patras , Patras , Greece
| | - Achilleas D Theocharis
- Biochemistry, Biochemical Analysis and Matrix Pathobiology Research Group, Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Patras , Patras , Greece
| | - Nikos K Karamanos
- Biochemistry, Biochemical Analysis and Matrix Pathobiology Research Group, Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Patras , Patras , Greece
| |
Collapse
|
44
|
Cellular Mechanisms in Nanomaterial Internalization, Intracellular Trafficking, and Toxicity. Nanotoxicology 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-8993-1_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
|
45
|
Christianson HC, Belting M. Heparan sulfate proteoglycan as a cell-surface endocytosis receptor. Matrix Biol 2013; 35:51-5. [PMID: 24145152 DOI: 10.1016/j.matbio.2013.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 294] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2013] [Revised: 10/10/2013] [Accepted: 10/10/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
How various macromolecules are exchanged between cells and how they gain entry into recipient cells are fundamental questions in cell biology with important implications e.g. non-viral drug delivery, infectious disease, metabolic disorders, and cancer. The role of heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) as a cell-surface receptor of diverse macromolecular cargo has recently been manifested. Exosomes, cell penetrating peptides, polycation-nucleic acid complexes, viruses, lipoproteins, growth factors and morphogens among other ligands enter cells through HSPG-mediated endocytosis. Key questions that partially have been unraveled over recent years include the respective roles of HSPG core protein and HS chain structure specificity for macromolecular cargo endocytosis, the down-stream intracellular signaling events involved in HSPG-dependent membrane invagination and vesicle formation, and the biological significance of the HSPG transport pathway. Here, we discuss the intriguing role of HSPGs as a major entry pathway of macromolecules in mammalian cells with emphasis on recent in vitro and in vivo data that provide compelling evidence of HSPG as an autonomous endocytosis receptor.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Mattias Belting
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Section of Oncology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden; Skåne University Hospital & Oncology Clinic, Lund, Sweden.
| |
Collapse
|
46
|
Chen CK, Jones CH, Mistriotis P, Yu Y, Ma X, Ravikrishnan A, Jiang M, Andreadis ST, Pfeifer BA, Cheng C. Poly(ethylene glycol)-block-cationic polylactide nanocomplexes of differing charge density for gene delivery. Biomaterials 2013; 34:9688-99. [PMID: 24034497 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2013.08.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2013] [Accepted: 08/20/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Representing a new type of biodegradable cationic block copolymer, well-defined poly(ethylene glycol)-block-cationic polylactides (PEG-b-CPLAs) with tertiary amine-based cationic groups were synthesized by thiol-ene functionalization of an allyl-functionalized diblock precursor. Subsequently the application of PEG-b-CPLAs as biodegradable vectors for the delivery of plasmid DNAs (pDNAs) was investigated. Via the formation of PEG-b-CPLA:pDNA nanocomplexes by spontaneous electrostatic interaction, pDNAs encoding luciferase or enhanced green fluorescent protein were successfully delivered to four physiologically distinct cell lines (including macrophage, fibroblast, epithelial, and stem cell). Formulated nanocomplexes demonstrated high levels of transfection with low levels of cytotoxicity and hemolysis when compared to a positive control. Biophysical characterization of charge densities of nanocomplexes at various polymer:pDNA weight ratios revealed a positive correlation between surface charge and gene delivery. Nanocomplexes with high surface charge densities were utilized in an in vitro serum gene delivery inhibition assay, and effective gene delivery was observed despite high levels of serum. Overall, these results help to elucidate the influence of charge, size, and PEGylation of nanocomplexes upon the delivery of nucleic acids in physiologically relevant conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chih-Kuang Chen
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Amherst, NY 14260, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
47
|
Bornschlögl T. How filopodia pull: what we know about the mechanics and dynamics of filopodia. Cytoskeleton (Hoboken) 2013; 70:590-603. [PMID: 23959922 DOI: 10.1002/cm.21130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2013] [Revised: 07/31/2013] [Accepted: 08/01/2013] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, the dynamic, hair-like cell protrusions called filopodia have attracted considerable attention. They have been found in a multitude of different cell types and are often called "sensory organelles," since they seem to sense the mechanical and chemical environment of a cell. Once formed, filopodia can exhibit complex behavior, they can grow and retract, push or pull, and transform into distinct structures. They are often found to make first adhesive contact with the extracellular matrix, pathogens or with adjacent cells, and to subsequently exert pulling forces. Much is known about the cytoskeletal players involved in filopodia formation, but only recently have we started to explore the mechanics of filopodia together with the related cytoskeletal dynamics. This review summarizes current advancements in our understanding of the mechanics and dynamics of filopodia, with a focus on the molecular mechanisms behind filopodial force exertion.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Bornschlögl
- Institut Curie, Laboratoire, Physico-Chimie UMR CNRS, 168, 11 Rue Pierre et Marie Curie, 75005, Paris, France
| |
Collapse
|
48
|
Letoha T, Kolozsi C, Ekes C, Keller-pintér A, Kusz E, Szakonyi G, Duda E, Szilák L. Contribution of syndecans to lipoplex-mediated gene delivery. Eur J Pharm Sci 2013; 49:550-5. [PMID: 23732629 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2013.05.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2012] [Revised: 04/26/2013] [Accepted: 05/23/2013] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
The long awaited breakthrough of gene therapy significantly depends on the in vivo efficiency of targeted intracellular delivery. Hidden details of cellular uptake present a great hurdle for non-viral gene delivery with liposomes. Growing scientific evidence supports the involvement of polyanionic cell surface carbohydrates in cellular internalization of cationic liposomes. Syndecans, a highly conserved family of transmembrane heparan sulfate proteoglycans serve attachment sites for great variety of cationic ligands including growth factors, cytokines and even parasites. In the present study we quantitatively measured the contribution of various syndecan isoforms to liposome-mediated gene transfer. The obtained data show the superiority of syndecan-4, the ubiquitously expressed isoform of the syndecan family, in cellular uptake of liposomes. Applied mutational analysis demonstrated that gene delivery could be abolished by mutating the glycosaminoglycan attachment site of syndecans, highlighting the importance of polyanionic heparan sulfate side chains in the attachment of cationic liposomes. Blocking sulfation of syndecans also diminished gene delivery, a finding that confirms the essential role of polyanionic charges in binding cationic liposomes. Mutating other parts of the syndecan extracellular domain, including the cell-binding domain, had clearly smaller effect on liposome internalization. Mutational analyses also revealed that superiority of syndecan-4 in liposome-mediated gene delivery is significantly influenced by its cytoplasmic domain that orchestrates signaling pathways leading to macropinocytosis. In summary our study present a mechanistic insight into syndecan-mediated macropinocytic uptake of lipoplexes and highlights syndecan-4 as a superior target for cationic liposomes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tamás Letoha
- Pharmacoidea Development & Service Ltd., Körös sor 50, H-6753 Szeged, Hungary.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
49
|
ur Rehman Z, Hoekstra D, Zuhorn IS. Mechanism of polyplex- and lipoplex-mediated delivery of nucleic acids: real-time visualization of transient membrane destabilization without endosomal lysis. ACS NANO 2013; 7:3767-77. [PMID: 23597090 DOI: 10.1021/nn3049494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 295] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Lipoplexes and polyplexes are widely applied as nonviral gene delivery carriers. Although their efficiencies of transfection are comparable, their mechanisms of delivery, specifically at the level of nucleic acid release from endosomes, are different. Thus, lipoplex-mediated release is proposed to rely on lipid mixing, as occurs between lipoplex and endosomal target membrane, the ensuing membrane destabilization leading to nucleic acid delivery into the cytosol. By contrast, the mechanism by which polyplexes, particularly those displaying a high proton buffering capacity, release their nucleic acid cargo from the endosome, is thought to rely on a so-called "proton sponge effect", in essence an osmotically induced rupturing of the endosomal membrane. However, although a wealth of indirect insight supports both these mechanisms, direct evidence is still lacking. Therefore, to further clarify these mechanisms, we have investigated the interaction of lipo- and polyplexes with HeLa cells by live cell imaging. As monitored over an incubation period of 2 h, our data reveal that in contrast to the involvement of numerous nanocarriers in case of lipoplex-mediated delivery, only a very limited number of polyplexes, that is, as few as one up to four/five nanocarriers per cell, with an average of one/two per cell, contribute to the release of nucleic acids from endosomes and their subsequent accumulation into the nucleus. Notably, in neither case complete rupture of endosomes nor release of intact polyplexes or lipoplexes into the cytosol was observed. Rather, at the time of endosomal escape both the polymer and its genetic payload are separately squirted into the cytoplasm, presumably via (a) local pore(s) within the endosomal membrane. Specifically, an almost instantaneous and complete discharge of nucleic acids and carrier (remnants) from the endosomes is observed. In case of lipoplexes, the data suggest the formation of multiple transient pores over time within the same endosomal membrane, via which the cargo is more gradually transferred into the cytosol.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zia ur Rehman
- Department of Cell Biology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, A Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
50
|
Verdurmen WPR, Wallbrecher R, Schmidt S, Eilander J, Bovee-Geurts P, Fanghänel S, Bürck J, Wadhwani P, Ulrich AS, Brock R. Cell surface clustering of heparan sulfate proteoglycans by amphipathic cell-penetrating peptides does not contribute to uptake. J Control Release 2013; 170:83-91. [PMID: 23669260 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2013.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2012] [Revised: 04/27/2013] [Accepted: 05/02/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
For arginine-rich cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs), an association with heparan sulfate (HS) chains is considered the first step in the stimulation of uptake for many cells. Much less is known about the role of HS chains in the cell-association and internalization of arginine-free amphipathic CPP such as transportan-10 (TP10). Here, we report that various TP10 analogs differ in their capacity to accumulate on HS-rich plasma membranes in an HS-dependent manner. No accumulation was observed on HS-poor plasma membranes or when HS was removed by enzymatic cleavage. The TP10 analog that strongly clustered on the cell surface, also showed a pronounced capacity to form clusters with HS chains in solution. However, aggregation occurred in a thermodynamically different way compared to the interaction of arginine-rich CPP with HS. To monitor the impact of the peptide on the aggregation of the glycocalyx by time-lapse microscopy, sialic acids were visualized by metabolic labeling using copper-free click chemistry to attach fluorophores to metabolically incorporated azido sugars. Strikingly, a highly enhanced HS-mediated accumulation on the plasma membrane of a particular TP10 analog did not correlate with a better uptake. These findings illustrate that the mode of interaction between cell-penetrating peptides and HS chains has important functional consequences regarding peptide internalization and that there is no direct coupling of interaction, accumulation and uptake.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wouter P R Verdurmen
- Department of Biochemistry, Nijmegen Centre for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Post 286, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|