Bioactive triterpenoids from Salvia species

Chemometrics-based analysis of the phytochemical profile and antioxidant activity of Salvia species from Iran

In recent years, the exploration of the therapeutic potential of Salvia has gained considerable attention, leading to a growing number of scientific studies emphasizing its pharmacological properties. Despite this, therapeutic applications of Salvia remain underexploited, requiring further investigation. Iran is a major center for sage diversity in Asia, boasting 60 Salvia species, 17 of which are unique to the area. This study aimed to comprehensively explore and compare the extracts of 102 Salvia samples belonging to 20 distinct Salvia species from Iran, providing a deeper understanding of their specific polyphenol content and, consequently, their antioxidant capabilities and potential therapeutic uses. All samples were analyzed to determine the contents of total phenolics, total flavonoids, total tannin, photosynthetic pigments, and ascorbic acid, along with their antioxidant activity. These data were then combined with the forty distinct chemical fingerprints identified by ultrafast high-pressure liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry. Multivariate data analysis was employed to find correlations and differences among the huge number of data obtained and to identify Salvia species with similar phytochemical and/or antioxidant properties. The results show that each Salvia species is characterized by a distinct class of polyphenols recognized for their antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, cardioprotective and neuroprotective properties. Overall, our findings reveal the potential of some Salvia species for targeted therapeutic applications and provide a rational basis for the development of Salvia-derived nutraceuticals, ultimately improving the prospects for the use of Salvia in medicine.

In Vitro Antibacterial, Antioxidant, Anticholinesterase, and Antidiabetic Activities and Chemical Composition of Salvia balansae

CONTEXT

Salvia balansae de Noé (S. balansae) (Lamiaceae) is known to be an important plant used in folk medicine as an herbal remedy in Algeria.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of the present study was to demonstrate the phytochemical composition, antioxidant activities, enzyme inhibitory activities, and antimicrobial activities of S. balansae extracts.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A methanolic extract and a petroleum ether extract from the aerial parts of the plant were assessed for their chemical composition. HPLC-MS and HPLC-DAD assessed the content of phenols, GC-MS the fatty acid composition, and ICP-MS the mineral profiles of the plant. Additionally, we evaluated the bioactivities of S. balansae extracts by the DPPH, ABTS, and CUPRAC assays, including the antioxidant potential against AChE, BChE, α-amylase, and α-glucosidase for enzyme inhibition. The antibacterial and antifungal activities of the methanolic extract were determined by the disc diffusion test against several strains of bacteria and yeasts.

RESULTS

Our findings revealed that the aerial parts of S. balansae were rich in phytochemical components and contained large amounts of minerals. Quantitative analysis of phenolic compounds by HPLC-DAD revealed the presence of 12 compounds in three major classes, flavonoids, hydroxycinnamic acid, and phenolic acid derivatives, with 0.61, 0.45, and 0.29 mg/g of extract, respectively. Nine phenolic constituents were quantified by HPLC-MS analysis; catechin (72.5%) was the main compound, followed by myricetin (21.7%). The fatty acid composition of the S. balansae petroleum ether extract by GC-MS analysis was quantified. Seventeen compounds, including palmitic acid, were identified as the major fatty acids. The antioxidant activity of the S. balansae extracts was measured by three different methods: the methanol extract provided better results than the petroleum ether extract, and interesting values were noted for the DPPH, ABTS, and CUPRAC assays of 242.7 ± 7.44, 124.1 ± 9.70, and 222.9 ± 6.05 µg/mL, respectively. The enzyme inhibition activity of the plant could not be determined. The antimicrobial results of the methanolic extract obtained from the disc diffusion method, followed by measurements of MIC, MBC, and MFC against several bacteria and yeasts, indicated that S. balansae exhibited noticeable antimicrobial and antifungal activities.

CONCLUSIONS

These results provided new data about the main phenolic compounds and biological activities of extracts of the aerial parts of S. balansae, which might be an alternative source for synthetic bioactive compounds.

Phytochemical analysis and molecular docking studies of two endemic varieties of Salvia sericeotomentosa

The use of medicinal plants for treating various diseases dates back thousands of years and has been a part of many cultures around the world. Various parts of plants, including roots, leaves, and flowers, and their extracts have been used to develop remedies to cure different ailments like fever, pain, inflammation, infections, among others. In this research, the aerial parts of both Salvia varieties were extracted with ethanol and water to obtain infusion and decoction, separately. S. sericeotomentosa var. hatayica Celep & Doğan (SH) and Salvia sericeotomentosa Rech. f. var. sericeotomentosa (ST) plants were chemically analyzed for polar compounds using LC-HRMS for the first time. All SH and ST extracts were found to be very rich in rosmarinic acid, salvianolic acid B, hispidulin-7-O-glucoside, and caffeic acid. The study also investigated the antiinflammatory and carbonic anhydrase inhibition properties of the most abundant secondary metabolites extracted from SH and ST. In silico studies were conducted for the first time to explore the effects of these metabolites on TNF-α, iNOS, and human carbonic anhydrase isoenzymes (hCAI and hCAII). Salvianolic acid B should be considered a strong antiinflammatory agent and a carbonic anhydrase I and II inhibitors due to low binding energy scores with the tested enzymes (TNF-α: -12.391 kcal/mol), (iNOS: -7.547 kcal/mol), (hCAI: -7.877 kcal/mol), and (hCAII: -4.312 kcal/mol).

Highly oxygenated germacrane-type sesquiterpenoids from the whole plant of Salvia cavaleriei H.Lév. and their biological activities

The entire plant Salvia cavaleriei H.Lév. (Lamiaceae) is used as a traditional Chinese herbal medicine. Its leaves are edible, and the flowers can be soaked in water to make a health-care tea. In an effort to find natural bioactive chemical components, twelve undescribed germacrane-type sesquiterpenoids, salcavalins A-L, were isolated from the whole plant of S. cavaleriei and were identified as analogs. This is the first study to isolate highly oxygenated germacrane-type sesquiterpenoids from this plant. The structures of these undescribed compounds were elucidated by various spectroscopic methods, and their absolute configurations were confirmed by single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis with Cu Kα radiation and electronic circular dichroism calculations. The biological activity of these undescribed compounds on the production of tumor necrosis factor-alpha in lipopolysaccharide induced NR8383 cells was evaluated, and salcavalins I and K showed anti-inflammatory activity to some extent. Salcavalins A-C, F and L were found to be neuroprotective with antiparkinsonic potential in a nematode (Caenorhabditis elegans) model. In addition, salcavalins F and I displayed marked phytotoxic activity against radish seeds at a low concentration of 50 ppm. Our findings provide scientific justification to show that bioactive sesquiterpenoids from the edible herb have anti-inflammatory in vitro, neuroprotective and phytotoxic activities.

Effect directed analysis of bioactive compounds in leaf extracts from two Salvia species by High-performance thin-layer chromatography

Extracts of two Salvia species, Salvia apiana (white sage) and Salvia officinalis (common sage) were screened for phytoconstituents with the ability to act as antidiabetic, cognitive enhancing, or antimicrobial agents, by hyphenation of high-performance thin-layer chromatography with enzymatic and microbial effect directed assays. Two bioactive zones with α-amylase inhibition (zone 1 and zone 2), 3 zones for acetylcholinesterase inhibition (zones 3, 4 and 5), and two zones for antimicrobial activity (zones 4 and 5) were detected. The compounds from the five bioactive zones were initially identified by coelution with standards and comparing the R_F values of standards to the bioautograms. Identity was confirmed with ATR-FTIR spectra of the isolated compounds from the bioactive zones. A significantly higher α-amylase and acetylcholinesterase inhibition of S. apiana leaf extract was associated with a higher flavonoid and diterpenoid content. Fermented S. officinalis extract exhibited a significantly higher ability to inhibit α-amylase compared to other non-fermented extracts from this species, due to increased extraction of flavonoids. The ATR-FTIR spectra of 2 zones with α-amylase inhibition, indicated that flavonoids and phenolic acids were responsible for α-amylase inhibition. Multiple zones of acetylcholinesterase inhibition were related to the presence of phenolic abietane diterpenoids and triterpenoid acids. The presence of abietane diterpenoids and triterpenoid acids was also found responsible for the mild antimicrobial activity. Flash chromatography was used to isolate sufficient amounts of bioactive compounds for further characterisation via NMR and MS spectroscopy. Five compounds were assigned to the zones where bioactivity was observed: cirsimaritin (zone 1), a caffeic acid polymer (zone 2), 16-hydroxyrosmanol (zone 3), 16-hydroxycarnosic acid (zone 4), oleanolic and ursolic acids (zone 5).

Phenolic Content, Antioxidant, Antibacterial, Antihyperglycemic, and α-Amylase Inhibitory Activities of Aqueous Extract of Salvia lavandulifolia Vahl

Salvia lavandulifolia Vahl essential oil is becoming more popular as a cognitive enhancer and treatment for memory loss. It is high in natural antioxidants and has spasmolytic, antiseptic, analgesic, sedative, and anti-inflammatory properties. Its aqueous extract has hypoglycemic activity and is used to treat diabetic hyperglycemia, but few studies have focused on it. The objective of this work is to evaluate the various biological and pharmacological powers of Salvia lavandulifolia Vahl leaf aqueous extract. Quality control of the plant material was first carried out. Followed by a phytochemical study on the aqueous extract of S. lavandulifolia leaves, namely phytochemical screening and determination of total polyphenols, flavonoids, and condensed tannins contents. Then, the biological activities were undertaken, in particular the antioxidant activity (total antioxidant activity and trapping of the DPPH° radical) and the antimicrobial activity. The chemical composition of this extract was also determined by HPLC-MS-ESI. Finally, the inhibitory effect of the α-amylase enzyme as well as the antihyperglycaemic effect was evaluated in vivo in normal rats overloaded with starch or D-glucose. The aqueous extract obtained by use of the decoction of leaves of S. lavandulifolia contains 246.51 ± 1.69 mg EQ of gallic acid/g DE, 23.80 ± 0.12 mg EQ quercetin/g DE, and 2.46 ± 0.08 mg EQ catechin /g DE. Its total antioxidant capacity is around 527.03 ± 5.95 mg EQ of ascorbic acid/g DE. At a concentration of 5.81 ± 0.23 µg/mL, our extract was able to inhibit 50% of DPPH° radicals. Moreover, it showed bactericidal effect against Proteus mirabilis, fungicidal against Aspergillus niger, Candida albicans, Candida tropicalis, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and fungistatic against Candida krusei. A marked antihyperglycemic activity (AUC = 54.84 ± 4.88 g/L/h), as well as a significant inhibitory effect of α-amylase in vitro (IC50 = 0.99 ± 0.00 mg/mL) and in vivo (AUC = 51.94 ± 1.29 g/L/h), is recorded in our extract. Furthermore, its chemical composition reveals the presence of 37.03% rosmarinic acid, 7.84% quercetin rhamnose, 5.57% diosmetin-rutinoside, 5.51% catechin dimer, and 4.57% gallocatechin as major compounds. The antihyperglycemic and α-amylase inhibitory activities, associated with the antioxidant properties of S. lavandulifolia, justify its use in the treatment of diabetes in traditional medicine and highlight its potential introduction into antidiabetic drugs.

Synthesis and Comprehensive in Vivo Activity Profiling of Olean-12-en-28-ol, 3β-Pentacosanoate in Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis: A Natural Remyelinating and Anti-Inflammatory Agent

Multiple sclerosis (MS) treatment has received much attention, yet there is still no certain cure. We herein investigate the therapeutic effect of olean-12-en-28-ol, 3β-pentacosanoate (OPCA) on a preclinical model of MS. First, OPCA was synthesized semisynthetically and characterized. Then, the mice with MOG_35-55-induced experimental autoimmune/allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE) were given OPCA along with a reference drug (FTY720). Biochemical, cellular, and molecular analyses were performed in serum and brain tissues to measure anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective responses. OPCA treatment protected EAE-induced changes in mouse brains maintaining blood-brain barrier integrity and preventing inflammation. Moreover, the protein and mRNA levels of MS-related genes such as HLD-DR1, CCL5, TNF-α, IL6, and TGFB1 were significantly reduced in OPCA-treated mouse brains. Notably, the expression of genes, including PLP, MBP, and MAG, involved in the development and structure of myelin was significantly elevated in OPCA-treated EAE. Furthermore, therapeutic OPCA effects included a substantial reduction in pro-inflammatory cytokines in the serum of treated EAE animals. Lastly, following OPCA treatment, the promoter regions for most inflammatory regulators were hypermethylated. These data support that OPCA is a valuable and appealing candidate for human MS treatment since OPCA not only normalizes the pro- and anti-inflammatory immunological bias but also stimulates remyelination in EAE.

Ameliorative Effect of Structurally Divergent Oleanane Triterpenoid, 3-Epifriedelinol from Ipomoea batatas against BPA-Induced Gonadotoxicity by Targeting PARP and NF-κB Signaling in Rats

The pentacyclic triterpenoids (PTs) of plant origin are reputed to restrain prostate cancer (PCa) cell proliferation. This study aims to assess 3-epifriedelinol (EFD) isolated from aerial part of Ipomoea batatas against PCa and its potential mechanism, in vitro and in vivo. Molecular docking affirms good binding affinity of the compound with target proteins exhibiting binding energy of −7.9 Kcal/mol with BAX, −8.1 Kcal/mol (BCL-2), −1.9 Kcal/mol (NF-κB) and −8.5 Kcal/mol with P53. In the MTT assay, EFD treatment (3−50 µM) showed a significant (p < 0.05 and p < 0.01) dose and time dependent drop in the proliferative graph of DU145 and PC3, and an upsurge in apoptotic cell population. EFD displayed substantial IC50 against DU145 (32.32 ± 3.72 µM) and PC3 (35.22 ± 3.47 µM). According to Western blots, EFD administration significantly enhanced the cleavage of caspases and PARP, elevated BAX and P53 and decreased BCL-2 and NF-κB expression, thereby triggering apoptosis in PCa cells. When male Sprague Dawley rats were intoxicated with Bisphenol A (BPA), an apparent increase in prostate mass (0.478 ± 0.08 g) in comparison to control (0.385 ± 0.03 g) indicates prostatitis. Multidose treatment of EFD (10 mg/kg) significantly reduced prostate size (0.404 ± 0.05 g). EFD exhibited substantial curative potential in vivo, as hematological, hormonal and histopathological parameters have been significantly improved. Reduced peroxidation (TBARS), and suppression of inflammatory markers i.e., NO, IL-6 and TNF-α, signposts substantial antiinflammatory potential of the compound. Overall, EFD has shown better binding affinity with target molecules, acceptable ADMET profile, potent antiproliferative and apoptotic nature and significant reduction in inflamed prostate mass of rats. The present study demonstrates acceptable physicochemical and pharmacokinetic properties of the compound with excellent drugable nature, hence EFD in the form of standardized formulation can be developed as primary or adjuvant therapy against PCa and toxins-induced gonadotoxicity.

Antiproliferative activity on Trypanosoma cruzi (Y strain) of the triterpene 3β,6β,16β-trihidroxilup-20 (29)-ene isolated from Combretum leprosum

Chagas disease infects approximately seven million people worldwide. Benznidazole is effective only in the acute phase of the disease, with an average cure rate of 80% between acute and recent cases. Therefore, there is an urgent need to find new bioactive substances that can be effective against parasites without causing so many complications to the host. In this study, the triterpene 3β-6β-16β-trihydroxilup-20 (29)-ene (CLF-1) was isolated from Combretum leprosum, and its molecular structure was determined by NMR and infrared spectroscopy. The CLF-1 was also evaluated in vitro and in silico as potential trypanocidal agent against epimastigote and trypomastigote forms of Trypanosoma cruzi (Y strain). The CLF-1 demonstrated good results highlighted by lower IC₅₀ (76.0 ± 8.72 µM, 75.1 ± 11.0 µM, and 70.3 ± 45.4 µM) for epimastigotes at 24, 48 and 72 h, and LC₅₀ (71.6 ± 11.6 µM) for trypomastigotes forms. The molecular docking study shows that the CLF-1 was able to interact with important TcGAPDH residues, suggesting that this natural compound may preferentially exert its effect by compromising the glycolytic pathway in T. cruzi. The ADMET study together with the MTT results indicated that the CLF-1 is well-absorbed in the intestine and has low toxicity. Thus, this work adds new evidence that CLF-1 can potentially be used as a candidate for the development of new options for the treatment of Chagas disease.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Anti-COVID-19 and antidiabetic activities of new oleanane and ursane-type triterpenoids from Salvia grossheimii: an in-silico approach

Salvia grossheimii is a perennial herb with antidiabetic and cytotoxic constituents. In continuation of our study on S. grosshiemii to identify the bioactive phytochemicals, we have reported the characterization of seven undescribed triterpenoids. The aerial parts of the plant were extracted in dichloromethane and its constituents were isolated using chromatography techniques. The structures of compounds were identified using 1D, 2D NMR, and ESI-MS spectral data. Seven new oleanane- and ursane-type triterpenoids (1-7) were identified in S. grossheimii. The structures of 1-7 were characterized as; 2α-hydroxy-3β-acetoxy-olean-9(11),12-diene (1), 2α-acetoxy-3β-hydroxy-olean-9(11),12-diene (2), 3β-acetoxy-olean-18-ene,2α,11α-diol (3), 2α-hydroxy-3β-acetoxy-urs-9(11),12-diene (4), 2α-acetoxy-3β-hydroxy-urs-9(11),12-diene (5), 2α,3β-diacetoxy-urs-12-ene-11α,20β-diol (6), 2α,3β-diacetoxy-urs-9(11),12-diene-20β-ol (7). Triterpenoids (2, 5, and 7) were intramolecular transesterification or dehydration products of their corresponding isomers or allylic alcohol in the C rings, respectively, produced in-situ during NMR spectroscopy. Virtual screening of 1-7 was performed with molecular docking analysis to identify the potential SARS-CoV-2 and α-glucosidase inhibitors using the smina molecular docking algorithm. The best binding energy values (kcal/mol) against COVID-19 main protease M^pro were calculated for 6 (-8.77) and 7 (-8.68), and the higher binding affinities toward human α-glucosidase were obtained for 2 (-9.39) and 6 (-8.63). This study suggests S. grossheimii as a rich source of bioactive triterpenoids and introduces new natural compounds. Considering the high binding energy values of 2, 6, and 7, these structures could be candidates for anti-COVID-19 and antidiabetic drug development in the future.

Chemical Authentication and Speciation of Salvia Botanicals: An Investigation Utilizing GC/Q-ToF and Chemometrics

Members of the genus Salvia are used as culinary herbs and are prized for their purported medicinal attributes. Since physiological effects can vary widely between species of Salvia, it is of great importance to accurately identify botanical material to ensure safety for consumers. In the present study, an in-depth chemical investigation is performed utilizing GC/Q-ToF combined with chemometrics. Twenty-four authentic plant samples representing five commonly used Salvia species, viz. S. apiana, S. divinorum, S. mellifera, S. miltiorrhiza, and S. officinalis, are analyzed using a GC/Q-ToF technique. High-resolution spectral data are employed to construct a sample class prediction (SCP) model followed by principal component analysis (PCA) and partial least square discriminant analysis (PLS-DA). This model demonstrates 100% accuracy for both prediction and recognition abilities. Additionally, the marker compounds present in each species are identified. Furthermore, to reduce the time required and increase the confidence level for compound identification and the classification of different Salvia species, a personal compound database and library (PCDL) containing marker and characteristic compounds is constructed. By combining GC/Q-ToF, chemometrics, and PCDL, the unambiguous identification of Salvia botanicals is achieved. This high-throughput method can be utilized for species specificity and to probe the overall quality of various Salvia-based products.

Phytochemistry and Biological Activity of Medicinal Plants in Wound Healing: An Overview of Current Research

Wound healing is a complicated process, and the effective management of wounds is a major challenge. Natural herbal remedies have now become fundamental for the management of skin disorders and the treatment of skin infections due to the side effects of modern medicine and lower price for herbal products. The aim of the present study is to summarize the most recent in vitro, in vivo, and clinical studies on major herbal preparations, their phytochemical constituents, and new formulations for wound management. Research reveals that several herbal medicaments have marked activity in the management of wounds and that this activity is ascribed to flavonoids, alkaloids, saponins, and phenolic compounds. These phytochemicals can act at different stages of the process by means of various mechanisms, including anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, collagen synthesis stimulating, cell proliferation, and angiogenic effects. The application of natural compounds using nanotechnology systems may provide significant improvement in the efficacy of wound treatments. Increasing the clinical use of these therapies would require safety assessment in clinical trials.

A Review on the Ethnopharmacology and Phytochemistry of the Neotropical Sages (Salvia Subgenus Calosphace; Lamiaceae) Emphasizing Mexican Species

Salvia is the most diverse genus within the mint family (Lamiaceae), many of its species are well-known due to their medicinal and culinary uses. Most of the ethnopharmacological and phytochemical studies on Salvia are centred on species from the European and Asian clades. However, studies about the most diverse clade, the Neotropical sages (Salvia subgenus Calosphace; 587 spp.), are relatively scarce. This review aims to compile the information on the traditional medicinal uses, pharmacological and phytochemistry properties of the Neotropical sages. To do so, we carried out a comprehensive review of the articles available in different online databases published from the past to 2022 (i.e., PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science, among others) and summarized the information in tables. To uncover phylogenetic patterns in the distribution of four different groups of metabolites (mono-, sesqui-, di-, and triterpenes), we generated presence-absence matrices and plotted the tip states over a dated phylogeny of Salvia. We found several studies involving Mexican species of Salvia, but only a few about taxa from other diversity centres. The main traditional uses of the Mexican species of Calosphace are medicinal and ceremonial. In traditional medicine 56 species are used to treat diseases from 17 categories according to the WHO, plus cultural-bound syndromes. Pharmacological studies reveal a wide range of biological properties (e.g., antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory, anxiolytic, cytotoxic, and antidiabetic, etc.) found in extracts and isolated compounds of 38 Neotropical sages. From extracts of these species, at least 109 compounds have been isolated, identified and evaluated pharmacologically; 73 of these compounds are clerodanes, 21 abietanes, six flavonoids, five sesquiterpenoids, and four triterpenoids. The most characteristic metabolites found in the Neotropical sages are the diterpenes, particularly clerodanes (e.g., Amarisolide A, Tilifodiolide), that are found almost exclusively in this group. The Neotropical sages are a promising resource in the production of herbal medication, but studies that corroborate the properties that have been attributed to them in traditional medicine are scarce. Research of these metabolites guided by the phylogenies is recommended, since closely related species tend to share the presence of similar compounds and thus similar medicinal properties.

Synthesis of Altenuene Backbones through Iodine(III)-Participated Umpolung Diesterification and Insights into the General [1,5]-H Shift in para-Dearomatization of Phenols via Quantum Chemical Calculations

Through PhI(OAc)₂-oxidized dearomatization and diesterification of 3'-hydroxy-[1,1'-biphenyl]-2-carboxylic acids, a series of polycyclic compounds possessing an altenuene backbone were obtained in moderate to good yields. The Umpolung diesterification reaction was completed under mild reaction conditions without an additional nucleophilic reagent. This work offers a concise method for the synthesis of diverse natural altenuene analogues. The mechanism was proposed, and the [1,5]-H shift was studied in isomerization from the ketone-form structure to a phenol employing computational studies.

Salvia hispanica L. seeds extract alleviate encephalopathy in streptozotocin-induced diabetes in rats: Role of oxidative stress, neurotransmitters, DNA and histological indices

CONTEXT

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a metabolic disorder and may lead to cognitive dysfunctions.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this work is to evaluate the potency of Salvia hispanica L. seeds (S. hispanica L.) (chia seeds) petroleum ether extract in attenuating brain complications associated with streptozotocin (STZ) induced diabetes in rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Phytochemical composition of the seeds extract, macro and micro elements, vitamins, protein, carbohydrate and caloric values were estimated. Diabetes was induced by a single intraperitoneal injection of STZ (60 mg/kg body weight (b.wt)). Glibenclamide as a reference drug was also evaluated. The biochemical evaluation was done by measuring levels of glucose, insulin, α amylase, glutathione (GSH), superoxide dismutase (SOD), malondialdehyde (MDA), dopamine (DA), serotonin (5-HD), noradrenaline (NE), acetylcholinesterase (AchE), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), DNA fragmentation pattern and the histopathological profile of the brain hippocampus region.

RESULTS

Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) analysis revealed the presence of twenty-five fatty acid esters and twenty-two compounds. Column chromatography led to the isolation of nine compounds. Treatment with the seeds extract revealed improvement of the measured parameters with variable degrees.

CONCLUSION

Chia seeds extract succeeded to attenuate the neurodegeneration in diabetic rats. Thereafter, it could be potentially used as a new dietary supplement against diabetic encephalopathy.

Antihyperglycemic Effects of Salvia polystachya Cav. and Its Terpenoids: α-Glucosidase and SGLT1 Inhibitors

The antihyperglycemic activity of ethanolic extract from Salvia polystachya (EESpS) and its products was evaluated using in vivo, ex vivo and in silico assays; additionally, an acute toxicity assay was evaluated. EESpS was classified as a nontoxic class 5 drug. EESpS, ethyl acetate fraction (EtOAcFr), secondary-6-fraction (SeFr6), ursolic acid (UA), and oleanolic acid (OA) reduced the hyperglycemia in DM2 mice. α-glucosidase inhibition was evaluated with oral sucrose and starch tolerance tests (OSuTT and OStTT), an intestinal sucrose hydrolysis (ISH) assay and molecular docking studies using acarbose as control. SGLT1 inhibition was evaluated with oral glucose and galactose tolerance tests (OGTT and OGaTT), an intestinal glucose absorption (IGA) assay and molecular docking studies using canagliflozin as the control. During the carbohydrate tolerance tests, all the treatments reduced the postprandial peak, similar to the control drugs. During the ISH, IC₅₀ values of 739.9 and 726.3 µM for UA and OA, respectively, were calculated. During the IGA, IC₅₀ values of 966.6 and 849.3 for UA, OA respectively, were calculated. Finally, during the molecular docking studies, UA and OA showed ∆G values of -6.41 and -5.48 kcal/mol^-1, respectively, on α-glucosidase enzymes. During SGLT1, UA and OA showed ∆G values of -10.55 and -9.65, respectively.

Effect of Harvesting Time Variations on Essential Oil Yield and Composition of Sage (Salvia officinalis)

The objective of this study was to evaluate the production, contents, and essential oil (EO) components of sage as a function of the diurnal variation. The EOs from the aerial parts of the plant harvested at different day/night times were extracted by hydro-distillation. Plants were harvested in 2 h intervals (twelve harvesting times during each 24-h day). Harvesting between 4:00 and 6:00 p.m. revealed the highest EO percentage (1.14%), whereas harvesting between 04:00 and 06:00 a.m. indicated the minimum EO percentage (0.599%). The analysis of the EO identified 32 components. The major identified EO compounds were cis-thujone (34.38–46.18%), 1,8-cineol (8.70–11.07%), camphor (9.65–14.38%), and trans-thujone (9.43–14.19%). The highest value of cis-thujone (46.18%) was related to the harvest time of 04:00–06:00 a.m., and the lowest value (34.38%) was recorded at the harvest time of 00:00–02:00 a.m. The highest value of trans-thujone (14.19%) was obtained between 10:00–00:00 p.m., and the lowest value (9.43%) was obtained between 10:00–12:00 a.m. Camphor was another dominant compound where the highest (14.38%) was observed at 00:00–2:00 a.m. Our findings in sage, for the first time, may pave the route towards the optimization of sage EO quality and quantity by selecting the best harvesting time of the plants.

Biological Potential and Chemical Profile of European Varieties of Ilex

Plants of the genus Ilex are widespread throughout the world, with its best-known representative being Ilex paraguraiensis from South America. The European species Ilex aquifolium shows similarities in its terpenoid, sugar and phenolic acid profiles. Using aqueous extracts of Ilex aquifolium as a supplement in Wistar rats showed that, despite the lack of caffeine, it had strong hypocholesterolemic effects. In addition, a reduction in oxidative lipid degradation and a decrease in hepatic steatosis in histopathological studies were observed. The results of this study suggest that extracts from the European species Ilex aquifolium may have potential as an alternative treatment for hyperlipidemia.

Bioactive phytochemicals from Salvia officinalis attenuate cadmium-induced oxidative damage and genotoxicity in rats

This study was conducted to identify the bioactive phytochemicals in Salvia officinalis essential oil, to determine the polyphenols in the aqueous extract (SOE), and to evaluate their protective role against cadmium (Cd)-induced oxidative damage and genotoxicity in rats. Six groups of female rats were treated orally for 2 weeks including the control group, CdCl₂-treated group, SOE-treated groups at low or high dose (100 and 200 mg/kg b.w), and CdCl₂ plus SOE-treated groups at the two doses. The GC-MS analysis identified 39 compounds; the main compounds were 9-octadecenamide, eucalyptol, palmitic acid, and oleic acid. However, the HPLC analysis showed 12 polyphenolic compounds and the majority were coumaric acid, chlorogenic acid, coffeic acid, catechin, vanillin, gallic acid, ellagic acid, and rutin. In the biological study, rats received CdCl₂ displayed severe disturbances in liver and kidney indices alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), albumin (Alb), total protein (TP), total bilirubin (T. Bil), direct bilirubin (D. Bil), creatinine, uric acid, and urea, lipid profile, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) and CEA), glutathione (GSH), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT), malondialdehyde (MDA), nitric oxide (NO), gene expressions, DNA fragmentation, and histological alterations in the liver and kidney tissue. SOE showed a potent antioxidant and mitigated these alterations in serum and tissue. Moreover, the high dose succeeded to normalize most of the tested parameters and histological features. It could be concluded that S. officinalis is a promising source for bioactive compounds with therapeutic benefits against environmental toxicants.

Increased phenylpropanoids production in UV-B irradiated Salvia verticillata as a consequence of altered genes expression in young leaves

Ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation as an environmental potential elicitor induces the synthesis of plant secondary metabolites. The effects of UV-B radiation on photosynthetic pigments and dry weight, biochemical and molecular features of old and young leaves of Salvia verticillata were investigated. Plants were exposed to 10.97 kJ m^-2 day^-1 of biologically effective UV-B radiation for up to 10 days. The sampling process was performed in four steps: 1, 5, 10, and 13 days (recovery time) after the start of irradiation. As a result of plant investment in primary and secondary metabolism, the production of phenolic compounds increased, while chlorophyll levels and leaf dry weight (%) declined. Under long-term UV-B exposure, young leaves exhibited the most significant reduction in chlorophyll a and b content and leaf dry weight. The highest level of total phenol (1.34-fold) and flavonoid concentration (2-fold) relative to the control was observed on the 5th day and recovery time, respectively. Young leaves demonstrated the highest amount of phenolic acids in recovery time. Young leaves on the 5th day of the experiment exerted the highest level of antioxidant activity when compared to the control. A positive correlation was observed between antioxidant activity and the amount of phenolic compounds. Regarding the expression of phenylpropanoid pathway genes, UV-B enhanced the expression of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase, tyrosine aminotransferase, and rosmarinic acid synthase with the highest level in young leaves on the 10th day. Overall, young leaves of S. verticillata indicated higher sensitivity to UV-B radiation and developed more tangible reactions to such radiation.

Two new cytotoxic ursane triterpenoids from the aerial parts of Salvia urmiensis Bunge

Bioassay-guided fractionation of a dichloromethane extract of the aerial parts of Salvia urmiensis, an endemic plant species of Iran, led to the isolation of two new cytotoxic ursane triterpenoids, Salvurmin A and Salvurmin B. Their structures were elucidated by a combination of 1D and 2D NMR, HR-ESI-MS, IR and UV analysis. Cytotoxicity of the above-mentioned compounds were evaluated against two human cancerous cell lines (SW1116, MCF-7). IC₅₀ values for Salvurmin A and Salvurmin B on colon cancer cell line (SW1116) were 41.6 ± 2.6 and 23.2 ± 0.4 μM respectively, in comparison to cisplatin as control positive. In addition, these two compounds exhibited cytotoxic activity on breast cancer cell line (MCF-7) with an IC₅₀ of 54.2 ± 5.3 and 40.2 ± 3.1 μM for Salvurmin A and Salvurmin B, respectively. The cytotoxic activities of these two compounds present a promising potential for the future investigation on this endemic species of Salvia.

Triterpenic and phenolic acids production changed in Salvia officinalis via in vitro and in vivo polyploidization: A consequence of altered genes expression

The induction of polyploidy is an efficient technique for creating a diversity of genetic, phenotypic, and phytochemical novelties in plant taxa. Sage (Salvia officinalis L.) is a well-known medicinal plant rich of valuable bioactive molecules such as triterpenic and phenolic acids. In the present study, the effect of in vitro and in vivo polyploidization on morphological characteristics, anatomical structures, phytochemical traits, and expression level of the genes involved in the biosynthesis of major triterpenic acids (ursolic, betulinic, and oleanolic acids) of the plant was studied. The sterile seeds treated with different concentrations (0, 0.05, 0.1, and 0.2%) of colchicine for 24 and 48 h were considered for polyploidy induction. Flow cytometry and chromosome counting were used to confirm the ploidy level of diploid (2n = 2x = 14, 2C DNA = 1.10 pg) and tetraploid (2n = 4x = 28, 2C DNA = 2.12 pg) plants after seven months. The highest polyploidy induction was obtained by applying 0.1% (w/v) colchicine for 48 h with an efficiency of 19.05% in vitro tetraploidy. Polyploids showed differences in leaf shape and color, leaf and stem thickness, trichrome density, root length, plant height, and number of leaves compared to diploid plants. There was also a significant decrease in rosmarinic acid content in polyploid (plants) as compared to diploid plants. Although a significant decrease in ursolic acid content was observed in polyploids, betulinic acid content associated with the expression levels of genes encoding enzymes being active in triterpene biosynthesis such as squalene epoxidase (SQE) and lupeol synthase (LUS). The expression of SQE and LUS was significantly increased in in vitro tertaploids (2.9-fold) and in vivo mixoploids (2.4-fold). The results confirm the idea that induced polyploidy can randomly alter breeding traits of plants as well as the content of bioactive compounds.

Phenolic profile, safety assessment, and anti-inflammatory activity of Salvia verbenaca L

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Salvia species are known to have anti-inflammatory properties, and are traditionally used for healing purposes. Salvia verbenaca is an Algerian plant used for healing wounds and ulcers.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This work aims to assess the acute and subacute safety of S. verbenaca and its possible anti-inflammatory activity as a mechanism contributing to its traditional applications.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Lethal toxicity of S. verbenaca hydromethanolic extract was evaluated against Artemia salina larvae, while acute and subacute toxicity were orally tested on mice. The anti-inflammatory activity was screened ex vivo using membrane stabilization and in vivo using xylene induced ear edema as an acute inflammation model. The antiradical, reducing power and iron chelating activities of S. verbenaca were also investigated in vitro, and phenolic compounds were determined using UHPLC-DAD-ESI-MSⁿ_. RESULTS: Salvia verbenaca extract contained high amounts of phenolic compounds (206 μg GAE/mg extract). The in vitro antioxidant activity showed promising radical scavenging ability, iron chelating (IC₅₀: 189 μg/mL), reducing power and strong anti-lipid-peroxidation effect (IC₅₀: 111 μg/mL). The extract had potential cytotoxic effect against Artemia salina larvae (LC₅₀: 30 μg/mL), but did not exhibit any acute/subacute toxicity effect on mice. Salvia verbenaca inhibited hypotonic and heat induced hemolysis and also reduced 50% of xylene induced ear edema at 600 mg/kg bw. Rosmarinic acid and caffeoylmalic acid were identified as the major compounds.

CONCLUSION

Salvia verbenaca hydromethanolic extract was found to be safe at acute and subacute levels. Its in vitro/in vivo antioxidant activity, membrane stabilizing properties and anti-inflammatory activity may be an important aspect of its wound healing and anti-ulcer traditional use.

Bioactive Components of Salvia and Their Potential Antidiabetic Properties: A Review

The utilization of therapeutic plants is expanding around the globe, coupled with the tremendous expansion of alternative medicine and growing demand in health treatment. Plants are applied in pharmaceuticals to preserve and expand health—physically, mentally and as well as to treat particular health conditions and afflictions. There are more than 600 families of plants identified so far. Among the plants that are often studied for their health benefit include the genus of Salvia in the mint family, Lamiaceae. This review aims to determine the bioactive components of Salvia and their potential as antidiabetic agents. The search was conducted using three databases (PubMed, EMBASE and Scopus), and all relevant articles that are freely available in the English language were extracted within 10 years (2011–2021). Salvia spp. comprises many biologically active components that can be divided into monoterpenes, diterpenes, triterpenes, and phenolic components, but only a few of these have been studied in-depth for their health benefit claims. The most commonly studied bioactive component was salvianolic acids. Interestingly, S. miltiorrhiza is undoubtedly the most widely studied Salvia species in terms of its effectiveness as an antidiabetic agent. In conclusion, we hope that this review stimulates more studies on bioactive components from medicinal plants, not only on their potential as antidiabetic agents but also for other possible health benefits.

A new diterpene and other constituents of Salvia multicaulis from Jordan

Phytochemical investigation of the aqueous methanol and butanol extracts of Salvia multicaulis from Jordan resulted in the isolation of 17 compounds including one new abietane diterpene derivative that was identified as 2,20-dihydroxyferruginol. Structural elucidation of all isolated compounds was based on extensive analysis of their spectroscopic data.

In vitro biological activity of Salvia fruticosa Mill. infusion against amyloid β-peptide-induced toxicity and inhibition of GSK-3β, CK-1δ, and BACE-1 enzymes relevant to Alzheimer's disease

Salvia species have been traditionally used to improve cognition and have been proved to be a potential natural treatment for Alzheimer’s disease. Salvia fruticosa Mill. (Turkish sage or Greek sage) demonstrated to have anticholinergic effects in vitro.

The aim of this study was to understand the mechanism underlying the neuroprotective effects of S. fruticosa infusion and its representative compound rosmarinic acid, which was detected by LC-DAD-ESI-MS/MS. The protective effects of the S. fruticosa infusion (SFINF) and its major substance rosmarinic acid (RA) on amyloid beta 1–42 -induced cytotoxicity on SH-SY5Y cells together with p-GSK-3β activation were investigated. Their in vitro inhibitory effects against glycogen synthase kinase 3β, β-secretase, and casein kinase 1δ enzymes were also evaluated.

The results showed that treatment with the all tested concentrations, SFINF significantly decreased Aβ 1–42-induced cytotoxicity and exhibited promising in vitro glycogen synthase kinase 3β inhibitory activity below 10 µg/mL (IC₅₀ 6.52 ± 1.14 µg/mL), in addition to β-secretase inhibition (IC₅₀ 86 ± 2.9 µg/mL) and casein kinase 1δ inhibition (IC₅₀ 121.57 ± 4.00). The SFINF (100 µg/mL and 250 µg/mL) also activated the expression of p-GSK-3β in amyloid beta 1–42 treated SH-SY5Y cells.

The outcomes of this study demonstrated that the S. fruticosa infusion possessed activity to prevent amyloid beta 1–42 -induced neurotoxicity and provided proof that its mechanism may involve regulation of p-GSK-3β protein.

Characterization of Chloroplast Genomes From Two Salvia Medicinal Plants and Gene Transfer Among Their Mitochondrial and Chloroplast Genomes

Salvia species have been widely used as medicinal plants and have played an important role in the treatment and recovery of individuals with COVID-19. In this study, we reported two newly identified whole chloroplast genome sequences of Salvia medicinal plants (Salvia yangii and Salvia miltiorrhiza f. alba) and compared them with those of seven other reported Salvia chloroplast genomes. These were proven to be highly similar in terms of overall size, genome structure, gene content, and gene order. We identified 10 mutation hot spots (trnK-rps16, atpH-atpI, psaA-ycf3, ndhC-trnV, ndhF, rpl32-trnL, ndhG-ndhI, rps15-ycf1, ycf1a, and ycf1b) as candidate DNA barcodes for Salvia. Additionally, we observed the transfer of nine large-sized chloroplast genome fragments, with a total size of 49,895 bp (accounting for 32.97% of the chloroplast genome), into the mitochondrial genome as they shared >97% sequence similarity. Phylogenetic analyses of the whole chloroplast genome provided a high resolution of Salvia. This study will pave the way for the identification and breeding of Salvia medicinal plants and further phylogenetic evolutionary research on them as well.

Chemical constituents of the aerial parts of Salvia judaica Boiss. from Jordan

Investigation of the chemical constituents of Salvia judaica growing wild in Jordan led to the isolation and identification of 15 known compounds. These included: luteolin-3'-methyl ether (1), indole-3-carboxyaldehyde (2), p-hydroxybenzaldehyde (3), tricin (4), apigenin (5), methyl isoferuloyl-7-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl) lactate (6), methyl rosmarinate (7), rosmarinic acid (8), salvigenin (9), β-sitosterol (10), 3β, 28-dihydroxyurs-12-ene (11), cirsilineol (12), 2,3-dihydroxyurs-12-en-28-oic acid (13), β-sitosteryl glucoside (14), and tormentic acid (15). Compounds 6 and 7 exhibited strong radical scavenging and chelating activities as compared to α-tocopherol and ascorbic acid, compound 7 showed a 2-fold greater antioxidant activity as compared to compound 6. Furthermore, low doses of compounds 6 and 7 were able to inhibit the growth of leukemic (HL-60, Jurkat, K562 and CCRF-SB) and solid tumor cells (MCF-7, MDA-MB-231 and Caco-2). Compound 7 showed a ca. 3-4-fold stronger cytotoxicity against the tested cells as compared to compound 6.

Evaluation of Wound Healing Activity of Salvia haenkei Hydroalcoholic Aerial Part Extract on in vitro and in vivo Experimental Models

Purpose

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the potential wound healing activity of the hydroalcoholic extract of Salvia haenkei on in vitro and in vivo experimental models.

Materials and Methods

Preliminary analytical characterization of the hydroalcoholic extract of Salvia haenkei was made by reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) that permitted identification of a qualitative fingerprint of the extract of aerial parts. The wound healing activity of the hydroalcoholic extract of Salvia haenkei was evaluated in vitro by the scratch assay on human dermal fibroblasts and human epidermal keratinocytes and in vivo by standardized mouse excisional splinting model. Real-time PCR (RT-PCR) experiments were performed to analyze gene expression levels of inflammatory markers.

Results

The scratch assay tests showed that the treatment with the hydroalcoholic extract of Salvia haenkei did not induce an increase in the fibroblasts migration rate with respect to the positive control. Instead, the hydroalcoholic extract of Salvia haenkei was effective in improving the wound closure rate on keratinocyte cell cultures with an almost total invasion of the scratch after 48 h of treatment; whereas the positive control, at the same time point, showed only a 67% reduction of the wound size. In vivo experiments showed that the groups treated with the extract of Salvia haenkei completely re-epithelized the wound in 2.7 days, a timing that was comparable with the action of the positive control that took only 2.1 days. Gene expression analysis showed that Salvia haenkei positively regulated the signaling pathway of the nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) transcription factor.

Conclusion

The results suggested that the hydroalcoholic extract of Salvia haenkei induced a clear wound healing effect.

HPLC profiling of selected phenolic acids and flavonoids in Salvia eigii, Salvia hierosolymitana and Salvia viridis growing wild in Jordan and their in vitro antioxidant activity

Background

Salvia eigii., Salvia hierosolymitana and Salvia viridis are native to the Mediterranean region, and are used in traditional medicine for the treatment of many ailments. In the current investigation, the methanolic extracts obtained from the air dried aerial parts of S. eigii, S. hierosolymitana and S. viridis from Jordan were screened for their total phenolics content (TPC), total flavonoids content (TFC) and their in vitro antioxidant activity. Additionally, the presence of four bioactive phenolic acids including gallic acid, caffeic acid, rosmarinic acid and salvianolic acid B and other seven flavonoids including luteolin-7-O-glucoside, apigenin, apigenin-7-O-glucoside, rutin, nariginin, hesperidin and quercetin was determined using Liquid chromatography-Electron Spray Ionization-Tandom Mass Spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS).

Methods

Antioxidant activity of the obtained three extracts were examined via the DPPH^•, ABTS^• + radical scavenging methods in addition to Ferrous Ion Chelating (FIC) effect. TFC and TPC of the extracts were measured using the aluminum chloride colorimetric method and the Folin-Ciocalteau method, respectively. The presence and concentration of the selected 11 compounds was further determined through LC-ESI-MS/MS.

Results

The results indicated that three Salvia species had high total flavonoids content expressed in mg quercetin/g dry extract (S. heirosolymitana: 770.85 ±  5.26; S. eigii: 520.60 ±  6.24, S. viridis: 311.36 ±  4.41). S. heirosolymitana had the highest DPPH^• activity (0.184 ±  1.22 × 10⁻² mg/ml) and FIC effect (0.354 ±  0.018 mg/ml). S. heirosolymitana had slightly higher ABTS^• + scavenging activity than S. eigii (0.176 ±  1.16 × 10⁻² mg/ml; 0.183 ±  0.031 mg/ml, respectively). All 11 compounds were detected in the extracts of the three Salvia species. Luteolin-7-O-glucoside was detected in high concentration levels in the three species (1756.73, 21651.36, and 26125.14 mg/kg dry plant; S. eigii, S. hierosolyimitana and S. viridis, respectively), yet rosmarinic acid had the highest contribution to both S. hierosolymitana (27124.93 mg/kg) and S. eigii (15783.33 mg/kg). Notably, S. hierosolymitana and S. viridis contained salvianolic acid B (896.11; 890.9 mg/kg).

Conclusions

The three Salvia species exhibited good antioxidant activity, especially S. heirosolymitana due to its high TPC, TFC, and the presence of high concentration levels of romarinic acid and other phenolic acids and flavonoids. This is the first phytochemical and antioxidant evaluation of S. eigii, S. hierosolymitana and S. viridis from Jordan. Prior to this investigation, no phytochemical investigation on S. eigii was reported.

Antiproliferative Effect and Cell Cycle Alterations Induced by Salvia officinalis Essential Oil and Its Three Main Components in Human Colon Cancer Cell Lines

Colon cancer is one of the most common human malignancies, and chemotherapy cannot yet prevent recurrence in all patients. Essential oils are phytocomplexes with antiproliferative properties. In this study, we elucidated the antiproliferative properties and the effect on cell cycle progression of Sicilian Salvia officinalis essential oil and its three main compounds, α-thujone, 1,8-cineole (eucalyptol) and camphor, on three human colon cancer cell lines. The essential oil was obtained by hydrodistillation and analyzed by gas chromatography. Cell proliferation was evaluated by MTT assay, and the cell cycle distribution was determined by flow cytometry. Thirty-four compounds were identified in the tested essential oil. Growth inhibition was observed after 72 h, with an impact on cell cycle progression and no effect on the viability of normal colonic epithelial cells. The study shows that S. officinalis essential oil and its three main components have an in vitro antiproliferative effect on colon cancer cells.

Characterization of Chemical Components in Organs Emissions of Two Salvia dominica L. Populations from Jordan

The current investigation reports the chemical composition of volatile organic compounds emitted from the different aerial organs of two populations of Salvia dominica L. from Jordan collected from Mediterranean and Irano-Turanian bio-geographical zones. Oxygenated monoterpenes dominated the emission profiles of most organs from the two populations but with variable qualitative and quantitative differences. Mediterranean samples contained higher content of oxygenated monoterpenes (stems: 88.37%, leaves 89.95%, pre-flowering buds 67.14%, fully opened flowers 79.43%, sepals 90.93% and petals 92.25%) as compared to those from Irano-Turanian origin (range 39.85% to 75.06%). trans-Sabinene hydrate dominated the emission profiles of all organs from Irano-Turanian zone (range 38.54% to 73.24%) in addition to the stem, sepal and petal samples from the Mediterranean zone (51.37% to 86.98%). The other organs from the Mediterranean zone were dominated by α-terpenyl acetate (27.66-54.87%). Cluster and Principle Component statistical analysis classified the two populations into two clusters based on their origin. The current study evidenced the different VOCs composition in the two populations, that was mainly related to climatic and environmental conditions and suggested the presence of two ecotypes of S. dominica L.in Jordan.

Vodnar D, Crișan G. Chemical Constituents and Biologic Activities of Sage Species: A Comparison between Salvia officinalis L., S. glutinosa L. and S. transsylvanica (Schur ex Griseb. & Schenk) Schur

Even though Salvia genus is one of the most known and studied taxa of Lamiaceae family, the knowledge regarding the chemical composition and health-related benefits of some locally used Salvia species (mostly endemic) is still scarce. In this regard, the present work aims to evaluate the chemical profile and potential bioactivities of 70% (v/v) ethanolic extracts obtained from the less-studied S. transsylvanica and S. glutinosa in comparison with S. officinalis. HPLC-PDA analysis revealed the presence of rutin and catechin as the main compounds in the extracts of the three studied species (using the employed HPLC method), whereas the presence of naringenin was highlighted only in S. glutinosa extract. Chlorogenic acid, rutin and quercetin were identified and quantified for the first time in S. transsylvanica extracts. The in vitro antioxidant capacity of each extract was tested through complementary methods (phosphomolybdenum assay, DPPH, ABTS, CUPRAC and FRAP assays), and correlated with the presence of phenolics (especially flavonoids) in high amounts. The neuroprotective and antidiabetic abilities of S. officinalis (the most active as AChE, BChE and α-glucosidase inhibitor), S. glutinosa (the most active as α-amylase inhibitor) and S. transsylvanica were also studied. For each extract it was determined the antimicrobial, antifungal and cytotoxic effects using in vitro assays. The obtained results confirm the potential of S. transsylvanica and S. glutinosa as promising sources of bioactive compounds and as a starting point for further analyses.

Anticholinesterase and Antioxidant Activities of Natural Abietane Diterpenoids with Molecular Docking Studies

Background:

Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) is one of the most prevalent causes of dementia in the world, and no drugs available that can provide a complete cure. Cholinergic neurons of the cerebral cortex of AD patients are lost due to increased activity of cholinesterase enzymes.

Objectives:

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and Butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE) are the two major classes of cholinesterases in the mammalian brain. The involvement of oxidative stress in the progression of AD is known. Thus, the objective of this study is to determine strong ChE inhibitors with anti-oxidant activity.

Methods:

In this study, 41 abietane diterpenoids have been assayed for antioxidant and anticholinesterase (both for AChE and BuChE) properties in vitro, which were previously isolated from Salvia species, and structurally determined by spectroscopic methods, particularly intensive 1D- and 2DNMR and mass experiments. Molecular modeling studies were performed to rationalize the in vitro ChE inhibitory activity of several abietane diterpenoids compared with galantamine.

Results:

Thirteen out of the tested 41 abietane diterpenoids exhibited at least 50% inhibition on either AChE or BuChE. The strongest inhibitory activity was obtained for Bractealine against BuChE (3.43 μM) and AChE (33.21 μM) while the most selective ligand was found to be Hypargenin E against BuChE enzyme (6.93 μM). A full correlation was not found between anticholinesterase and antioxidant activities. The results obtained from molecular modelling studies of Hypargenin E and Bractealine on AChE and BuChE were found to be in accordance with the in vitro anti-cholinesterase activity tests.

Conclusion:

Abietane diterpenoids are promising molecules for the treatment of mild-moderate AD.

Plant triterpenoid saponins: biosynthesis, in vitro production, and pharmacological relevance

The saponins are a diverse class of natural products, with a broad scale distribution across different plant species. Chemically characterized as triterpenoid glycosides, they posses a 30C oxidosqualene precursor-based aglycone moiety (sapogenin), to which glycosyl residues are subsequently attached to yield the corresponding saponin. Based on the chemically distinct aglycone moieties, broadly, they are divided into triterpenoid saponins (dammaranes, ursanes, oleananes, lupanes, hopanes, etc.) and the sterol glycosides. This review aims to present in detail the biosynthesis patterns of the different aglycones from a common precursor and their glycosylation patterns to yield the functionally active glycoside. The review also presents recent advances in the pharmacological activities of these saponins, particularly as potent anti-neoplastic pharmacophores, antioxidants, or anti-viral/antibacterial agents. Since alternate production pedestals for these pharmacologically important triterpenes via cell and tissue cultures are an attractive option for their sustainable production, recent trends in the variety and scale of in vitro production of plant triterpenoids have also been discussed.

Identification of key genes involved in the biosynthesis of triterpenic acids in the mint family

Triterpenic acids (TAs), a large group of natural compounds with diverse biological activity, are produced by several plant taxa. Betulinic, oleanolic, and ursolic acids are the most medicinally important TAs and are mainly found in plants of the mint family. Metabolic engineering is strongly dependent on identifying the key genes in biosynthetic pathways toward the products of interest. In this study, gene expression tracking was performed by transcriptome mining, co-expression network analysis, and tissue-specific metabolite-expression analysis in order to identify possible key genes involved in TAs biosynthetic pathways. To this end, taxa-specific degenerate primers of six important genes were designed using an effective method based on the MEME algorithm in a phylogenetically related group of sequences and successfully applied in three members of the Lamiaceae (Rosmarinus officinalis, Salvia officinalis, and Thymus persicus). Based on the results of in-depth data analysis, genes encoding squalene epoxidase and oxido squalene cyclases are proposed as targets for boosting triterpene production. The results emphasize the importance of identifying key genes in triterpene biosynthesis, which may facilitate genetic manipulation or overexpression of target genes.

Rosmarinic and carnosic acid contents and correlated antioxidant and antidiabetic activities of 14 Salvia species from Anatolia

Herbal medicine has been used worldwide as an alternative treatment. Salvia genus is one of the most remarked herbs which is traditionally used in the treatment of many diseases. Therefore, it is a crucial issue to reveal the chemical and biological profiles of different Salvia species. Rosmarinic and carnosic acid are the most well-known bioactive components generally accepted as the main antioxidant compounds in Salvia. This study firstly aims the determination of rosmarinic and carnosic acid contents of 14 Anatolian Salvia species by a simple and rapid capillary electrophoresis method. Moreover, the antioxidant activities and total phenolic contents of the Salvia samples were investigated. α-Glucosidase enzyme inhibitory effects of the samples were tested concerning their antidiabetic activities. The rosmarinic acid contents in the samples were well-correlated with the bioactivities.

The complete chloroplast genome sequence of the medicinal plant Salvia yunnanensis C. H. Wright. (Lamiaceae)

Salvia yunnanensis is a medicinal plant commonly used in the southwest of China. In this study, we sequenced the complete chloroplast (cp) genome sequence of S. yunnanensis to investigate its phylogenetic relationship in the family Lamiaceae. The total length of the cp genome was 151,338 bp, with 38.0% overall GC content and exhibited typical quadripartite structure, a pair of IRs (inverted repeats) of 25,578 bp each were separated by a small single-copy (SSC) region of 17,564 bp and a large single-copy (LSC) region of 82,618 bp. The cp genome contained 114 genes, including 80 protein coding genes, 30 tRNA genes, and 4 rRNA genes. The phylogenetic analysis indicated S. yunnanensis was closely related to S. miltiorrhiza, which afforded a scientific evidence that S. yunnanensis could be used as original species of Radix et Rhizoma Saliviae Miltiorrhizae (Danshen).

Salvia lachnostachys Benth has antitumor and chemopreventive effects against solid Ehrlich carcinoma

Salvia lachnostachys is an herbaceous plant with anti-inflammatory, analgesic and cytotoxic properties. This study investigated the antitumor effect of an ethanolic extract of Salvia lachnostachys leaves (EES) in a solid Ehrlich carcinoma model. Ehrlich cells were inoculated subcutaneously in the right pelvic member (2 × 10⁶ cells) in female Swiss mice. The animals were treated with vehicle (10 mL kg^-1, p.o.), EES (30 and 100 mg kg^-1, p.o.), or methotrexate (2.5 mg kg^-1, i.p.) for 21 days (early treatment) or 14 days (late treatment) after tumor inoculation, or 10 days before tumor inoculation and continued for 21 days after tumor inoculation (chemopreventive treatment). The acute toxicity test was performed according OECD guidelines Late treatment with EES had no antitumor effect. Early treatment with 100 mg kg^-1 EES prevented tumor development, increased tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) levels and decreased tumor superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, interleukin-10 (IL-10) levels and Cyclin D1 expression, and tumor cell necrosis was observed. Chemopreventive treatment with EES for 10 and 31 days prevented tumor development in the same manner. EES treatment for 31 days decreased hepatic and tumor SOD activity, tumor IL-10 levels and Cyclin D1 expression, and increased tumor reduced glutathione, N-acetylglucosaminidase, reactive oxygen species, lipid peroxidation, TNF-α levels and Nrf2 expression. No toxicity was observed in the acute toxicity assay. In conclusion, EES had an antitumor effect by inhibiting Cyclin D1 expression and increasing inflammation with early and chemopreventive treatment. Modulation of the antioxidant system also contribute for the antitumor effects of EES.

Determination of Vitamin B2 Content in Black, Green, Sage, and Rosemary Tea Infusions by Capillary Electrophoresis with Laser-Induced Fluorescence Detection

Vitamin B2, also known as riboflavin (RF) is an essential micronutrient for human health and must be obtained from dietary sources. Plants biosynthesize riboflavin and are important dietary sources of vitamin B2 for humans. Our present study reports sensitive detection of vitamin B2 in widely consumed tea infusions, namely black, green, sage and rosemary tea infusions, by a capillary electrophoresis method combined with laser induced fluorescence detection. Moreover, the correlation between the vitamin B2 content of tea plants with their total phenolics (TPs) and antioxidant capacity are evaluated in this study. Whereas green teas have the highest TPs and antioxidant capacity, the highest RF content is in sage infusions. The RF content ranged between 0.34 and 10.36 µg/g for all tea samples studied. Comparing the RF content of tea samples found in this study to the RF content of known RF sources, tea infusions are proposed as important dietary sources of vitamin B2.

Ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, and pharmacology of Chinese Salvia species: A review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The genus Salvia is one of the largest genera of the Lamiaceae family. In China, about 40 Salvia species have been used as medicinal plants for treatment of various diseases, specifically hepatic and renal diseases and those of the cardiovascular and immune systems.

AIM OF THIS REVIEW

This review aims to provide systematically organized information on the ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and toxicology of medicinal Salvia species in China to support their therapeutic potential in the treatment of human diseases.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Relevant information on the Chinese Salvia species was obtained from scientific online databases such as Google Scholar, PubMed, and SciFinder. Additional information was derived from other literature sources (e.g. Chinese Pharmacopoeia 2015 edition, Chinese herbal classic books, PhD and MSc thesis, etc).

RESULTS

Our comprehensive analysis of the scientific literature indicates that many Chinese Salvia species are valuable and popular herbal medicines with therapeutic potentials to cure various ailments. Phytochemical analyses identified diterpenoids and phenolic acids as the major bioactive substances in Chinese Salvia species. Crude extracts and pure compounds isolated from the Chinese Salvia species exhibited various pharmacological activities, typically targeting the cardiovascular and immune systems and hepatic and renal diseases.

CONCLUSION

This review summarizes the results from current studies about basic properties of medicinal Salvia species in China, such as active constituents and their mechanism of action, pharmacokinetics, underlying molecular mechanisms, toxicology, and efficacy, which are still being studied and explored to achieve integration into medical practice.