Effects of salviainolic acid A (SA-A) on liver injury: SA-A action on hepatic peroxidation

Salvianolic acid A attenuates non-alcoholic fatty liver disease by regulating the AMPK-IGFBP1 pathway

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) affects approximately a quarter of the population and, to date, there is no approved drug therapy for this condition. Individuals with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) are at a significantly elevated risk of developing NAFLD, underscoring the urgency of identifying effective NAFLD treatments for T2DM patients. Salvianolic acid A (SAA) is a naturally occurring phenolic acid that is an important component of the water-soluble constituents isolated from the roots of Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge. SAA has been demonstrated to possess anti-inflammatory and antioxidant stress properties. Nevertheless, its potential in ameliorating diabetes-associated NAFLD has not yet been fully elucidated. In this study, diabetic ApoE-/- mice were employed to establish a NAFLD model via a Western diet. Following this, they were treated with different doses of SAA (10 mg/kg, 20 mg/kg) via gavage. The study demonstrated a marked improvement in liver injury, lipid accumulation, inflammation, and the pro-fibrotic phenotype after the administration of SAA. Additionally, RNA-seq analysis indicated that the primary pathway by which SAA alleviates diabetes-induced NAFLD involves the cascade pathways of lipid metabolism. Furthermore, SAA was found to be effective in the inhibition of lipid accumulation, mitochondrial dysfunction and ferroptosis. A functional enrichment analysis of RNA-seq data revealed that SAA treatment modulates the AMPK pathway and IGFBP-1. Further experimental results demonstrated that SAA is capable of inhibiting lipid accumulation through the activation of the AMPK pathway and IGFBP-1.

Therapeutic Targeting of GSK3β-Regulated Nrf2 and NFκB Signaling Pathways by Salvianolic Acid A Ameliorates Peritoneal Fibrosis

Peritoneal fibrosis is a devastating complication in patients undergoing peritoneal dialysis, with no definite therapy yet available. Salvia miltiorrhiza and its major active component Salvianolic acid A (Sal A) have demonstrated a beneficial effect in myriad diseases. However, their effect on peritoneal fibrosis is unknown. In murine models of peritoneal dialysis, daily Sal A treatment substantially improved the peritoneal dialysis fluid (PDF) elicited peritoneal fibrosis, marked by thickening of the submesothelial compact zone, accumulation of extracellular matrix and increased expression of vimentin and PAI-1, concomitant with attenuation of GSK3β hyperactivity. This coincided with diminished nitrotyrosine in peritoneal tissues and increased Nrf2 nuclear translocation, entailing a lessened oxidative injury and reinforced Nrf2 antioxidant response. Meanwhile, inflammatory infiltration and maladaptive angiogenesis in peritoneal tissues provoked by PDF injury were also mitigated by Sal A, associated with a suppressed NFκB activation. Mechanistically, ectopic expression of the constitutively active GSK3β blunted the NFκB-suppressing and Nrf2-activating efficacy of Sal A in peritoneal mesothelial cells exposed to hypertonic dextrose, suggesting that GSK3β inhibition mediates the protective effect of Sal A. Collectively, our findings may open the avenue for developing a novel therapy based on Sal A for preventing peritoneal fibrosis in peritoneal dialysis.

Targeting Hepatic Stellate Cells for the Treatment of Liver Fibrosis by Natural Products: Is It the Dawning of a New Era?

Liver fibrosis is a progressive liver damage condition that is worth studying widely. It is important to target and alleviate the disease at an early stage before turning into later cirrhosis or liver cancer. There are currently no direct medicines targeting the attenuation or reversal of liver fibrosis, and so there is an urgent need to look into this area. Traditional Chinese Medicine has a long history in using herbal medicines to treat liver diseases including fibrosis. It is time to integrate the ancient wisdom with modern science and technology to look for the best solution to the disease. In this review, the principal concept of the pathology of liver fibrosis will be described, and then some of the single compounds isolated from herbal medicines, including salvianolic acids, oxymatrine, curcumin, tetrandrine, etc. will be discussed from their effects to the molecular mechanism behind. Molecular targets of the compounds are analyzed by network pharmacology approach, and TGFβ/SMAD was identified as the most common pathway. This review serves to summarize the current findings of herbal medicines combining with modern medicines in the area of fibrosis. It hopefully provides insights in further pharmaceutical research directions.

Salvianolic Acids: Potential Source of Natural Drugs for the Treatment of Fibrosis Disease and Cancer

Salvianolic acids, the most effective and abundant compounds extracted from Salvia miltiorrhiza (Danshen), are well known for its good anti-oxidative activity. Danshen has been extensively used as a traditional medicine to treat cardiovascular-related diseases in China and other Asian countries for hundreds of years. Recently, more and more studies have demonstrated that salvianolic acids also have a good effect on the alleviation of fibrosis disease and the treatment of cancer. In vivo and in vitro experiments have demonstrated that salvianolic acids can modulate signal transduction within fibroblasts and cancer cells. It is discovered that the cancer treatment of salvianolic acids is not only because salvianolic acids promote the apoptosis of cancer cells, but also due to the inhibition of cancer-associated epithelial-mesenchymal transition processes. In this article, we review a variety of studies focusing on the comprehensive roles of salvianolic acids in the treatment of fibrosis disease and cancer. These perspectives on the therapeutic potential of salvianolic acids highlight the importance of these compounds, which could be the novel and attractive drugs for fibrosis disease and cancer.

Effectiveness of Zinc in Modulating the CCl (4) - Induced Oxidative Stress in Rat Liver

The present study was designed to evaluate the role of zinc on the enzymes involved in oxidative defense mechanism in conditions of carbon tetrachloride (CCl (4)) -induced rat liver toxicity. To carry out the study, rats were divided into four groups: group I (normal control), group II (CCl (4) treated), group III (zinc control), and group IV (zinc + CCl (4) treated). Animals in group II and group IV were administered 0.1 mL of CCl (4) mixed with 0.1 mL of groundnut oil on alternate days for a period of 8 weeks. Zinc in the form of zinc sulphate was given to animals of group II and group IV at a dose level of 227 mg/L in drinking water. Animals given CCl (4) treatment alone showed a significant increase in the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and the concentration of malondialdehyde (MDA) product, whereas a significant depression was observed in the levels of reduced glutathione (GSH). Zinc treatment to CCl (4) -treated rats brought the altered levels of GSH, MDA, and SOD as observed following CCl (4) -treatment alone to within normal limits. However, the activities of catalase and glutathione peroxidase, which were increased under carbon tetrachloride treatment, were significantly attenuated and tended to become normal. Hence, the present study suggests that zinc may play an important role in regulating the activities of the enzymes involved in antioxidative defense system under CCl (4) toxic conditions.

Salvianolic acid B inhibits low-density lipoprotein oxidation and neointimal hyperplasia in endothelium-denuded hypercholesterolaemic rabbits

BACKGROUND

Atherosclerosis and restenosis are inflammatory responses involving free radicals and lipid peroxidation and may be prevented/cured by antioxidant-mediated lipid peroxidation inhibition. Salvianolic acid (Sal B), a water-soluble antioxidant obtained from a Chinese medicinal herb, is believed to have multiple preventive and therapeutic effects against human vascular diseases. In this study the in vitro and in vivo inhibitory effects of Sal B on oxidative stress were determined.

RESULTS

In human aortic endothelial cells (HAECs), Sal B reduced oxidative stress, inhibited low-density lipoprotein (LDL) oxidation and reduced oxidised LDL-induced cytotoxicity. Sal B inhibited Cu(2+) -induced LDL oxidation in vitro (with a potency 16.3 times that of probucol) and attenuated HAEC-mediated LDL oxidation as well as reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. In cholesterol-fed New Zealand White rabbits (with probucol as positive control), Sal B intake reduced Cu(2+) -induced LDL oxidation, lipid deposition in the thoracic aorta, intimal thickness of the aortic arch and thoracic aorta and neointimal formation in the abdominal aorta.

CONCLUSION

The data obtained in this study suggest that Sal B protects HAECs from oxidative injury-mediated cell death via inhibition of ROS production. The antioxidant activity of Sal B may help explain its efficacy in the treatment of vascular diseases.

Salvianolic acid A displays cardioprotective effects in in vitro models of heart hypoxia/reoxygenation injury

Oxidative stress induced by overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) plays an important role in hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R) injury. In the present study, effects of salvianolic acid A (1) on heart H/R injury through its antioxidant activity were examined, using a molecule-based ROS scavenging system and cardiomyocyte model of H/R injury, as well as isolated rat heart model. As a result, 1 showed a potent antioxidant activity, scavenging all of the tested ROS and DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl). The antioxidant effect of 1 was also observed in cardiomyocytes exposed to H/R. Compound 1 remarkably decreased dihydroethidium and dichlorofluorescein fluorescence and increased cell viability and mitochondrial membrane potential, ΔΨ(m), when compared to the H/R group. In isolated rat hearts exposed to H/R, 1 markedly increased the coronary flow, the peak of pressure development and the valley of pressure development, and significantly reduced the left ventricular end diastolic pressure when compared to the H/R group. These results suggested that 1 had significant protective effects against H/R-induced myocardial injury through its antioxidant activity.

Salvianolic acid A inhibits platelet activation and arterial thrombosis via inhibition of phosphoinositide 3-kinase

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Salvianolic acid A (SAA) is a water-soluble component from the root of Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge, a herb that is widely used for atherothrombotic disease treatment in Asian medicine. As platelets play pivotal roles in atherothrombogenesis, we studied the effect of SAA on platelet activation and its underlying mechanisms.

METHODS AND RESULTS

SAA dose-dependently inhibited platelet aggregation induced by ADP, thrombin, collagen and U46619. It reduced ADP-enhanced platelet P-selectin expression and fibrinogen binding, which consequently hampered ADP-induced platelet-leukocyte aggregation. SAA also inhibited platelet spreading on fibrinogen, a process mediated by outside-in signaling. Under an arterial shear rate of 1000 s(-1), SAA decreased platelet adhesion on collagen surfaces by approximately 40%. Western blot analysis showed that SAA, like the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) inhibitors LY294002 and TGX-221, potently inhibited PI3K, as shown by reduced Akt phosphorylation. The in vitro findings were further evaluated in the mouse model of arterial thrombosis, in which SAA prolonged the mesenteric arterial occlusion time in wild-type mice (35 + or - 2 min without SAA and 56 + or - 4 min with SAA; P < 0.01). Interestingly, SAA could even counteract the shortened arterial occlusion time in Ldlr(tm1Her) mutant mice (21 + or - 2 min without SAA and 45 + or - 4 min with SAA; P < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

SAA inhibits platelet activation via the inhibition of PI3K, and attenuates arterial thrombus formation in vivo. Our data suggest that SAA may be developed as a novel therapeutic agent for the prevention of thrombotic disorders.

TOP1 and 2, polysaccharides from Taraxacum officinale, attenuate CCl(4)-induced hepatic damage through the modulation of NF-kappaB and its regulatory mediators

In this work, we estimate the inhibitory effect of two polysaccharides from Taraxacum officinale (TOP) on CCl(4)-induced oxidative stress and inflammation in Sprague-Dawley rats. TOP1 and 2 (304, 92 mg/kg bw) were administered for 7 days via a stomach sonde, and hepatitis was induced by a single dose of CCl(4) (50% CCl(4)/olive oil; 0.5 mL/kg bw) administration. CCl(4) significantly elevated serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) activities. Histopathological observation further revealed that CCl(4)-induced moderate levels of inflammatory cell infiltration, centrilobular fatty change, apoptosis, and necrosis. However, TOPs pretreatment markedly decreased AST and ALT activities as well as hepatic lesions. TOPs also increased free radical scavenging activity, as exhibited by a lowered TBARS concentration. TOPs pretreatment also reversed other hepatitis-associated symptoms, including GSH depletion, inhibited anti-oxidative enzyme activities, up-regulation of NF-kappaB and increased expression of its regulatory inflammatory mediators, such as inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase (COX)-2, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, and interleukin (IL)-1beta. These results suggest that TOPs have a hepatoprotective effect by modulating inflammatory responses and ameliorating oxidative stress.

Characterization of metabolites in rat plasma after intravenous administration of salvianolic acid A by liquid chromatography/time-of-flight mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography/ion trap mass spectrometry

Salvianolic acid A (SalA) is one of the main active constituents in Salvia miltiorrhiza (Danshen). Although the pharmacokinetics of SalA in rats after intravenous (i.v.) administration of Danshen injection has been reported, the information relevant to the metabolites of SalA in vivo is absent so far. In this study, by means of liquid chromatography with time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC/TOFMS) and liquid chromatography with ion trap mass spectrometry (LC/MS(n)) techniques, the unknown metabolites of SalA in rat plasma after i.v. administration of the purified SalA at the dose of 20 mg/kg body weight were identified. A liquid-liquid extraction method was established to separate the metabolites from the plasma and the chromatographic separations were performed on a Xterra MS C(18) column (100 mm x 4.6 mm i.d., 3.5 microm) with acetonitrile/methanol/water/formic acid (20.5:19.5:64: 0.05, v/v/v/v) as the mobile phase at a constant flow rate of 0.2 mL/min. Based on the data obtained from the LC/TOFMS determination (the total ion chromatograms, MS spectra and extracted ion chromatograms), in combination with the characteristic fragment ions acquired from the LC/MS(n) determination, five metabolites were identified as SalA-monoglucuronide, monomethyl-SalA-monoglucuronide, mono-methyl-SalA, dimethyl-SalA and dimethyl-SalA-monoglucuronide, and the possible chemical structures were deduced. The results indicated that SalA might mainly undergo two metabolic pathways in vivo in rats, which were methylation and glucuronidation. The present studies have laid a solid foundation for the metabolic mechanism of SalA in vivo.

Cardioprotective effect of salvianolic acid A on isoproterenol-induced myocardial infarction in rats

The present study was designed to evaluate the cardioprotective potential of salvianolic acid A on isoproterenol-induced myocardial infarction in rats. Hemodynamic parameters and lead II electrocardiograph were monitored and recorded continuously. Cardiac marker enzymes and antioxidative parameters in serum and heart tissues were measured. Assay for mitochondrial respiratory function and histopathological examination of heart tissues were performed. Isoproterenol-treated rats showed significant increases in the levels of lactate dehydrogenase, aspartate transaminase, creatine kinase and malondialdehyde and significant decreases in the activities of superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione peroxidase in serum and heart. These rats also showed declines in left ventricular systolic pressure, maximum and minimum rate of developed left ventricular pressure, and elevation of left ventricular end-diastolic pressure and ST-segment. In addition, mitochondrial respiratory dysfunction characterized by decreased respiratory control ratio and ADP/O was observed in isoproterenol-treated rats. Administration of salvianolic acid A for a period of 8 days significantly attenuated isoproterenol-induced cardiac dysfunction and myocardial injury and improved mitochondrial respiratory function. The protective role of salvianolic acid A against isoproterenol-induced myocardial damage was further confirmed by histopathological examination. The results of our study suggest that salvianolic acid A possessing antioxidant activity has a significant protective effect against isoproterenol-induced myocardial infarction.

Protective action of indole-3-acetic acid on induced hepatocarcinoma in mice

In this study, we report the protective effects of IAA on diethylnitrosamine (DEN)-induced hepatocarcinogenesis. BALB/c mice received daily IAA at 50 (T(50)), 250 (T(250)), and 500 (T(500)) mg Kg(-1) per body mass by gavage for 15 days. At day 15, animals were administered DEN and sacrificed 4 h later. Alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) were analyzed in sera. In addition, hepatomorphologic alterations, activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and glutathione reductase (GR), gene expression of antioxidant enzymes and DNA integrity were evaluated in the liver. IAA administration did not show any alterations in any of the parameters available, except for a reduction of the gene expression for antioxidant enzymes by 55, 56, 27, and 28% for SOD, CAT, GPx, and GR upon T(500), respectively compared with the control. Several hepatic alterations were observed by DEN exposure. Moreover, IAA administration at 3 doses was shown to provide a total prevention of the active reduction of CAT and GR induced by DEN exposure compared with the control. IAA at T(500) was shown to give partial protection (87, 71, 57, and 90% for respectively SOD, CAT, GPx, and GR) on the down-regulation of the enzymes induced by DEN and this auxin showed a partial protection (50%) on DEN-induced DNA fragmentation for both parameters when compared to DEN alone. This work showed IAA hepatocarcinogenesis protection for the first time by means of a DEN-protective effect on CAT and GR activity, and by affecting antioxidant gene expression and DNA fragmentation.

Anti-allergic activity of an ethanol extract from Salviae miltiorrhiza

As part of an ongoing investigation aimed at the discovery of novel bioactive medicinal herbs with anti-inflammatory properties, the effects of an ethanolic extract from the parts of Salviae miltiorrhiza Bunge (ESM) were evaluated using in vitro and in vivo animal model analysis. ESM inhibited cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and COX-1-dependent phases of prostaglandin D2 (PGD2) generation in bone marrow-derived mast cells (BMMC) in a concentration-dependent manner with IC50 values of 3.96 microg/mL and 21.54 microg/mL, respectively. Furthermore, ESM inhibited leukotriene C4 (LTC4) production with an IC50 value of 2.6 microg/mL. These results clearly demonstrated the dual COX-2 selective/5-lipoxygenase inhibitory activity that ESM possessed. ESM strongly inhibited a degranulation reaction in a dose dependent manner within a BMMC system, with an IC50 value of 22.4 microg/mL. Additionally, ESM was tested in a rat passive cutaneous anaphylaxis (PCA) reaction assay by oral administration (25 to 100 mg/kg). ESM dose-dependently inhibited the PCA reaction, which was activated by anti-dinirophenyl (DNP) IgE. These results suggested that ESM might be beneficial in regulating various allergic reactions.

Diphenyl Dimethyl Bicarboxylate in the Treatment of Viral Hepatitis, Adjuvant or Curative?

Diphenyl dimethyl bicarboxylate (DDB) has been used in some countries as hepatoprotectant adjuvant in the treatment of liver diseases, such as chronic viral hepatitis, chemical or drug induced hepatic damage. Its early confirmed efficacy is to normalize elevated blood alanine aminotransferase (ALT) from different etiologies, however, it can rarely affect the rest hepatic enzymes. In addition, the lowering or normalization of ALT in most cases occurs during DDB treatment, withdrawal of DDB administration results in ALT re-elevated. Hence, for a long time, it has been only used as adjuvant of liver disease therapy. It is still controversial that whether DDB can be beneficial to liver histology. The normalization of ALT in hepatitis does not indicate therapeutic efficacy if without substantial liver histology improvement. In recent years, more studies showed that DDB might have new therapeutical potentials in liver diseases, it may have the effect of anti-viral, anti-malignancy. These new findings were mostly based on the in vitro or animal experiments, more basic studies and clinical trials are needed to ascertain these efficacies, prior to that stage, it is recommended to be cautious to apply DDB clinically for anti-virus and anti-malignancy purposes.

A sensitive method for determination of salvianolic acid A in rat plasma using liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry

Salvianolic acid A (SAA), a major effective constituent of Salvia miltiorrhizas, is widely used in traditional Chinese medicine. A sensitive rapid analytical method was established and validated for SAA in rat plasma, which was further applied to assess the pharmacokinetics of SAA in rats receiving a single oral dose of SAA. The method used liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry in multiple reaction monitoring mode with chloramphenicol as the internal standard. A simple liquid-liquid extraction based on ethyl acetate was employed. The combination of a simple sample cleanup and short chromatographic run time (3 min) increased the throughput of the method substantially. The method was validated over the range 1.4-1000 ng/mL with a correlation coefficient >0.99. The lower limit of quantification was 1.4 ng/mL for SAA in plasma. Intra- and inter-day accuracies for SAA were 95-113 and 98-107%, and the inter-day precision was less than 12%. This method is more sensitive and faster than previous methods. After a single oral dose of 100 mg/kg of SAA, the mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of SAA was 318 ng/mL at 0.5 h, the area under the plasma concentration-time curve (AUC0-12 h) was 698 +/- 129 ng.h/mL, and the elimination half-life (T1/2) was 3.29 h.

Protection against oxidative stress-induced hepatic injury by intracellular type II platelet-activating factor acetylhydrolase by metabolism of oxidized phospholipids in vivo

Membrane phospholipids are susceptible to oxidation, which is involved in various pathological processes such as inflammation, atherogenesis, neurodegeneration, and aging. One enzyme that may help to remove oxidized phospholipids from cells is intracellular type II platelet-activating factor acetylhydrolase (PAF-AH (II)), which hydrolyzes oxidatively fragmented fatty acyl chains attached to phospholipids. Overexpression of PAF-AH (II) in cells or tissues was previously shown to suppress oxidative stress-induced cell death. In this study we investigated the functions of PAF-AH (II) by generating PAF-AH (II)-deficient (Pafah2(-/-)) mice. PAF-AH (II) was predominantly expressed in epithelial cells such as kidney proximal and distal tubules, intestinal column epithelium, and hepatocytes. Although PAF-AH activity was almost abolished in the liver and kidney of Pafah2(-/-) mice, Pafah2(-/-) mice developed normally and were phenotypically indistinguishable from wild-type mice. However, mouse embryonic fibroblasts derived from Pafah2(-/-) mice were more sensitive to tert-butylhydroperoxide treatment than those derived from wild-type mice. When carbon tetrachloride (CCl(4)) was injected into mice, Pafah2(-/-) mice showed a delay in hepatic injury recovery. Moreover, after CCl(4) administration, liver levels of the esterified form of 8-iso-PGF(2alpha), a known in vitro substrate of PAF-AH (II), were higher in Pafah2(-/-) mice than in wild-type mice. These results indicate that PAF-AH (II) is involved in the metabolism of esterified 8-isoprostaglandin F(2alpha) and protects tissue from oxidative stress-induced injury.

Effects of salvianolic acid a on oxidative stress and liver injury induced by carbon tetrachloride in rats

In the present study, we investigated the hepatoprotective effects of salvianolic acid A, a novel antioxidant, against oxidative stress and acute liver injury induced by carbon tetrachloride (CCl(4)) in rats, and the mechanisms underlying its protective effects. Administration of CCl(4) to rats caused severe hepatic damage, as demonstrated by the significant increase in the levels of serum alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase and classic histological changes including hepatocyte necrosis or apoptosis, haemorrhage, fatty degeneration, etc. Co-treatment with salvianolic acid A (20 mg/kg, intraperitoneally), a water-soluble extract from a Chinese traditional drug, Radix Salvia miltiorrhiza, significantly decreased CCl(4)-induced hepatotoxicity. Salvianolic acid A not only decreased serum alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferas levels and ameliorated histopathological manifestations in CCl(4)-treated rats, but also reduced oxidative stress, as evidenced by decreased reactive oxygen species production and malondialdehyde concentrations in the liver tissues, combined with elevated hepatic superoxide dismutase activity and gluthathione content. In addition, salvianolic acid A treatment remarkably reduced intrahepatic tumour necrosis factor-alpha concentrations and caspase-3 activities as compared with the CCl(4)-treated rats. The results suggested that treatment with salvianolic acid A provides a potent protective effect against acute hepatic damage caused by CCl(4) in rats, which may mainly be related to its antioxidative effect.

Influence of indole acetic acid on antioxidant levels and enzyme activities of glucose metabolism in rat liver

Indole acetic acid (IAA) is an auxin and can be synthesized in animals. This compound is metabolized in vitro by peroxidase, producing reactive oxygen species. The toxic effect of indole acetic acid in leukocytes is associated with peroxidase activities and these processes have been implicated in activation of glucose and glutamine metabolism. However, studies in vitro have shown that IAA, in absence of peroxidase, is an antioxidant almost as high in potency as those of other indolic compounds. The purpose of this study was to investigate the possible involvement of a toxic effect of indole acetic acid in the liver, as evidenced by oxidative stress and enzyme activities of the glucose pathway. The animals received IAA by subcutaneous or gavage administration in a phosphate buffered saline (the control group received only the phosphate buffered saline). The other groups received IAA at concentrations of 1 mg, 18 mg and 40 mg per kg of body mass per day. Treatments with 18 mg and 40 mg IAA decreased the activity of catalase by both subcutaneous (30% and 26%) or gavage administration (19% and 28%), respectively. A similar effect was observed on the activity of glutathione peroxidase of animals exposed to 18 mg and 40 mg IAA: A decrease of 34% and 29%, respectively, for subcutaneous administration and a decrease of 29% and 25%, respectively, for gavage administration. However, in neither source of administration did the acid alter superoxide dismutase, glutathione reductase and myeloperoxidase activities. Another alteration was observed in respect of reduced glutathione content in this organ. The lipid peroxidation level showed a significant decrease with subcutaneous (30%, 29% and 24%) and gavage administration (25%, 26% and 24%) using 1 mg, 18 mg and 40 mg of IAA, respectively compared with the control. The reduced glutathione content and catalase activity in the plasma were not altered by either of the two methods of administration. In addition to these findings, after subcutaneous or gavage administration of IAA, the activities of hepatic enzymes of glucose metabolism were not affected (glucokinase, lactate dehydrogenase, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase and citrate synthase). Evidence is presented herein that IAA did not have a pro-oxidant effect in the liver as deduced from a reduction of catalase and glutathione peroxidase activities, a decrease of lipid peroxidation content and no alteration of the pool of reduced glutathione. The effects of IAA were independent of the way of administration.

Antiproliferative effect of salvianolic acid A on rat hepatic stellate cells

Suppression of activation or proliferation, or induction of apoptosis in hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) have been proposed as therapeutic strategies against liver fibrosis. Salvia miltiorrhiza has been reported to exert antifibrotic effects in rats with hepatic fibrosis, but its mechanisms of action remain to be clarified. We have investigated the effects of salvianolic acid A (Sal A), an active principle from S. miltiorrhiza, on the proliferation-related biomarkers in a cell line of rat HSCs (HSC-T6) stimulated with platelet-derived growth factor-BB homodimer (PDGF-BB). DNA synthesis (bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) incorporation), cell cycle related proteins and apoptosis markers were determined to evaluate the inhibitory effects of Sal A. The results showed that Sal A (1-10 microM) concentration-dependently attenuated PDGF-BB-stimulated proliferation (BrdU incorporation) in HSC-T6 cells. Sal A at 10 microM induced cell apoptosis in PDGF-BB-incubated HSCs, together with a reduction of Bcl-2 protein expression, induction of cell cycle inhibitory proteins p21 and p27, and down-regulation of cyclins D1 and E, suppression of Akt phosphorylation, reduction in PDGF receptor phosphorylation, and an increase in caspase-3 activity. Sal A exerted no direct cytotoxicity on primary hepatocytes and HSC-T6 cells under experimental concentrations. Our results suggested that Sal A inhibited PDGF-BB-activated HSC proliferation, partially through apoptosis induction.

Salviae miltiorrhizae radix increases dopamine release of rat and pheochromocytoma PC12 cells

The Radix of Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge (Labiatae) (SMR), an eminent herb, is often included as an ingredient in various herbal remedies recommended for vascular circulation therapies. The present study investigated the effect of SMR on dopaminergic neurotransmission. Various extracts prepared from the stems of SMR were tested for cytotoxic activity on pheochromocytoma PC12 cells using the XTT assay method. The ethanol extract (IC50 > 100 microg/mL), water extract (IC50 > 100 microg/mL) and chloroform (IC50 = 90 microg/mL) fraction exhibited weak cytotoxic activity. However, the butanol (IC50 = 80 microg/mL) and ethyl acetate (EtOAc; IC50 = 70 microg/mL) fractions exhibited strong cytotoxic activity. Also, the extracts and fractions were investigated for dopamine release effects. The EtOAc fraction showed a stronger stimulatory effect on dopamine release activity than the other fractions. The effect of the crude EtOAc fraction (50 microg/mL) of SMR on K+ (20 mm)-stimulated dopamine (DA) release from rat striatal slices was compared with amphetamine (10(-4) m) using high-performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection to measure endogenous DA. The EtOAc fraction significantly increased K+ -stimulated DA release (p < 0.001) from rat striatal slices when compared with K+ -stimulated alone. The EtOAc fraction potentiated the effect of amphetamine on K+ -stimulated DA release (p < 0.001) when compared with amphetamine alone. To examine whether in vitro the EtOAc fraction treatment induces DA release in PC12 cells, the role of protein kinases was investigated in the induction of the EtOAc fraction-mediated events by using inhibitors of protein kinase C (PKC), mitogen activated protein kinase (MAP kinase) or protein kinase A (PKA). The PKC inhibitors chelerythrine (50 nm and 100 nm) and Ro31-8220 (100 nm) and the MAP kinase kinase inhibitor, PD98059 (20 microm), inhibited the ability of the EtOAc fraction of SMR to elicit the EtOAc fraction-stimulated DA release. The PKC activator, 12-O-tetradecanoyl phorbol 13-acetate (TPA, 100 nm) mimicked the ability of the EtOAc fraction of SMR to elicit DA release. In contrast, a selective PKA inhibitor, 50 microm Rp-8-Br-cAMP, blocked the development of EtOAc fraction-stimulated DA release. It was demonstrated that the EtOAc fraction of SMR stimulated DA release. Therefore the mechanism by which the EtOAc fraction of SMR induced the enhancement in EtOAc fraction-stimulated DA release is apparent.

Inhibitory effect of Salvia miltiorrhia BGE on matrix metalloproteinase-9 activity and migration of TNF-α-induced human aortic smooth muscle cells

The migration and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) production of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) may play a key role in the development of atherosclerosis. The Radix of Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge (Labiatae) (SM), an eminent herb, is often included as an ingredient in various herbal remedies recommended for vascular therapies and has been used to treat vascular diseases for many centuries. In this study, we investigated the inhibitory effect of SM on TNF-alpha induced human aortic smooth muscle cells (HASMC) migration and MMP-9 activity. Various extracts prepared from stems of SM were tested for cytotoxic activity on HASMC using the XTT assay method. The ethanol extract (IC50 > 100 microg/ml), water extract (IC50 > 100 microg/ml) and chloroform (IC50 = 90 microg/ml) fraction exhibited weak cytotoxic activity. However, buthanol (IC50 = 80 microg/ml) and ethyl acetate (EtOAc; IC50 = 70 microg/ml) fraction exhibited strongly cytotoxic activity. Also, the extracts and fractions were investigated the inhibitory effects on MMP-9 activity using gelatin zymography. Gelatin zymography showed that the TNF-alpha-treated HASMC secreted MMP, probably including MMP-9, which may be involved in HASMC migration. The EtOAc fraction showed stronger inhibitory effect of proteolytic activity than other fractions. The EtOAc fraction was able to decrease the proteolytic activity of MMP-9 in a concentration-dependent manner on zymography. The Matrigel migration assay showed that SM effectively inhibited the TNF-alpha induced migration of HASMC as compared with the control group in a dose-dependent manner (IC50 = 65 microg/ml) and that the EtOAc fraction effectively inhibited the migration of HASMC, as compared with the control group in a dose-dependent manner. These results suggest that SM could be used as potential anti-atherosclerotic agent for anti-migration in TNF-alpha treated HASMC.

In vitro protective effects of salvianolic acid B on primary hepatocytes and hepatic stellate cells

The production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is believed to be involved in liver injury and hepatic fibrosis. Activation of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) is a key feature of liver fibrosis. Salvia miltiorrhiza is a traditional Chinese herb used in the treatment of cardiovascular and liver diseases to resolve stasis. The effects of salvianolic acid B (Sal B), a major component of Salvia miltiorrhiza, on oxidative damage include free radical DPPH scavenging, malondialdehyde (MDA) formation and ROS generation in primary rat hepatocytes and HSCs, and on alpha-SMA, and collagen expression in transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-beta1)-stimulated HSCs were examined. Results indicated that Sal B scavenged DPPH potently with an IC50 2.2+/-0.2 microg/ml (3.06+/-0.3 microM), inhibited lipid peroxidation and eliminated ROS accumulation in a concentration-dependent manner on primary rat hepatocytes and HSCs. Sal B also reduced alpha-SMA and collagen synthesis and deposition in HSCs, and had no direct cytotoxicity on both hepatocytes and HSCs. Our results suggest that Sal B ameliorated oxidative damage and eliminated ROS accumulation in hepatocytes, and attenuated HSC activation, potentially conferring hepatoprotective and anti-fibrogenic effects.

Effect of indole acetic acid administration on the neutrophil functions and oxidative stress from neutrophil, mesenteric lymph node and liver

This study was done to investigate the effect of the in vivo administration of indole acetic acid (IAA) on the neutrophil function, the activities of antioxidants enzymes in neutrophils, the mesenteric lymph node and on the oxidative stress in liver and plasma. The animals received subcutaneous administration of IAA in a phosphate-buffered saline (the control group received only the phosphate-buffered saline). The other groups received IAA at concentrations of 1 mg (T1), 2 mg (T2) and 18 mg (T3) per kg of body mass per day. Administration of IAA in both treatments T2 and T3 promoted a significant rise in the phagocytic capacity of neutrophils (by 51%), in comparison with the control. Another alteration was observed in antioxidant enzyme activities of the neutrophil and lymph node. But in the liver, the treatments imposed a significant decrease in the activity of catalase of 19% and 30% for T2 and T3, respectively, in comparison with the control. A similar effect was observed in the activity of hepatic glutathione peroxidase for T3 where a significant decrease of 31%, compared with the control, was obtained. The IAA did not show another significant alteration of the activities of superoxide dismutase and glutathione reductase activities in liver. The hepatic lipid peroxidation level, available by reactive products with thiobarbituric acid, has shown a significant decrease of 27% and 29% with T1 and T3 respectively, in comparison with the control. IAA treatment did not show a significant alteration in reduced glutathione contents in comparison with the liver and plasma controls. In conclusion, the IAA administration has a good potential animal utilization for increasing the phagocytic capacity with no prooxidant effect.

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Hepatoprotective effect of the natural fruit juice from Aronia melanocarpa on carbon tetrachloride-induced acute liver damage in rats

The fruits of Aronia melanocarpa are rich in anthocyanins--plant pigments with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity. We studied the effect of the natural fruit juice from A. melanocarpa (NFJAM) on carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-induced acute liver damage in rats. Histopathological changes such as necrosis, fatty change, ballooning degeneration and inflammatory infiltration of lymphocytes around the central veins occurred in rats following acute exposure to CCl4 (0.2 ml kg(-1), 2 days). The administration of CCl4 increased plasma aspartate transaminase (AST) and alanine transaminase (ALT) activities, induced lipid peroxidation (as measured by malondialdehyde (MDA) content in rat liver and plasma) and caused a depletion of liver reduced glutathione (GSH). NFJAM (5, 10 and 20 ml kg(-1), 4 days) dose-dependently reduced the necrotic changes in rat liver and inhibited the increase of plasma AST and ALT activities, induced by CCl4 (0.2ml kg(-1), 3rd and 4th days). NFJAM also prevented the CCl4-induced elevation of MDA formation and depletion of GSH content in rat liver.

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Antioxidant therapy with Salvia miltiorrhiza decreases plasma endothelin-1 and thromboxane B2 after cardiopulmonary bypass in patients with congenital heart disease

OBJECTIVE

The endothelium-derived vasoconstrictor endothelin-1 is increased after cardiopulmonary bypass in children with congenital heart defects. This study determines whether antioxidant therapy with Salvia miltiorrhiza injection, an herb extract containing phenolic compounds, prevents the postoperative increase of endothelin-1. The relationship between endothelin-1 and the endothelium-derived prostacyclin (prostaglandin I2) and thromboxane A2 postoperatively is also investigated.

METHODS

Twenty children with congenital heart defects and pulmonary hypertension were randomly assigned to group A (placebo control, n=10) or B (200 mg/kg Salvia miltiorrhiza intravenously after anesthesia induction and at the time of rewarming, respectively; n =10) before cardiac surgery. Central venous blood samples were taken before operation (T(0)), 10 (T(1)) and 30 minutes (T(2)) after starting cardiopulmonary bypass, 10 (T(3)) and 30 minutes (T(4)) after aortic declamping, and 30 minutes (T(5)) and 24 hours (T(6)) after termination of cardiopulmonary bypass. Plasma lipid peroxidation product malondialdehyde, myocardial specific creatine kinase-MB activity, thromboxane B2, and 6-keto-prostaglandin F(1 alpha) (stable metabolites of thromboxane A2 and prostaglandin I2) were measured.

RESULTS

Malondialdehyde increased significantly at T(1) in group A and remained significantly higher than in group B thereafter (P <.05). Malondialdehyde in group B did not significantly increase over time. At T(5), plasma creatine kinase-MB, thromboxane B2, and endothelin-1 in group B were lower than in group A (P <.05); malondialdehyde correlated significantly with creatine kinase-MB (r = 0.71, P =.0005). At T(6), endothelin-1 negatively correlated with the 6-keto-prostaglandin F(1 alpha)/thromboxane B2 ratio (r = -0.64, P =.0025).

CONCLUSION

Antioxidant therapy reduces myocardial damage and attenuates postoperative vasoactive mediator imbalance.

Gadolinium chloride and salvia miltiorrhiza compound ameliorate reperfusion injury in hepatocellular mitochondria

AIM: To investigate the effect of gadolinium chloride (GaCl₃) and salvia miltiorrhiza compound (SMCo) on ischemia and reperfusion (I/R) injury in hepatocellular mitochondria.

METHODS: Wistar rats were randomly to divided into control group, GaCl₃ group, SMCo group and GaCl₃ + SMCo group (n = 15 each). GaCl₃ (7 mg·kg^-1) was injected into tail vein on d 1 and d 2 in contrast group. SMCo (2 mL·kg^-1) was injected into muscle on d 1 and d 2 in SMCo group. GaCl₃ + SMCo group received both GaCl₃ (iv) and SMCo (im) injection. Control group received saline injection only. On d 3, all the rats were subjected to 2 h ischemia in the middle and left lobes of the liver, followed by reperfusion for 2 h, 6 h and 18 h respectively. The level of serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and malondialdehyde (MDA) in hepatocellular mitochondria was measured. Pathological changes in hepatic tissue and in hepatocellular mitochondria were determined with optical microscope and electronic microscope, respectively.

RESULTS: Remarkablly pathohistological and biochemical changes were detected after 6 h of I/R. Compared with control, the level of ALT was decreased in GaCl₃, SMCo and GaCl₃ + SMCo treated groups (1314.0 ± 278.7 vs 809.4 ± 196.1, 716.6 ± 242.8 and 837.2 ± 190.6 IU·L^-1, respectively. P < 0.05). Similarly, the level of MDA was decreased in GaCl₃, SMCo and GaCl₃ + SMCo treated groups (293.1 ± 51.1 vs 190.8 ± 55.5, 214.3 ± 32.9 and 221.0 ± 47.3 nmol·g^-1, respectively, P < 0.05). Accordingly, in control group, swelling, degeneration, focal necrosis, infiltration of leucocyte were found in reperfused tissue under an optical microscope, and mitochondria swelling, rupture and even breakdown were seen under an electronic microscope. These pathohistological and ultrastructural damages caused by I/R were greatly attenuated in GaCl₃, SMCo and GaCl₃ + SMCo treated groups. However, there was no additive effect observed when GaCl₃ and SMCo were used together.

CONCLUSION: Both GaCl₃ and SMCo can alleviate the I/R injury in hepatocellular mitochondria.